| CONTINENTAL DRIFT -A Continental Drift Flipbook Christopher R. Scotese PALEOMAP Projet, Department of Barth and Envionmental Sciences, University of Taxes, Aington, Texas T6019, USA. (ermal! chris@scoisscom) Forty-six miniature plate testonerecoostactons are resented that canbe assembled ints ipbook” that llustrates {he movement ofthe continents since Ce Late Precambrian, 750m ag. Sx aca lines of evidence have been ted to secontrct the part positon ofthe continent: [linear magne snomslier produced by sa floarspresding DB} paleomagneis, 3 owspoe wacks and lage igneous province, the tetanie fase fd ocean Doar mapped by satelite amen, (5) Lduloge indiestore f climate eg coal salt depot, elites, and [6 the goologi rend of plate recon star. alseuss the pobubleuacetalaties sssoclted with te pate tectonic rovontrons aod Introduction In 1973, while an undergreduate atthe University of illinois in Chicago, T produced the fist cont- ental dit "diphoak [Seotese 1975, 1976, Scotese find Baker 1975), In the same year, I met W. S ‘MeKerrow, from Osford Univesity, who was vis king Professor A. M. Ziegler at che University of Chicago, Professor MeKerrow had come tothe Uni versity of Hints to give a leeeure on a new set of Phanerozoic plate tectonic reconstructions by ‘Smith, Briden, and Drewry that was sooa tobe pubs lished by the Palaeontological Association (Smith etal. 1973}. This chance meeting inspired me fay to make better plate tectonic veonstructions, to produce a new version of the continental defe flipbook, and to produce computer animations showing the history of plate motions. Later that spring, while working asa volunteer at the Field Musetim of Natural History, met G. Forney, one ‘of Professor Ziegler’ graduate students, and gave hhim a revised continental dif Mipbook, Soon after that, Tes invited to give a tall describing my re- search to Professor Ziegler and his students in che Department of Geophysical Sciences, and they say, the rest i history.” “Through the years, sumerous editions ofthe con sinental drift lpbook have been produced, ranging in size from the first thumb-sized edition to later Manurep ese Jl 0,204 axe Ast, 206 = ncereiny nthe postions ofthe continents back thro time. pocket-sized versions. The various editions of the Continental dit flipbook now reside in desk draw- ers and in the dusty corners ofbookcases across the lobe. The present mapa sre a reprint ofthe seventh dition of the continental dit siphook (Seotese 19971 The maps thet comprise this lipbook ae the re sult of more than 25 yr of plate tectonic model building and data synthesis (Seotese and Baker 1975, Scotese etal, 1979, 1981, 1988, Ziegler tal. 1983; Scotese and Sager 1988, Seotese and Golonks 1992, Jurdy etal. 1995). These plate tectonic re constructions have beea used by numerous authors to illustrate paleogeographic (Ronoy et al. 1984, 1989; Zieyler 1988, Cook 1990; Kazmin and Ne topav 1998, Golonka 2000, Sootese 2001, Blakey 12003, paleoclimatic (Otto-lesner etal. 1994; Go- Tonka et al. 1996, A. J Boucot, C. Xo, and C. K Scotese, unpub. manuscript, and biogeographic change [MeKertow and Scatese 1990, Cocke and Scotese 1991, Chatterjee and Seotese 1999). The plate tectonic reconstructions of the PALBOMAP Project are similar to other compilations (Zonen- hain etal. 1990, Dercourt etal. 1993, Smith etal 1994, Hay eal. 1999, Viielynck and Bouyesse 2001) because similar geophysical data sets have been ‘sed by these research group to construct the maps. "The 46 miniature plate testonic reconstructions that make up the continental drift Aipbook illus Pherae 6 une 12 p28.) ©2004 Tea Ce Al hse 0 759054120600 noCe) ‘Gassica and Sandia: ONZ Greenland: HON Figure 1. fnew ocean basin stopped opening. uate the movement of the continents since the Late Precambrian, 750 mr. ago. The maps have ‘een laid oue so that a sender eam copy the pages {rom the journal, ext out te maps along the dotted lines, and sasemble the maps into a flipbook. By ‘ipping through the pages of che continental dnt Aipbook, the movements ofthe continents can be catily animated. It is well own thet the positions Donetz Basin: EUR Honduras; INC = inchina: IND Eucee: GONE Incas TTL Pte tectonic wee diagram. Branching event