Course Code: CE 1

Course Title: Fundamentals of Surveying

Horizontal Distance
Measurement
Surveying is one of the common professional courses required by the Commission on Higher Education to
be taught to students taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering. Fundamentals of Surveying has
a three-unit lecture and a one-unit fieldwork. Because of the blended learning strategy, the lectures will be
provided by this module, while the fieldwork will be scheduled in small groups to minimize contact between
participants. This module is designed to help students appreciate and understand the different concepts
and methods of surveying that is commonly used in civil engineering works. Topics are discussed in
accordance to the class syllabus with solved practice problems that will guide the students in understanding
the concepts.
This chapter will cover the topics involving horizontal distance measurement. The method of getting the
horizontal distances will be discussed in this chapter. It is one of the basic skills a surveyor must know.
There is a range of equipment we can use in getting the horizontal distances. It was discussed in the
previous chapter that during observations there will always be errors, in this chapter we will explore the
different ways in minimizing errors in getting horizontal distance measurement.

After completing this chapter, the student shall be able to:

1. Define horizontal distance measurement
2. Identify the appropriate technique in getting horizontal distances
3. Adjust horizontal measurement observations using the different corrections discussed in this
chapter

Measurement of Horizontal Distance

Subtense Bar
Pacing Taping Stadia
Method

Taping Procedure

Taping
Correction
Most surveying data are eventually plotted and drawn as a boundary plat, a topographic map, a building
site plan, a profile of the ground along a route, or a series of route cross [Link] the exception of the
last two types of drawings, the lines shown on the paper represent projections of points onto a flat and
horizontal surface. The drawing paper represents the level reference plane. The scaled length of any line
on the drawing is proportional to the actual horizontal distance between its endpoints on the Earth. The
tasks of determining the horizontal distance between two existing points and of setting a new point at a
specified distance from some other fixed position are fundamental surveying operations. The surveyor must
select the appropriate equipment and apply suitable field procedures to determine or set and mark
distances with the required degree of accuracy. Depending on the specific application and the required
accuracy, one of several methods may be used to determine horizontal distance. The most common
methods include pacing, taping, and electronic distance measurement (EDM).

1. What is the importance of having correct horizontal distance measurements?

2. What method of getting horizontal distances are you most aware?

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

The tasks of determining the horizontal distance between two existing points and of setting a new point at
a specified distance from some other fixed position are fundamental surveying operations. The surveyor
must select the appropriate equipment and apply suitable field procedures to determine or set and mark
distances with the required degree of accuracy. Depending on the specific application and the required
accuracy, one of several methods may be used to determine horizontal distance. The most common
methods include pacing, taping, and electronic distance measurement (EDM). This chapter begins with a
brief discussion of rough distance measurement by pacing and by using a measuring wheel. Both require
that the line be traversed or walked by the surveyor. Stadia, however, is an indirect method of measurement
(also called tacheometry) that makes use of a transit, a leveling or stadia rod, and trigonometry the surveyor
does not actually have to traverse the line being measured. Taping has been the traditional surveying
method for horizontal distance measurement for many years. It is a direct and relatively slow procedure
that requires much manual skill on the part of the surveyors. In taping, unlike electronic methods, a line to
be measured must be completely accessible to the surveyor. Although modern electronic instruments are
now replacing the tape for many measurement applications, all surveyors must still be skilled with tape,
plumb bob, and other tape accessories. Taping equipment, field procedures, and methods to increase the
relative accuracy of a taped distance are discussed in this chapter. The use of electronic distance
measuring instruments (EDMIs) is also covered in this chapter. EDM, of course, represents the latest
technology for distance measurement. It is fast, and it can be highly accurate over long distances. It is
unlikely, however, that EDM will entirely replace the traditional surveyor’s tape and plumb bob in the
immediate future. This is particularly true when measuring short distances for ordinary construction surveys
or other routine survey applications where it simply does not pay to set up and use an expensive piece of
electronic equipment.
Lesson 1. PACING
In certain surveying applications, only a rough approximation of distance is necessary; a method called
pacing, or the use of a simple measuring wheel, may be sufficient in these instances. Locating topographic
features during the preliminary reconnaissance of a building site, searching for the property corners and
other survey markers shown on a plat, and checking measured distances to avoid blunders are some
examples of when only a rough distance measurement is necessary. Pacing is counting the number of
steps in a required distance. It is used to roughly estimate horizontal distances. Pace is measured from
heel to heel or toe to toe. Distances can be measured with an accuracy of about 1:100 by pacing. Although
providing only a crude measure of distance, pacing has the distinct advantage of requiring no equipment.
It is a skill every surveyor or construction technician should have.

