ROME
HISTORY –
Beginning in the eighth century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s
Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain,
much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Among the many legacies
of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages (Italian, French,
Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and
calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion. After 450 years as a
republic, Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar’s rise and fall in the first century
B.C. The long and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace
and prosperity; by contrast, the empire’s decline and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the
most dramatic implosions in the history of human civilization.
Origins of Rome
As legend has it, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war.
Left to drown in a basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued by a
she-wolf, the twins lived to defeat that king and found their own city on the river’s banks in 753
B.C. After killing his brother, Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him.
A line of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations) kings followed in a
non-hereditary succession.
Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical, compared to his
benevolent predecessors. A popular uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a virtuous
noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king’s son. Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a monarchy
into a republic, a world derived from res publica, or “property of the people.”
SOCIETY –
The social structure of ancient Rome was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and
freedom. It was also based around men: women were defined by the social status of their fathers
or husbands. Women were expected to look after the houses and very few had any real
independence. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of
the army. Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully
regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics.
ART AND CRAFT –
Roman art includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in
metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered in modern terms
to be minor forms of Roman art, although this would not necessarily have been the case for
contemporaries.
Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was
also very highly regarded.
The two forms have had very contrasting rates of survival, with a very large body of sculpture
surviving from about the 1st century BC onward, though very little from before, but very little
painting at all remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary would have considered to be of
the highest quality.
Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine wares" in terra
sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in
society with stylish objects at what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an
important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers.
TEXTILE -
Silk from China was imported in significant quantities as early as the 3rd century BC. It was
bought in its raw state by Roman traders at the Carthaginian ports of Tyre and Beirut, then
woven and dyed. As Roman weaving techniques developed, silk yarn was used to make
geometrically or freely figured damask, tabbies and tapestry. Some of these silk fabrics were
extremely fine– around 50 threads or more per cm. Production of such highly decorative, costly
fabrics seems to have been a speciality of weavers in the eastern Roman provinces, where the
earliest Roman horizontal looms were developed.
Cotton was first mentioned in Roman writing around 190 B.C. It was often mixed with linen to
make fabric which is suitable for draping.
In ancient Greece and Rome, wool fabric had the added advantage that, unlike linen, it was easy
to dye. In addition, wool in its natural state came in a variety of colours depending on the breed
of sheep. If a man or woman preferred an artificial colour, however, there were a large variety of
dyes available.
Linen was used in the Bronze Age, both in the Minoan period on Crete and the Mycenaean
period on the mainland. Linen was used not only for dress, but also fishermen's nets, sails for
ships, and the awnings in the theatres and amphitheatres that protected spectators from the sun;
awnings were also made from cotton since it dried quickly, or a fabric that was half cotton, half
linen was woven for use as canopies.
COLOURS AND DYES –
From Rome's earliest days, a wide variety of colours and coloured fabrics would have been
available; in Roman tradition, the first association of professional dyers dated back to the days of
King Numa usually plant-based dyes as their neighbours on the Italian peninsula, producing
various shades of red, yellow, blue, green, and brown; blacks could be achieved using iron salts
and oak gall. Other dyes, or dyed cloths, could have been obtained by trade, or through
experimentation. For the very few who could afford it, cloth-of-gold (lamé) was almost certainly
available, possibly as early as the 7th century BC. Throughout the Regal, Republican and
Imperial eras, the fastest, most expensive and sought-after dye was imported Tyrian purple.
COSTUME –
Most clothing was simple in structure and basic form, and its production required minimal
cutting and tailoring, but all was produced by hand and every process required skill, knowledge
and time. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of
all classes. The toga was considered Rome's "national costume" but for day-to-day activities,
most Romans preferred more casual, practical and comfortable clothing.
TUNICS –
The basic garment for both genders and all classes was the tunica (tunic). In its simplest form,
the tunic was a single rectangle of woven fabric, originally woollen, but from the mid-republic
onward, increasingly made from linen. It was sewn into a sleeveless tubular shape and pinned
around the shoulders like a Greek chiton, to form openings for the neck and arms. In some
examples from the eastern part of the empire, neck openings were formed in the weaving.