represen the beau of continents andthe formation of Roots oe continental eolsions A branch tha erminats tepavents en ota basin that has ‘of the continents and the sizes end shapes of the ‘ocean basins ere continually changing as 2 result ‘of plate tectonies. The term “continental dit” rather than "plate tectonics” was used to describe the flipbook Because these maps illustrate only the movement of the continents. Midocesn ridges, subduction zones, and other plate ectonie features, ‘though implicit, are not shown. The chaded areasYoun of Genogy 604-Uncertainty in Global Plate Positions Uncertainty in Degrees 200300 0 — 100 Time in Millions of Years iare 2 represent the approximate extent of continental lithosphere. Modern coastlines are shown rather than paleo-coastlines s0 that the modern conti= ‘ents and continental fagments can be more easly ecognized, Also it should be noted that the gaps that sometimes appear becween the continental fregments, for example, along the trend of the Rocky Mountains, are artifacts of the reconstruc. tion method and donot epzesentseaways. Like an “exploded” mechanical diagram, these gap indi cate that compressive deformation has ozcurred in these regions In these cases, the gaps are a crude attempt at palinpestic restoration (For ational Ingtactions deseebing how to assemble the ip book, see the legend for fg. 3.) ‘These maps encapsulate a vast amount of geolog ‘cal time and condense 750 myz. of plate motions into a few scconds of “Sipping” For more infor ‘ation about the geological, paleontological, paleo ‘climatic, and tectonic events that tok place during the time interval, see the PALEOMAP Project Web site, husp:/jwww-scotesecom, anda companion ar- ticle desribing plate tectonic and paleogeogrepie events since the Triassic (Scotese 2004) Copies of figure 3 have been posted atthe PALEOMAP Project ‘Web site fr convenient downloading, Ii now alto possible t produce plate tectonic reconstructions @ Snowball Earth Pannotia edovcian | (com Sine Pale) ‘600700 Estate of uncertainty in plate positon conline via the Web. The following Web sites al low users to produce and download customized plate tectonic reconstructions betp/worwodsn de) ‘ds/services/paleomsp/peleomap html and hp) ‘wovwiis molinarimefintro reconstz hem ‘Mapping the Past Positions of the Continents ‘The mations of the continents shown in the com tinental drift ipbook are summarized in figure 1 ‘Across the top, arrayed horizontally, are abbre- ‘iations signifying the modern continents. The "branches" that represent each modern continent cen be traced downward aeross the diagram end Deckard through time-For instance, though South America ig. 1, SM) and Africa (Bg. 1, APR} now fare separate continents, ifwe follow theirbranches backward through time, we see that they come to gether in the Farly Cretaceous. The opening ofthe South Atlante Ocean ‘coincides with the eplit of the South American and Alrcan continental branches, ‘The most striking feature ofthe plate tectonic ‘uee diagram isthe constricted waistline that spans the Tuasic and Early Jurassic time interval. The convergence of all the branches back to # single trunk” signifies that all land areas were joined™ ©. R, ScorEsE together in one supersized landmass. This super continent is known a6 "Pangea” (Wegoner 1912), Before the time of Pangea, the world’s continents were dispersed, much Like today's world. However, ‘here is a hint thatthe root ofthe plate tectonic luce converge yet agua, inthe Late Precambrian. ‘This Late Precambrian supercontinent is poorly known and goes by the names greater Gondwana,” Pannotis, of Rodinia (Dalziel 1991, 1997, Holfmaa 1991, Moores 1991, Powel et al. 1993, Mert and ‘Van der Voo 1994) "The plate tectonic history ofthe continents and ocean basins dusing the past 750 mye is recon- Seructed wsing the following six lines of evidence: {i}linear magnetic anomalies produced by seafloor ‘spreading, (2} paleomagnetism, (3) hotspot tracks tnd large igneous provinces (LIP, (4) the tectonic fabric of the ocean floor mapped by satellite alti cry, (5|lthologic indicators of climate (eg, coal, salt deposits, tlites), and (6) te geologic record of plate tectonic history. Tinear Magnet Anomalies Prodaced