Figure 1. Pace factor can be measured from heel to heel or toe to toe

Pacing simply involves counting steps or paces while walking naturally along the line to be measured. The
surveyor’s unit pace length is then multiplied by the number of paces counted. A unit pace is taken as the
distance between the left and right toes (or left and right heels) or vice versa of two successive positions. It
is expressed in terms of meters per pace (m/pace) or feet per pace (ft/pace). (Some surveyors count full
strides instead of paces; a stride comprises two paces.) To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine
the length of one’s pace or one’s pace factor. Pace factor is the distance between the heel or between the
toes of a single step. Two paces is equal to a stride. The unit of a pace factor is unit of distance/number of
steps. It can be in meters/# of steps or ft./# of steps. Distance AB is computed by multiplying the pace
factor by the number of steps it took to go from point A to point B. The formula for computing distance is
shown below.

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∗ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠

Sample Problem 1
An engineer has a pace factor of 0.58 meters/pace, if he was able to count 46.2 paces from point A to
point B, determine the distance between AB.
SOLUTION:
Using the formula
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∗ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.58 ∗ 46.2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 26.796𝑚 ≈ 26.80𝑚

TAPING
Taping is a process of directly measuring distances with the use of a graduated tape. Measuring horizontal
distances with a tape is simple in theory, but in actual practice it is not as easy as it appears at first glance.
It requires skill and experience for a surveyor to be able to tape a distance with a relative accuracy between
1:3000 and 1:5000, which is a generally accepted range for most preliminary surveys, ordinary property
surveys, and many types of construction layouts. Using good-quality equipment and under normal field
conditions, an experienced surveyor can readily achieve a 1:3000 accuracy without having to correct for
systematic errors. Nevertheless, when handling a tape and plumb bob for the first time, many students are
quite surprised at the time and effort required to achieve that degree of accuracy. It takes much practice.
Tapes and Accessories
Most of the original surveys in the United States and Canada were
done using a Gunter’s chain for measurement of horizontal
distances. To this day, the term chaining is often used to describe
the taping operation. A Gunter’s chain has a length of 66 ft and is
subdivided into 100 heavy wire links. It is the original unit of
measurement used in the U.S. Public Land Survey. A distance like
3 ch 75 lk, for example, may still be seen on old property
descriptions (3.75 ch * 66 ft/ch = 247.50 ft).
Figure 2. Antique Gunter's Chain

Steel Tapes Modern steel tapes are available in a variety of lengths and cross sections; among the most
commonly used are the 100-ft tape and the 30-m tape, which are 1/4 in and 6 mm wide, respectively. Both
lighter as well as heavier duty tapes are also available. A steel tape is generally stored and carried on an
open-reel case when not in use. Some steel tapes may have a white nylon coating for durability as well as
easy-to-read graduations. Lightweight fiberglass tapes are also available, but are generally not used for
precise work. A surveyor’s steel tape may be graduated in one of several ways. It is most important for the
surveyor to be certain of the type of markings on the tape to avoid blunders. It is preferable to work with a
tape that is graduated throughout its entire length in feet, tenths, and hundredths (0.01) of a foot, or in
meters and millimeters (0.001 m). Some tapes have the zero point at the very end of the tape or hook ring;
others have the zero mark offset from the end of the tape. Again, it is essential that the surveyor knows
exactly what type of tape is being used in order to avoid blunders.

