PROF ED 101:THE CHILD AND

ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND

LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Dr. Salvacion L. Villafuerte, RPm, RPsy
APRIL 28, 2024

COURSE DESCRIPTION
• Focuses on child and adolescent development with
emphasis on current research and theories on biological,
linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of
development. Integrated into the course will be the
 philosophies, theories, and legal bases of special needs and
inclusive education.
COURSE OUTLINE

OVERVIEW OF HUMAN THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1.

DEVELOPMENT 1. Growth, Psychodynamic Perspectives
Development and Maturity
2. Psychosocial Perspectives 3.
2. The Life Span Development Cognitive and Behavioral
3. Neurodevelopmental Disorders Perspectives
and Mental health needs of child
and adolescent 4. Moral Development
Perspectives
4. Research and Ethical
Considerations in child and 5. Socio-cultural Perspectives
adolescent developmental research 6. Biological, Evolutional and
 Ecological Perspectives
COURSE OUTLINE
SYNTHESIS AND APPLICATION OF THE
DEVELOPMENTAL DOMAINS OF THE LEARNER: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
FROM PRENATAL TO LATE ADOLESCENCE 1. THE
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Prenatal Period 1. The Child in Philippine Setting
2. Infancy Period 2. The Learner in Philippine Educational
3. Babyhood Period System 3. The Youth in the Philippines
4. The professional teacher and HB 6574, or the
4. Early Childhood proposed Basic Education Mental Health and Well
5. Late Childhood Being Promotion Act
5. Learner-Centered psychological principles: Focus
6. Puberty on the child and adolescent learner
7. Adolescence • Cognitive-Metacognitive factors
• Motivational and Affective factors
• Developmental and Social factors
• Individual Differences factors

OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

• Development- The pattern of movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the human life span
• Traditional vs Life Span Approach-
*The traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from
birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in
late old age.
*The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change
during adulthood as well as childhood.
Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
 • Development is lifelong
• Development is multidimensional
• Development is multidirectional
• Development is plastic
• Development is contextual
• Development is studied by a number of disciplines •
Development involves growth, maintenance, and
regulation
Biological Processes

• Involve changes in the individual’s physical nature such as: •

Height and weight gains
• The development of the brain
• Changes in motor skills
 • Cardiovascular decline
Cognitive Processes

• Involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language such as: •
Watching a mobile swing above a crib
• Creating a two-word sentence
• Memorizing a poem
• Imagining being a movie star
Socioemotional Processes

• Involve changes in the individual’s relationships with

other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality such as:
• An infant smiling from her mother’s touch •
A young boy hitting a playmate
 • A girl’s joy at her senior prom
• The affection of an elderly couple
Conceptions of Age

• Chronological Age- The number of years that have elapsed

since a person’s birth
• Biological Age-A person’s age in terms of biological health
• Psychological/Mental Age-An individual’s adaptive capacities compared to those of
other individuals of the same chronological age
• Social Age-Refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s age, in
terms of socio-adaptive competencies

FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT
characteristics of an individual.
• NATURE- The innate or inherited • HEREDITY- characteristics
 transmitted from the parents to onward.
the offspring • ENVIRONMENT- includes all the
• NURTURE- environmental factors forces that affect or influence
that influence the individual man
from the moment of conception
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
changes of a person
• Quantitative Improvement • Qualitative and Quantitative
Refinement
• Refer to measurable changes in
an individual, external process • Involves a progressive series of
changes that are coherent and
• Irreversible, constant increase in
orderly, internal process,
size, structural
functional
• Is limited, focuses on only one
• A process wherein a person’s
aspect, changes the physical
 growth is visible in relation to factors.
physical, environment and social
MATURATION THEORY (A. Gesell)
• Children develop through similar and predictable sequences. However,
Gesell noticed that they did so at their own pace, and suggested this
development starts to occur before the child’s birth.
• The pace that the individual develops through the sequences is influenced
by internal factors, such as physical and mental development and genetics. •
He disagreed with theorists who suggested that development was solely
down to environmental factors.
• If a child experienced delayed development that, according to Gesell,
would be due to heredity.
• A child should only be taught to complete tasks when they are physically
and mentally ready to do so. Teaching a child to do something that is in
 advance of their developmental age would do them more harm.
MECHANICS OF HEREDITY
• Male reproductive
• Female reproductive cell • TESTES
cell • OVARIES
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The ovaries produce
400,000
eggs or so every 28 days
• The ovum is 100,000 times
larger than the sperm cell
• Carries the X chromosome
• Composed of 46
chromosomes
but transfers 23
chromosomes
to the offspring
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The testes produces 200 million
sperm cells/spematozoa every
week
• Carries X or Y chromosome
• Composed of 46 chromosomes
but transfers 23 chromosomes
to the offspring
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
• Chromosomes- rope-like
structures in the nucleus
 of the
cell which contain the Genes
• Genes- carriers of hereditary
units, always work in pairs
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-
duplication of genes in every cell
2 TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
characteristics to a certain
1) Autosomes- are trait species
chromosomes which give • A normal individual has 46
‘automatic’ traits of a certain chromosomes, in excess, or lack
species of, means abnormality
2) Gonosomes- are sex • 46 chromosomes is composed of
chromosomes which give sex 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair
of gonosomes
 • X chromosome is female chromosome
chromosome • Therefore, XX is a female, while
• Y chromosome is male XY is male.