by Sea Floor Spreadingy Like the sun's magnetic Selg, the teart’s magnetic feld "fips," or reverses polarity. ‘As new oceaa floor cools st mis-ovean ridges tis ‘magnetized in the direction ofthe prevailing mag fheue polaity jannal or sevecee, luctus naa, or {in the intensity ofthe magnetic held occur at the boundaries between normally mag netized sea floor and portions ofthe sea oor that ‘were magnetized in the everse direction, The age tnd duration of these linear magnetic anomalies fan be determined using fosil evidence from the Sa floor and radiometric techniques. Because these ‘magnetic anomalies form atthe midocean sides, they tend to be long, linear features (Bence the ame “lineat magnetic anomalies") that are sym- retrically arranged sbout the mid-oceanie ridges ses. The positions of the continents during the past 150 my, can be dizestly zeconatrueted by su erimposing linear magnetic anomalies the same ge from opposite sides ofan ocean basi, ‘During the decades between 1965 and 1996, che patter of linear magnetic anomalies in 80% ofthe ‘world’s ocean basins was mapped by marine geo physical surveys. These data were intially synthe- Sized and summarized by the PALEOMAP Project sand were ultimately used vo produce a detailed map ff the age ofthe ocean basins (Mueller el. 1996) Tor an ocean-by-ovean summary of the plate tec: tonic development of the world’s ocean basin, sce the suudy by Seotere and Sage (1968). Paleomogaetion. By measuring the remanent smagneti fled often preserved in iron-bearing erals in rock formations, paleomagnetic analysis, fan determine whether a rock was magnetized neat ‘the North or South Pole or near the equator, Thus, paleomagnetism provides direct evidence of acon tineat’s north-south flatitudinal] position but does ‘ot constrain its cast wet longitudinal] position, ‘The pleomagnetic date sed in this chapter to reposition che continents were compiled by Vander ‘Yoo [1993] snd reevaluated in ight ofthe PALEO: (MAP plate tectonic model by Bocharova and Sco- tese (1993) For recent summaties of paleomagnetic. data and procedures, ce studies by McElhinny and MeFadden (1998) and A. Schetino and C.. Se0- tese (unpub, dat). Hotspot Tracks aad IPs. Plate tectonics isa de- seciption ofthe inoventent of the Liophors, dhe gid, outermost layer of the earth. Most volcanic truptions are derived from magmas that have thie Source within the lithosphere; however, 4 signif- ant subset, hotspot voleanes, are derived from. ‘much deeper magma sources. Some of these deep ‘sources of magma may orginate near the boundary between the earth's liquid core end lower mantle and ascend to the surface in mantle plumes or hot ‘spots (Duncan 1981, Morgan 1981; Duncan and Richards 1991) ‘Hotspots Kiterally hur through the lithosphere and erupt atthe surface forming large, but rately explosive, voleanoes (eg, Mauna Loa), When ahot spot plume frst beaks through to the surface, the Trge’ volume of magma in the plume head can spread across @ continent as a flood basalt or LIP Figare3. Continental dit phon (Scotee1997)-The ruber inthe uppes right baad comer the agin milions of years according tothe 1999 Decade of Neh Ameviean Geology simescale, Te oame ofthe gelogeal interval, ‘Sppearsin the ower ghthand corer atthe tart ofeach sasuence. To atsemble the eonsineatal ee Sbook, copy ‘hese pages onto s heavy weight paper or er stock, Cutout the indvidal mape slong the dotted lines. Amange {he maps in onder, ler with tne scending o wit me descending Insert te penal “sound elect” ard a the desred locatons. Hold the asembled booket firmly between thumb and index finger and tp the righe band ee harly on a aed, dat rac. Staple te letsand margin approximately one-quarter Sach frm the edge. TD “ip” the cencineaal daft ipbook, bold stapled margin i eft hand snd flip the pages Between the thumb nd index ‘ger ofthe ight hand,| CONTINENTAL DRIFT -(Mahoney and Coffin 1997, Eldholm and Coffin 2000) As plate moves over the mare or less st onary hotspot, a sequential chain of volcanic is- lands, ox hotspot tack, is formed. The Hawaiian Islands and Emperor seamount chain were formed in this manner (Wilson 1963} "Hotspots are very useal in reconstructing past plate motions because) they