2.1 PROCEDURES OF TAPING

Taping may be used to determine the unknown distance between two fixed points on the ground, or it may
be used to set marks at specified distances on a given line. The latter operation is called setting marks for
line and distance; it requires the use of an instrument to “give line.” In this section, a typical field
procedure for taping an unknown horizontal distance, over level or sloping ground, will be discussed.
Clearly, at least two surveyors are needed to tape a distance—a front, or head, chainman to hold the front
end of the tape and a rear chainman to hold the back of the tape. In the following description, a distance is
to be measured from point A to point B, each point being clearly marked on the ground by a wooden stake
and tack or a concrete monument. In this text, taping is described with the zero mark of the tape kept to the
rear. Some surveyors prefer to keep the tape reversed. But because it seems more logical to stretch out
the tape with the numbers increasing in the direction of taping, here we assign the rear chainman the job
of holding zero. (References to the position of the hands with respect to the tape and plumb-bob string refer
to right handed persons.) In most taping operations, the tape must be held in a horizontal position. Ideally,
if A and B are at the same elevation with no obstacles between them, the tape can be laid directly on the
level ground and supported throughout its entire length. More often than not, a gradual slope makes it
necessary to raise one end of the tape above the ground to keep it horizontal. At that end, a vertical plumb-
bob string serves to line up the appropriate tape graduation with the point. Sometimes both ends of the
tape must be raised above the ground, making it necessary for both the head and rear chainman to use
plumb bobs.

Components of a taping party

• Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy of all linear measurements with the tape.
He carries the zero end of the tape
• Recorder – keeps a record of all the measurements sketches and observations during the process
of measurement.
• Flagman – holds the range poles at selected points and he also helps in making measurements
and assist in the clearing of obstructions along the line to be measured
• Rear Tapeman – the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman. Holds the end or any
intermediate mark.
2.1.1 Setting Out and Aligning the Tape. To begin, the head chainman unreels the tape by walking toward
B with the reel, while the rear chainman holds the zero end at A. The zero mark of the tape must always be
held exactly over point A, using a plumb bob when necessary, even when only a preliminary measurement
is made. If not, the head chainman will waste time clearing a place for an intermediate forward mark, or
may actually mark the point when the rear end of the tape is being held incorrectly. Frequently the head
chainman will raise the tape to clear obstacles and to straighten it. The rear chainman should raise the tape
at the same time, but still attempt to keep the zero mark as nearly as possible over the point. When the
head chainman reaches the end of the tape, it is removed from the reel; a tension handle or a leather thong
should be attached at that end. The rear chainman, sighting point B, directs the head chainman by voice
until the head end of the tape is on line. The direction and estimated length of tape movement may be
called out as “west two-tenths, east one-tenth,” etc.

2.1.2 Marking an Intermediate Station on Line. The head chainman pulls the tape straight and makes a
rough measurement, while the rear chainman checks the alignment. The rear chainman should keep his or
her eyes above the point, and the head chainman should keep on one side of the tape so that the rear
chainman can see point B during this process. The head chainman prepares a place to mark the distance
where the rough measurement fell. In grass, a small spot is cleared; on pavement, a yellow keel mark is
made. Next, the lengths of the plumb-bob cords are adjusted so that the bobs will swing just clear of the
points (about 1/8 in. above the point) when the tape is in position. The tape should be horizontal and should
be as near the ground as possible without touching intervening obstacles. With the handles of the tape in
their right hands, the surveyors should face the tape (their left sides toward each other). The plumb bob
cord is held on the far side of the tape, bent over the tape, and held on the proper graduation with the thumb
of the left hand. While holding the plumb bob in this manner, the tape is moved up and down slightly, gently
tapping the point of the bob to dampen the swinging motion. The stance must be steady. Raising the tape
to shoulder height should be avoided (see the following discussion on breaking tape). When the tape is
waist-high, the surveyor’s feet should be spread well apart along the line of the tape for good balance.
When the tape is low, one knee may be placed on the ground for extra support. The head chainman applies
the tension gradually until the spring-balance handle reads the correct tension (usually about 20 lb). If a
tension handle is not used, the surveyor must estimate the proper tension. When the tension is applied, the
rear plumb bob may be pulled a short distance off point A. The rear chainman must pull the tape back at
once with a smooth [Link] the zero mark is stationary over the point, the rear chainman calls out “
mark” or “good,” and so on. The surveyor should continue to call out “mark” as long as the tape is
in the correct position, and stop calling it as soon as the tape moves off the point. When the head chainman
relieves the tension, the rear chainman may stop calling out.