Sleeves could be added. Most working men wore knee-length, short-sleeved tunics, secured at
the waist with a belt. Some traditionalists considered long sleeved tunics appropriate only for
women, very long tunics on men as a sign of effeminacy, and short or unbelted tunics as marks
of servility.
Women's tunics were usually ankle or foot-length, long-sleeved, and could be worn loosely or
belted.[1] For comfort and protection from cold, both sexes could wear a soft under-tunic or vest
beneath a coarser over-tunic; in winter.
LIONCLOTH –
Loincloths, known as subligacula or subligaria could be worn under a tunic. They could also be
worn on their own, particularly by slaves who engaged in hot, sweaty or dirty work. Women
wore both loincloth and strophium (a breast cloth) under their tunics; and some wore tailored
underwear for work or leisure.
TOGA –
The toga was a semi-elliptical, white woollen cloth some 6 feet in width and 12 feet in length,
draped across the shoulders and around the body. It was usually worn over a plain white linen
tunic. A commoner's toga was a naturally off-white; the senatorial version was more voluminous,
and brighter. The toga praetexta of curule magistrates and some priesthoods added a wide purple
edging, and was worn over a tunic with two vertical purple stripes. The toga pulla, used for
mourning, was made of dark wool. The rare, prestigious toga picta and tunica palmata were
purple, embroidered with gold. They were originally awarded to Roman generals for the day of
their triumph, but became official dress for emperors and Imperial consuls. As Roman women
gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognised as formal wear for Roman citizen men. The
type of toga worn reflected a citizen's rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs
restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals and civic duties.
PALLA
The palla was a long shawl which any Roman woman would wear while she went outside. The
palla was wrapped around a woman’s shoulders and her body, often in a rather elaborate manner
by her servants, if she had any. These shawls were usually a rectangular shape, though their sizes
could differ. Pallas added to the beauty of the woman, for the more folds of cloth she had, the
wealthier she was, and, among other things, could hide her face from stares if she wanted a calm
walk. It was also good for protecting her from the rain and wind. For this purpose pallas were put
over the head, keeping her owner warm if the weather was nasty. These garments came in many
colors and designs, from the very simple ones for poor women, to the beautifully decorated and
embroidered ones for the nobility.
STOLA
While the tunic was considered a simple cloth, or often even an underclothes, the stola was
something that Roman ladies saw as the “real” dress. Stolas were long dress-like garments,
usually with short sleeves, held together with clasps named fibulae and with a beautiful flounce
on its bottom. They were fastened by the girdle high above the waist.
Even though the stola had sleeves in most cases, it could be sleeveless, too. This beautiful
garment was a sign of a respectable married woman, and it was a privilege to wear it, for the
women who were divorced after committing adultery were forbidden to wear one. So were the
courtesans of those times, and in those cases they used male togas for these purpose. The stola
was given to a girl after she got married, and would always be worn outside showing the wealthy
status of the woman, her decent nature and, naturally, her beauty.
ROMAN SOLDIERS
It's interesting to note that most Roman armor probably did not shine. They used a lot of chain
mail (a sort of cloth made of circular links), which doesn't shine. They also made scale armor
(metal plates about 3 inches long and about an inch wide, sewn together on a linen/leather
backing.) Scale armor shines a little, but not much. And, they made leather armor, with the metal
on the inside, or at least under the leather, probably again on a backing of linen, to make three
layers. So, although the ancient Romans loved the ornate and
glittery, their armor most probably did not shine!
PALLIUM –
The pallium was a Roman cloak, which replaced the toga as the prescribed court garment for
high-ranking citizens, and especially civil officials, up to the rank of senator. It was similar in
form to the palla, which had been worn by respectable Roman women since the mid-Republican
era. It was a rectangular length of cloth, as was the himation in ancient Greece. The garment
varied in fineness, colour and ornament. It could be purple red, white, yellow, black, blue, pale
green, etc. It was usually made from wool or flax, but for the higher classes it could be made of
silk with the use of gold threads and embroideries.