date the start of con tunental feng and ses oor spreading and (2) hot pot tracks providean independent estimate ofboth ‘orthsouth and east-west plate moti (Muelleret 11998}, Hotspots appear to be relatively station sry for long periods of time, end in ony 2 few cases hes significant motion of hotspots been. docu: ‘mented (Nartan 1995, 2000), “Tostome Fabric of the Ocean Flor Mapped by Sa. [Link] equipped with radar al ‘imeters can precisely measure the disance fram fn orbiting satellite tothe earth’ surface, These distance measurements can be used to create de- tailed, digital topographic and bathymetric maps The pionscring work of Haxby (1987) together with the more recent digital maps of Smith and Sandwell {1997} have mapped out the location of mid-ocean Fdges, oceanic frctare zones, volcanic seamounts, extinct spreading ridges, deep-sea trenches, and Submarine plateaus Tnformation from satellite altimetry has played 2 critical sole in the plate tetonie reconstruction of ocean basins [Gahagan et al. 1985). The long, linear ecture zones defined by this method ean be used to peogresively guide dhe continents back to- iether Reeves and de Wit 2000), The pest spreading ‘story of the ocean basins can be mapped and ex tinct spreading centers located. From the pattern ‘nd distribution of seamounts and hotspot tacks, the aslaive motion between the plates and the art's interior can be deduced. Titholope Indicators of Climate. The earth’ cli- ‘mate is primarily ¢ result of the redistsbution of the sun’s energy aczosa the surface ofthe globe. It Js warm near the equator and cool near the poles. Wemness, or rainfall also varies systematically from the equator to the poe. I is usually wet near the equator, dry in the subtropes, wet inthe temperate Delt, and dry near the poles. Certain Kinds of rocks form under specie eli matic conditions. For example, coals occur where itis wet, bauxite occurs where tis warm and wet, ‘evaporites and cleretes occur where itis warm and Ary and tlites ocour where ts wet and cool [Par- fish etal. 1982, Scotese and Bazeett 1950, Parish 1998, Ziegler et al. 2008, A.J. Boucot,C. Xu, and C.R Scotese, unpub, manuscript). The ancient dis tetbution ofthese rock types can tellus how global climate has changed through time (Ice House vs. Hot House] and provide an independent estimate of the north-south position of continent (pe Teolateude). Geologie Record of Plate Tectonle History. Finally, the best souree of information, but often the most dificult to interpre, isthe geologic record iefe by plate tectonic activity. The rock record has infor- uation about environments of deposition (deep ea, shallow sea, lowlands, and uplands), as well as che history of plate tectonic activity (faults, folding, thrusting, and sifting ‘During the past 250 yr, geologists have mapped ‘out the age, environment of deposition, and tee- tonic history of the rocks at the earth’ surface. ‘This knowledge of the regional tectonies and ge- ology slows us to map the ancient sites of nlting subduction, continental collision, and other im portant plate vctonic events Estimating Uncertainties in the Past Positions ofthe Continents ‘The plate tettonic maps presented here are visual hypotheses that seek to explain incomplete and sometimes contradictory observations. Its, there fore, reesonable to ask te question, How aceurate ave the postions ofthe continents shown on Uaese ‘ups! The techniques deseribed in the previous Section often have statistical methods fr measur ing error and estimating uncertainty. For example, {inpaleomagnetic studies individual paleomagnetic poles are often combined into mean, ox averaged, paleopole positions, These averages include ei ‘ates of precision fs and lspersion (k, Van dor ‘Voo 1998, McElhinny and McFadden 1998), Similar statistics can be used to evaluate how well lithe logic indicators of climate match thepaleolatitudes predicted by a given plate reconstruction (Scotese ‘nd Berett 1990), Likewise, che goodness of ft be tween matching magnetic anomalies, ar the trend of hotspot track with che trajectory of plate mo tdon, can leo be calculated, However, here is no simple or direct way to summarize al these est ‘mates of uncertainty into a