At the forward end, when the tightly pulled tape and the plumb bob become steady, the head chainman
gently lowers the tape so that the bob rests on its point. If the ground is soft, the hole made by the point is
sufficient for the time being. The surveyor then releases the tape and places a tack or a nail in the hole,
through a piece of colored marking tape, to make it easy for the rear chainman to find. When working on a
pavement or any other hard surface, the head chainman gently lowers the bob so that the point just touches
the ground at the correct position. The surveyor then releases the tape, reaches for the bob with the right
hand, and firmly marks the position of the point. Usually, this is done by making a scratch with the point
from the position it occupies; the beginning of the scratch is the mark. A second scratch is made from that
mark, at right angles to the first, forming a V. The surveyor then writes the number of tape lengths, called
stations, on the pavement with the keel. (Stationing is discussed later in this section.) It is good practice to
check the distance after it is marked, before moving up the line. The rear chainman then calls out the
number of the station he or she occupies, and the head chainman calls out the number he or she has
marked; an appropriate entry is made in the field book. The head chainman moves forward toward B,
dragging the tape. The rear chainman also moves forward, but does not pick up the end of the tape. When
the zero mark comes up to the mark, the rear chainman calls “chain,” or gives some other signal for the
head chainman to stop and get in line. The procedure for measurement is then repeated. An error in
counting tape lengths is one of the chief sources of blunder in distance measurement. When taping long
distances over unpaved surfaces, the rear chainman must keep a count of full tape lengths.
2.1.3 Completing the Measurement. Upon reaching point B, a distance less than one full tape length will
remain to be measured. The head chainman either reels in part of the tape or walks on past B carrying the
head end forward. He or she then returns to B to make the measurement. While plumbing as previously
described, the head chainman slides the plumb-bob cord along the tape until the bob is over the mark for
point B. Then, holding the cord in position on the tape, he or she reads the graduations silently. The rear
chainman comes forward and reads the graduations out loud. If the readings agree, the value is recorded.
(When the tape is used with the 100-ft mark to the rear, the head chainman holds the zero mark at B while
the rear chainman takes the reading, and the rear chainman holds it while the head chainman moves back
to check.) To return the tape to the reel, the head chainman first removes the tension handle or thong from
the 100-ft end of the tape and passes the end into the reel. The end ring is attached to the spindle so that
the graduated side of the tape is up when the reel crank handle is on the right, facing the tape; with the
tape in this position, it can be used conveniently to measure less-than-tape-length distances.

In summary, the following are the steps in measuring horizontal distance using a tape.

1. Aligning of the tape

2. Stretching the tape
3. Plumbing
4. Marking full tape length
5. Tallying taped measurements
6. Measuring fractional lengths

2.2 Breaking Tape. When the ground slope is excessive, it may be difficult or impossible to hold the full
tape in a horizontal position by plumbing one end; when a surveyor tries to hold a plumb bob and tape
from shoulder height, or higher, accidental errors tend to increase due to the unsteady position. Over
rough terrain, then, a process called breaking tape should be employed.

F IGURE 3. BREAKING TAPE I LLUSTRATION

Breaking tape refers to the following procedure: After unreeling the tape out to its full length, the head
chainman returns to a point where the tape can be held level in a comfortable and steady position. He or
she then selects an integer footmark, say 60 ft, which is announced to the rear chainman. After a temporary
mark is set at that distance, the rear chainman comes forward and holds the tape at that exact footmark.
The measurement proceeds without moving the tape; using a clamp handle or “chain grip,” the rear
chainman holds the 60-ft footmark as if it were zero and the head chainman sets a new mark at the 100-ft
end of the tape.

2.3 TAPING CORRECTION

Taping corrections may come from different errors in the taping procedure. Most often than not, it is because
of the physical property of the tape and the environmental conditions while conducting the taping.
Corrections are cumulative, you just add the corrections from the different sources of error.
2.3.1 Correction for Slope
When you are taping over a sloped surface, your observed measurement will always be longer than the
actual horizontal distance between two points. The exact distance may be calculated using trigonometric
relations.