CELL DIVISION
• Mitosis- or cell duplication • Meiosis- cell reduction
DETERMINATION OF TWINS
separate fertilized eggs
1) Monozygotic/ 3) Plural Births- (triplets-1:9,000,
identical/maternal twins quadruplets- 1:570,000)-
(1:80)- came only from one combination of maternal or
fertilized egg fraternal twinning, may come
from one or more fertilized
2) Dizygotic/non
eggs
identical/fraternal twins
(1:80)- came from two
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
4) The theory of aging ova
• CAUSES • Chromosomes may be 45 or
1) Nondisjunction- genes fails to 47 and result to either
separate abnormalities in physical
2) Translocation- genes pairs with appearance, mental
another capacity, sexual
3) Deletion- broken pieces of development or all
genes got lost or got mentioned.
deleted
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• Down’s Syndrome (trisomy
1) Autosomal Abnormalities 21)- 1:600
• Edward’s Syndrome (trisomy 2) Gonosomal Abnormalities •
18)-1:30,000 Turner’s Syndrome-1:2500 • Poly
• Patau’s Syndrome X Syndrome- 1:1,000 •
(trisomy 13)- 1:15,000 Klinefelter’s Syndrome- 1:500 •
Supermale Syndrome- 1:1,000
•Hermaphrodite- 1:20,000
AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• DOWN’S SYNDROME
• Mentally impaired
• has congenital eye, ear and heart defects
• has slopping forehead, a protruding tongue, short
stubby
limbs and a slightly flattened nose and a peculiar
fold in
their eyelids which give the eyes an Oriental
appearance
• can be taught to care for their own basic needs
and some
have learned to read, and categorized into degrees (mild,
moderate and severe);
• moreover, tends to be cheerful and may have a happy life
if they receive adequate emotional support from their
families or caretakers.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• EDWARD’S SYNDROME
• microstomia (abnormal smallness of the
mouth), short palpebral fissure ( the
opening
between the upper and the lower
eyelids),
malformed ears, elongated skull;
clenched
hand, with the second finger over the third;
short sternum or breastbone, cryptorchidism
(or undescended testes); congenital heart
disease.

AUTOSOMAL
ABNORMALITIES • PATAU’S SYNDROME
• defects of eyes, nose, lips, ears, narrow, hyperconvex (i.e., very
and forebrain of the curved) fingernails; skin defects in
holoprosenphaly type (i.e., there the posterior scalp.
was a failure of the forebrain to • Trisomy 8-Mosaicism
divide into halves during Syndrome, occurrence:
embryonic development and this is
usually known by many midline
1:100,000
facial defects, including the
development of only one eye
• Trisomy 22- Emanuel
during extreme cases); polydactyl Syndrome,
(a birth defect with more than the
normal number of fingers or toes);
 • Hermaphrodism- presence of
two genitalias, occurrence:
1:20,000
occurrence: 1:25,000-50,000
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• TURNER’S SYNDROME
• Short/plump,
• absence of menstruation
(amenorrhea), infertility,
and a
number of abnormalities
that
may involve facial
 appearance
and internal organs such as
heartand kidneys (another is “
webbed” neck);
• problems of infertility and height
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
• usually not detected until adulthood;
• the microscopic structure of the
testes is abnormal
and no sperm production occurs,
leading to
infertility,
• tall and may have poor muscular
development and
enlarged breasts; l
• Low sensuality and impotence are common in this
condition
• tend to be passive and have relatively low ambition
and or drive, due perhaps to testosterone
deficiency;
• they are also deficient in verbal intelligence.

GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• SUPERMALE SYNDROME
• tend to be taller than normal
males,
and also tend to have severe
cases of
acne during adolescence, and
many of
them score below average on
intelligence tests, although their
 mental deficiencies are typically not
profound; crimes committed by
supermales are largely non-violent
property offenses, such as theft,
rather than violent and aggressive
acts;
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
on intelligence tests
• POLY X SYNDROME • Their intellectual deficits are
detectable as early as age 2; for
• a group, they are quite normal in
example, XXX females lag behind
appearance, and remain fertile;
in important developmental
moreover, they produce children
milestones such as the onset of
who have the usual number of X
walking and talking, and these
chromosomes; most poly-X
early indicators help predict later
females perform below average
deficits in their intellectual
 functioning.
GENETIC/BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

1) In vitro (in glass) fertilization- test tube

babies 2) AID (Artificial Insemination by a
Donor) 3) Surrogate motherhood
4) Cloning/mapping
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Babyhood-2nd week to 2nd yr 4)
1) Prenatal- fertilization-birth) Early childhood-2nd yr-6th yr
2) Infancy- birth to 2 wks 3)
5) Late childhood- 6th year-10th
 year matured)20-40y.o.
6) Puberty (Pubertas-age of 10) Middle Adulthood-40-60
manhood)-10-12y.o. y.o. 11)
7) Early Adolescence (Adolescere Senescence(Senescere-to grow
to grow to maturity)12-15y.o old)/old age/Late
8) Late Adolescence-15-20y.o adulthood- 60 to death
9) Early Adulthood(Adultus
PRENATAL STAGE- The most important stage
of life
1) Germinal Period
nd
fertilization to 2 week
of conception
2) Embryonic- 2 week to 8
weeks

3) Fetal- 8 weeks to birth

INFANCY
1) Partunate (15-20 minutes after
birth)
2) Neonate (20 minutes to 2nd week

after
birth)

• Major Adjustments:
1) Temperature BABYHOOD
2) Breathing • True foundation period of
3) Taking nourishment life
4) Elimination • Age of helplessness
• Senses: • Reacts mostly on reflexes
1) Smell, taste & touch-developed • Reflexes:
at birth
• Darwinian- grasps tightly
2) Vision- after 1-2 days
• Moro-startles
3) Hearing-after 3-4 days
• Pupillary- closes eye
 • Sucking-sucks anything that
touch the lips
• Rooting- turning head when
cheeks/mouth is touched
• Babinski- fanning out of
• Swimming- well baby’s toes when sole is
coordinated movements touched

CHILDHOOD STAGE
• Early Childhood- 2-6
• Is the age of curiosity
• Is preschool stage
• Late Childhood-6-10
• Is considered the age of
conformity
• Is the start of formal schooling
stage
PUBERTY STAGE
• Phases: Prepubescent,
Pubescent, Postpubescent
• Age of confusion
• Transitory stage being
asexual to sexual being
• Physical changes
occur • Girls: Menarche
• Boys: Nocturnal Emission
ADOLESCENCE STAGE
• Early and Late
adolescence • Rebellion
stage
• Period of storm and stress •
Emotional changes are at
peak
• Listens more to peers than
to parents
• Age of experimenting
(relationships, and different
 experiences)
ADULTHOOD STAGE
1) Early Adulthood – the settling down age
2) Middle Adulthood- midlife crisis
3) Late Adulthood- period of decline
 Age Groups in Late Adulthood

• The Young Old, or Old Age (65-74 years of

age)
• The Old Old, or Late Old Age (75 years and
older)
• The Oldest Old (85 years and older)

Older Adults instead of Elderly • The

term, elderly is ageist (Avers, et al., 2011). Ageist terms promulgates a stereotype
and treatment is delivered differently on the basis of age (Palmore, 1999). The
 term elderly is often used to describe frail individuals; without applying the
well-known and valid criteria of frailty (Fried, 2001).
• In 1995, the United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural
Rights of Older Persons rejected the term elderly in preference for the term
older persons (Avers, et al., 2011) and the International Longevity Center,
recommended the term older adults over senior and elderly (Dahmen
&Cozma, 2009)