single, meaningful, ‘Quantitative estimate of ero ‘Despite this problem, it i still worthwhile to discuss the probable uncertainties associated with the plate tectonie reconstructions. Figure 2 pro ‘det an estimate of the uncertainty im the pos tions of the continents back through time. ‘This ‘gure also indicates some of the criteria used to estimate these uncertainies. In figure 2, geological time lies along the horizontal axis. The uncertainty in the postion of the continents is expressed inoun Cesky CONTINENTAL terms of degrees of latitude [vertical exis), For in- ance, the efthand side of Une graph otate at ime BfOmiyr} with" of uncertainty [Weknow exactly ‘where the continents are today) AS we scan to the Tight, going backward in time, the uncertainty in cesses 50 that at 200 [Link], the uncereeinty in plate positions is 5" of latitude, and at 300 [Link], the luneertainy in plate position is 2 10" of latitude ‘Simply stated the location of any continent onthe plate tectonic reconstruction for 200 mr. might be 5° (550 kim) too far north or too far south. At 300 my, the loestion of any continent might be 10" (1100 em) too far north or too far south, eis clea fom figure 2 that the uncertainty in plate position increases exponentially backward fhrough time. Taree diferent estimates of uncer tainty, however, sre shown. The dashed line rep- sesente average uncertainty. The dark ray line is sn estimate of uncertainty based on the asumption that there were no Late Precambrian superconth nents. In this ess, itis clear that no reliable re- Constructions can be made for the Late Precan ‘rian becense the uncertainties in plate position exceed 2-45" of latitude, The light gay dashed line is-a more optimistic estimate that supposes that there were two Late Precambrian tupercontinents (Vannota and Rodina in that cas, the overall un ‘certainty in plate position is lower because itis atic to know the orientation of one large cont nent than it isto know the location of several ‘Widely dispersed continents the Pangea principle} ‘The black line withthe open and filed eices is 1 more detailed estimate of the tncertsinties for Specie time intervals. For the past 200 [Link], the solid black curve falls long the dashed curves. For older times, the degree of uncertainty decreases ‘when the continent are gathered together in a su- percontinent and increases when the continents are tispersed. The uncertainties in plate position for the time interval covered in this article are quite seceptable ranging from +5580 kan) to.» maxi ‘mum of 12" (1380 ka] in the Thisssic when the fontinents in the eastem hemisphere (Cimmeria tnd Cathaysia] were more widely dispersed ‘Though these simple maps [8g 3) review plate mo. tions during the past 750 [Link], they are little more than a sketch of what could be done, and what I believe will be dane, during the next decades. As line digial geological databases become increas: ingly available oo the Internet {Geoinformatis), snd as geographic information syeteme technology becomes more useful and widely used iis likely that we will sce a renaissance in the mapping of plate motions and earth history. In the future, these highsesolotion digital reconstructions of the earth's changing features will provide anew fame- ‘work fora greater understanding of earth system history. This spatil/temporal framework is nec- essary if we ate to understand the complex history of climate change, oceanographic change, biogeo sraphic change, and the evolution of life on this amazing planet. ‘More than 500 yr ago, Christopher Columbusbe- faa a voyage into che unknown. As a result, the ‘me extent and geography of the world were dis: covered, We have just begun a similar voyage. But this voyage of discovery, a discovery ofthe eath’s past, will tke us ona journey dhrough time as well 8 space, 1 would like to thank che organizers of the Alfred IM. Ziegler symposium forthe invitation to make this contribution. I would elo like to thank]. Par- ish and F. Anderson for their editoril assistance, 4s well as the industrial sponsors of the PALE” [MAP Project for their support of my research. This article and flipbook are dedicated to the memory Of W. 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