The correction for gentle slope is

ℎ2
𝐶ℎ =
2𝑠

The correction for Steep slope is

ℎ2 ℎ4
𝐶ℎ = +
2𝑠 8𝑠 3

The correction for very steep slope

𝐶ℎ = (𝑠 ∗ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃))

Where:
S = slope distance
h = height/difference in elevation between the two points

The computed correction will be subtracted to the measured slope distance to get the actual horizontal
distance. When laying-out, correction is added.

Sample Problem 2

Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m. The difference in elevation from a-b is
12.22 and b-c is 10.85. Using the correction for gentle slope, what is the distance from A-C?

Solution

To solve this problem, we use the formula for the gentle slope. We substitute the given height 12.22 and
10.85 and the measured distances 330.49m and 660.97m.
The distance between points A-C is equal to:

Distance A-C = 330.49-0.226+660.97-0.089 = 991.145 m

2.3.2 Not of Standard Length

The nominal length of a tape, as stated by the manufacturer rarely corresponds with the true length. The
true length is taken as the length determined by comparison with a known standard length under given
conditions of temperature, tension and support. The absolute value for the tape correction is

𝐶𝑑 = 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

This discrepancy is assumed to be distributed along its length equally so it is directly proportional to the
fractional portion of the tape used for a measurement. Tapes are usually standardized at 20 degrees
Celsius and with tensions varying from 4 to 14 kg. Tapes may be supported throughout, at specified points,
or at the two ends only. Desired conditions of standardization are specified when requesting the
standardization.

A tape that is too long has is longer than the standard length. When measuring, the correction must be
added. When laying out a measurement on the ground the correction must be subtracted. A tape that is too
short has grades that are shorter than the standard length. In applying the correction for tape that is too
short, we subtract the correction when measuring and add the correction when laying out.

Sample Problem 3
A rectangular lot was measured using a 50 m. steel tape which is 0.025 m. too short. If the recorded length
and width of the lot are 180.455m and 127.062 determine the actual dimensions of the lot.

Solution

We can solve this problem using a simple analysis. The measured length is 180.455 m using a 50m tape
that is 0.025m. The nominal length of the tape used is 50 meters, that means to be able to correct the
measurement, we must apply the error 0.025 3 times and a portion of the 0.025 for the remaining 30.455.
It can be solved by using a simple ratio as shown in the formula below:

To correct the measured data we subtract 0.090 from the measured length 180.455.

Length = 180.455-0.90 = 180.365 m

We can use the same analysis for the distance of the width.

To correct the width we subtract 0.064 from the measured width that is 127.062.
 Width = 127.062 – 0.064 = 126.998 m

2.3.3 Correction Due to Sag

When the tape sags between points of support, it takes the form of a catenary. The correction to be applied
is the difference in length between the arc and the subtending chord. For the purpose of determining the
correction, the arc may be assumed to form a parabola, and the correction is then given with sufficient
precision for most purposes by the formula

𝑤 2 𝐿3 𝑊 2𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = = =
24𝑃 2 24𝑃 2

Where
Cs = Correction due to sag
w= weight of tape, in lb/ft or kg/m.
W=total weight of the tape between supports, lb or kg
L = Distance between supports, ft or m
P = applied tension lb or kg

The correction is seen to vary directly as the cube of the unsupported length and inversely proportional to
the square of the pull. This formula is intended for use with a level tape but it may be applied to a tape held
on a slope of up to approximately 10º. When measuring, Correction due to sag is subtracted to the observed
measurement when laying out, correction due to sag is added.
Sample Problem 4
A 50m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its endpoints at the 0 and 8m, 8 and 25 and 25 &
50m. A 6kg pull is applied. Determine the correction and the correct distance between the 0 and 50m mark.

Solution:

A B C

We can solve this problem by analyzing each section of the tape that is supported. In the drawing there are
3 sections. Each have unique Length but the pull is constant throughout the tape and so is the weight.