HAIRSTYLES AND HEADGEARS
Men hairstyle –
The Roman Hairstyles for men changed over the years. In early times the Romans wore their
hair long but after the introduction of barbers into Italy about B.C. 300, it became the practice to
wear their hair short. Grey hair was also dyed using a form of walnut dye. Wigs were common in
Ancient Rome which were combed into elaborate hairstyles. Some country slaves had their heads
shaven and their hair was used to produce wigs for wealthy Roman women.
Women's Hair
They used false hairpieces to make their hair thicker or longer. Sometimes, Roman women wore
their hair up, in carefully arranged styles, held with jewelled hairpins. Sometimes they wore it
down, curled in ringlets. Fashionable women wore hair-pieces that were often made from the
hair of slave girls. Parasols were used, or women might carry fans made of peacock feathers,
wood or stretched linen. Hair dyes existed, though were rarely as gaudy as these days, most of
them just giving a shade to the hair. The wigs and hair additions could be made from the blond
hair of captives and country slaves.
Headgears –
The costume traditions of the ancient Romans were, in general, fairly simple. Romans did not
tend to wear hats or decorative headdresses throughout the long history of their civilization.
There are many different types of Roman Helmets. The style of the helmets changed with
increased skills, wealth and technology - for example moving from leather helmets to metal
based helmets. Roman Helmets have been classified as Montefortino Helmets, Coolus Helmets,
Imperial-Gallic Helmets, Imperial-Italic Helmets. Roman women also wore headdresses
especially if they had an important position in society.
WOMEN JEWELLERY –
Women enjoyed gazing at themselves in mirrors of highly polished metal (not glass). The
ancient Roman women loved ornate necklaces, pins, earrings, bracelets and friendship rings.
Pearls were favourites. Women often dyed their hair, usually golden-red.
Black obsidian mirrors were also used by oracles in a form of divination called mirror scrying
Bula
Children wore a special locket around their neck, given to them at birth, called a bulla. It
contained an amulet as a protection against evil and was worn on a chain, cord, or strap. Girls
wore their bulla until the eve of their wedding day, when their bulla was set aside with other
childhood things, like her toys. Boys wore their bulla until they day they became a citizen. Boys
bullas were put aside and carefully saved. A boy's bulla could be wore by the owner again, if he
won special honors. For example, if he became a successful general, and won the honor of
triumph, he would wear his bulla in ceremonial parades, to protect him from the evil jealously of
men or gods. Roman girls often wore nothing more than a tunic hanging below the knees or
lower, belted at the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. When a girl went out she
sometimes wore another tunic, longer than the first, sometimes to the ankles or even the feet.
FOOTWEAR –
Footwear also defined a person's position in society. Women wore closed shoes that were either
white, green or yellow. Men wore sandals. Patricians wore red sandals with an ornament at the
back. Senators wore brown footwear with black straps which wound round the leg to mid-calf,
where the straps were tied. Consuls wore white shoes, and soldiers, heavy boots. Women's street
shoes were made of leather, like a man's. In the house, most Romans (men and women) wore
sandals. Women's sandals were brightly colored. Some were even decorated with pearls. Chalk
powder, charcoal and saffron were used as cosmetics.
COSMETICS –
The excessive use of cosmetics was considered gross in Rome, and was usually a sign of a loose
woman, or a courtesan. A great variety of things were offered to the Roman woman: creams,
rouges, and lip colors, flower oils used as perfumes, eye liners and eye shadows among them.
The best cosmetics were expensive and only rich women could afford them, while the cheaper
alternatives existed for poorer classes. Putting cosmetics on a woman properly was considered a
great skill, and the servants who were talented in it were praised the most and were very rare to
come by. The women, among other things, favored accentuating the eyebrows, for big eyes were
considered a sign of great beauty in Roman times. Aside from that the make up would naturally
be made to add to the beauty and the whole style of a woman.