Section A. The distance between support (L) is equal to 8 meters, the weight per unit length(w) is 0.04
and the pull P is equal to 6kg. Substitute these to the formula
𝑤 2 𝐿3
𝐶𝑠 =
24𝑃2
(. 04)2 83
𝐶𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝐴 =
24 ∗ 62

𝐶𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝐴 = 9.48𝑥10−4

Section B. The distance between support (L) is equal to 17 meters( 25m – 8m), the weight per unit length
(w) is 0.04
and the pull P is equal to 6kg. Substitute these to the formula
𝑤 2 𝐿3
𝐶𝑠 =
24𝑃2
(. 04)2 173
𝐶𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝐵 =
24 ∗ 62

𝐶𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝐵 = 9.10𝑥10−3

Section C. The distance between support (L) is equal to 25 meters (50m – 25m), the weight per unit length
(w) is 0.04 and the pull P is equal to 6kg. Substitute these to the formula
𝑤 2 𝐿3
𝐶𝑠 =
24𝑃2
(. 04)2 253
𝐶𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝐶 =
24 ∗ 62

𝐶𝑠𝑆𝑒𝑐𝐶 = 0.0289

Correct distance for Section A = 8 – 9.48x10-4 = 7.999

Correct distance for Section B = 17 – 9.10𝑥10−3 = 16.991
Correct distance for Section C = 25 – 0.0289 = 24.971

The true distance between 0 to 50m mark on the tape is equal to the sum of the correct distance each
station.
Distance0-50 = 7.999+16.991+24.971 = 49.961m

You can also get the distance by simply subtracting all the corrections to 50m. you will also get 49.961 m
2.3.4 Correction Due to Temperature

The tape expands as the temperature rises and contracts as the temperature falls. If the tape is
standardized at a given temperature and measurements are taken at a higher temperature the tape is too
long. The correction due to temperature is given by the formula:

𝐶𝑡 = CL (T − Ts)
– Where:
• Ct = Correction due to temperature
• C = Coefficient of linear expansion
• L = Length of the line measured
• T = Temp at the time of measurement
• Ts = Temp at during the standardization of the tape
• C = of steel is 0.0000116 per degree Celsius

In some materials, coefficient of linear expansion is denoted by the greek letter alpha α.

[Link] Correction Due to Variations in Tension

If the tension is greater or less than that for which the tape is verified, the tape is stretched or shortened accordingly.
The correction for variation in tension in a steel tape is given by the formula

(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜)𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑎𝐸

– Where:
• Cp = Correction per distance L, ft or m.
• P = applied tension, lb or kg.
• Po= tension for which the tape is standardized, lb or kg
• L = length, ft or m
• a = cross sectional area in in2 or cm2
• E = elastic modulus of the steel, lb/in2 or kg/cm2

The modulus of elasticity is taken as 28 to 30 million lb/in 2 or 2.1X106 kg/cm2. The cross sectional area of
the tape can be computed from the weight and dimensions, since steel weighs approximately 490 lb/ft 3 or
7.85 X 10 -3 kg/cm3.

Sample Problem 5

Assume that a light 100 ft tape is standard under a tension of 10 lb. E = 30,000,000 lb/in 2, and the cross
sectional area is of the tape is 0.0003 in 2. Determine the elongation for an increase in tension from 10 to
30 lb.

Solution

Using the equation for computing the correction due to variation in pull,

(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜)𝐿 (30 − 10) 100

𝐶𝑝 = = = 0.0222 𝑓𝑡.
𝑎𝐸 0.0003 ∗ 30
Lesson 3. Stadia Method

The traditional American transit is a versatile instrument. In addition to measuring horizontal and vertical
angles, it is also capable of measuring horizontal and vertical distances using the stadia method. When
using the stadia method (tacheometry), distance, direction, and elevation are all measured in essentially
one operation. Taping of distances is not required. This method was very useful for topographic mapping
small- or medium-sized parcels of land of variable terrain before the advent of modern total stations. Stadia
surveying is not a very precise method of making field measurement. Distances can be determined with an
accuracy of about 1/1000 at best. But this is sufficient for most topographic surveys. A transit (or theodolite)
used for stadia work must have a special reticle or set of cross hairs. The cross hairs consist of central
horizontal and vertical cross hairs, with two additional shorter stadia hairs that are equally spaced above
and below the horizontal one. The geometric principle underlying stadia is that the corresponding sides of
similar triangles are proportional. The stadia hairs are carefully placed in the reticle so that their lines of
sight separate at a rate of 1–100, from a point at the center of a modern, internal-focus transit or theodolite.
Because the lines of sight diverge at the rate of 1–100, the vertical length observed between the stadia
hairs on a level rod held 100 ft (or 100 m) away would be 1.00 ft (or 1.00 m). At a horizontal distance of 200
ft, the stadia intercept, as it is called, would be 2.00 ft, and so on. Because the distance of a vertical rod
from the instrument is always 100 times the vertical intercept observed on the rod, horizontal distances
between the rod and the instrument are easily determined when the transit telescope is level. For example,
if the bottom stadia hair intercepts the rod at 2.00 ft, and 3.58 ft is observed at the top stadia hair, then the
horizontal distance is simply 100 * (3.58 - 2.00) = 158 ft. The perpendicular distance D between the rod and
the instrument station is always 100 * S, where S is the observed stadia intercept. One of the chief
advantages of stadia surveying is that both horizontal and vertical distances can be measured even when
the telescope line of sight is not horizontal; it is necessary, however, to determine the vertical angle for each
observation. The process of determining elevations by measuring both a horizontal distance and a vertical
angle is called trigonometric leveling. The formula for horizontal distance using stadia method

𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶

– Where:
• D = Horizontal DIstance
• K = Stadia interval factor usually 100
• S = stadia intercept (Upper hair reading - lower hair reading)
• C = Instrument Constant

Sample Problem 6

A stadia Rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia
hair readings were observed at 1.3m and 0.9m. If the stadia interval factor is 100 and the instrument
constant is 0 compute for the horizontal distance.

Solution
This is a direct substitution. Sometimes the value of the instrument constant is not given. If the value of C
is not given we can assume that this is zero.

Horizontal distance D = KS + C
D = 100 * (1.3 - 0.9) + 0
D = 40 m
Lesson 4. Subtense Bar Method

The subtense bar is a 2m long bar. It is mounted on a tripod. And placed perpendicular to the line of sight
by means of a sighting device on top of the bar. Targets are located on both ends of the bar and is sighted
using a theodolite or a transit. Note that in the set up shown in the figure below, the smaller the subtended
angle, the further the subtense bar is to the point of observation.

Instrument that can

read angles

Subtense Bar
Figure 4. Subtense Bar set-up

Given the set up above, we can easily derive the formula for the horizontal D by using tan(a)/2. The formula
for horizontal distance D is

1
𝐷= 𝑎
tan
2

– Where:
• D = Horizontal DIstance
• a = subtended angle

Sample Problem 7

The subtended angle is 0d54’13”. Compute the position of the theodolite from the subtense bar.

Solution
This is a simple problem and we only need to directly substitute the given to the formula.

1 1
𝐷= 𝑎= = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎
tan 2 tan 0°54′13"
2
Activity 2
On a clean sheet of A4 bond paper, solve the following problems.

1. A line is recorded as 472.90 m. long. It is measured with a 0.65 kg. tape which is 30.005 m. long at
20 ºC under a 50 N pull supported at both ends. During measurement, the temperature is 5 ºC and
the tape is suspended under a 75 N pull. The line is measured on 3% grade. E = 200GPa, cross-
sectional area of tape is 3 mm2 and the coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116 m./ºC.
Compute the actual length of the tape during measurement.
2. Compute for the distance between the theodolite and the subtense bar if the subtended angle
observed is 1degree 24 minutes and 32 seconds.
3. A 24.72 meter distance will be laid out using a 50 m tape that is .12 m too long. Where on the tape
would you put the mark in order to layout the required 24.72 meter?
4. The tape was supported at 0 and 28.7 mark. What is the actual distance between supports if the
pull is 6kg and the weight of the tape supported by the two supports is 2.2 kilos.

• Davis, R. E., Foote, F. S., Anderson, J. M., & Mikhail, E. M. (1981). Surveying Theory and Practice.
McGraw-Hill.
• Kavanagh, B. F., & Bird, S. (2000). Surveying Principles and Applications. Ohio: Prentice Hall.
• Nathanson, J., Lanzafama, M. T., & Kissam, P. (2011). Surveying Fundamentals and Practices.
Ohio: Pearson.
• Putt, J. P. (2010). Elementary Surveyin. Baguio: Baguio Research and Publishing Center.
• [Link]