NEURODEVELOPMENTAL
DISORDERS
NORMALITY VS. • Lack of significant
deviation from the
ABNORMALITY average
NORMAL BEHAVIOR • Behavior which is
acceptable by the
 society or set norms norms
• Conformity/complianc • Non acceptable
e to usual, • In conflict with social
satisfactory/moderate expectations
reactions or response
• Maladaptive=interferes
with optimal
functioning of an
individual or groups
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
• Deviation from social
Detecting Delays or Disabilities
• The child is known to have risk factors by history or exam;
• The child presents physical findings or medical conditions commonly
 associated with delays or disabilities (e.g., problems with cognition,
mobility, language, sensory perception, feeding, sleeping, elimination,
or temperament); or
• The child manifests delays or fails to achieve developmental
milestones on time
Risk Factors for Developmental Disabilities
• Chromosomal anomaly
• Neurological disorder
• Inborn error of metabolism
• Visual or hearing impairment
• Prematurity
• Asphyxia or need for ventilator assistance
• Central nervous system infection or abnormality
• Toxin exposure in utero
 • Severe injury, accident, illness, or other trauma
• Parent with a developmental disability
HOW IS DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY

DIAGNOSED? DEVELOPMENTAL SCREENING DEVELOPMENTAL

EVALUATION

• A developmental screening is used to specialist.

tell if children are learning basic skills • A diagnosis cannot be made simply by
when they should, or if they might have using a screening test. If the results of a
problems. There is no lab or blood test screening test suggest a child may have
to tell if your child may have a delay a developmental delay, the child should
the developmental screening will be referred for a developmental
and
help evaluation.
tell if the child needs to see a
• A developmental evaluation is an in- in only one area, the child might be
referred to a specialist in that area such
depth assessment of a child’s skills and as a physical or occupational therapist
should be administered by a highly or speech and language pathologist. In
trained professional, such as a some cases, the child’s development
developmental psychologist; may be assessed by the communities
developmental pediatrician or pediatric early intervention program.
neurologist. If the delays are suspected
What are Neurodevelopmental Disorders?
• Are a group of conditions with onset in the developmental period.
• Typically manifest early in development, often before the child enters
grade school
• Characterized by developmental deficits that produce impairments of
personal, social, academic or occupational functioning.
• Range of developmental deficits varies from very specific limitations
of learning to global impairments of social skills or intelligence
• Frequently co-occur; ex. ASD with intellectual disability and ADHD
with learning disability
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
• Intellectual Disabilities
• Communication Disorders
• Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder • Specific Learning Disorder
• Neurodevelopmental Motor Disorders
 affecting personal
INTELLECTUAL independence and social
responsibility
DISABILITIES • Deficits in • Diagnosis given to children under 5
years old
general
Unspecified Intellectual Disability
• Diagnosis given to children over 5 years old.
Assessment is difficult because of associated
sensory or physical ailment, problem behaviors
or mental disorder
Global Developmental Delay
mental abilities, • Risk factors: Genetic and
academic learning and Physiological (perinatal and
postnatal)
learning from experience
• Gender Related Diagnostic Issues: More
• There are impairments in males than females
adaptive functioning
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
• Include deficits in • Risk factors: Genetic and
language, speech and Physiological: are highly
communication. Begin in heritable, if there is
early life and produce history in the family of
lifelong impairments • language, speech and
Language Disorder communication disorders,
• Speech sound Disorder • including autism and
Childhood-onset fluency learning disorders.
disorder (stuttering)
• No Gender-Related
• Social (pragmatic) Diagnostic Issues
communication disorder
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
 • Risk factors: (1)Genetic and
• Persistent deficits in social physiological-heritability, 37-
communication and social 90%, others genetic mutations
interaction across multiple and polygenic
contexts and restricted, (2) Environmental-advanced
repetitive patterns of parental age, low birth weight,
behavior, interest or fetal exposure to toxins
activities
• Symptoms present in the
early developmental
period and there is • Gender Related Diagnostic
impairment in social, Issues: four times more often in
male than in females.
occupational functioning
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
inattention, disorganization
• Defined by impairing levels of and/ or
 hyperactivity-impulsivity. child abuse, neglect, multiple
foster placements, toxin exposure,
• In childhood, ADHD frequently infections (3) Genetic and
overlaps with disorders such as physiological (4) Course modifiers
family interaction patterns
oppositional-defiant and
conduct disorders.
• Gender-Related Diagnostic
• Persists in adulthood Issues: more frequent in males
• Risk factors: (1) Temperamental than in females. Females have
negative behavioral and more inattentive features than
emotionality; (2) Environmental males.
very low birth weight, history of

SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER

of formal schooling with
• Difficulties learning and using persistent and impairing
academic skills difficulties with learning
• First manifests during the years foundational academic skills in
reading, writing and/or math. effective
• Risk Factors: (1) Environmental academic interventions.
prematurity or low birth weight and
prenatal exposure to
nicotine (2) Genetic and • Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues:
physiological- family history (3) course More common to males than females.
modifiers- inattentive behavior in
preschool years and nonresponse to
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL MOTOR DISORDERS
behavior
• Developmental Coordination
• Tic Disorders- sudden, rapid,
Disorder- clumsiness and slow
recurrent, non-rhythmic motor
and inaccurate motor skills
movement or vocalization
• Stereotypic Movement • Risk factors: (1) Genetic and
Disorder repetitive, seemingly physiological (2)
Temperamental (tics-anxiety,
driven, purposeless motor excitement)(3) Environmental-
(tics-observed by authoritative figures) Males are more commonly affected than
(4) course modifiers-co morbid with otherfemales. Women with persistent tic disorders
disorders more likely to develop anxiety and
depression.

• Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues: (Tics)

OTHER NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS

disorder- situations are presented by
• Symptoms exhibited are characteristic
of having a neurodevelopmental clinician, with specific reason (ex. Due to
disorders that cause impairment in prenatal alcohol exposure)
social, • Unspecified neurodevelopmental
occupational or other important areas of
functioning but do not meet the full disorder-
having inadequate information,
criteria for any of the thus, clinician chooses not to specify the
neurodevelopmental disorders reason not met
• Risk factors: (1) Genetic and
• Other specified neurodevelopmental physiological (2)
Temperamental (tics-anxiety, Males are more commonly affected than
excitement)(3) Environmental- females. Women with persistent tic disorders
(tics-observed by authoritative figures) more likely to develop anxiety and
(4) course modifiers-co morbid with otherdepression.
disorders

• Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues: (Tics)

THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSYCHODYNAMI
C PERSPECTIVE
• S. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
• Freud was a practicing neurologist who formulated his theory of human
development from his analyses of his emotionally disturbed patients’ life
histories. Seeking to relieve their nervous symptoms and anxieties, he relied
heavily on such methods as hypnosis, free association (a quick spilling out of
one’s thoughts), and dream analysis, because they gave some indication of
unconscious motives that patients had repressed (that is, forced out of their
conscious awareness). By analyzing these motives and the events that caused
their repression, Freud concluded that human development is a conflictual
process: As biological creatures, we have basic sexual and aggressive instincts
that must be served; yet society dictates that many of these drives must be
restrained. According to Freud, the ways in which parents manage these sexual
and aggressive urges in the first few years of their child’s life play a major role
in shaping their children’s personalities.

Structure of personality/ provinces of

 the mind
on Reality Principle. Uses defense
1) ID (da Es, ‘it’)- most primitive part of mechanisms to
defend itself against anxiety, from
the mediation of divergent forces.
mind. At birth it is pure, natural,
3) SUPEREGO (da Uber-Ich, ‘over-I’)-
instinctual and exists completely on
the unconscious level. It demands represents the moral and ideal
immediate satisfaction of bodily aspects of personality and is guided
needs and governed by Pleasure by Moralistic & Idealistic Principles. It
Principle. It is unrealistic, illogical and grows out of the ego, but has no
entertain incompatible ideas. contact with reality, therefore is
2) EGO (das Ich, ‘I’)-in contact with unrealistic in its demands for
perfection. It is divided to conscience
reality.
Mediates with Id and Superego
and deals with the external world. Acts
 and ego-ideal.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

• Every child goes through a

sequence of developmental
stages
and these experiences
determine
personality characteristics that
will
persist in a lifetime. These
developmental stages is almost
exclusively a discussion of early
childhood and that adult
personality is formed by the end of
5th year of life. Each stage has an
erogenous zone as the source of
stimulation and pleasure.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE
• Erik Erickson believed that an individual faces a wide range of human
relations in growing up where each stage has a crisis to be faced and if
resolved positively will lead to healthy interaction with his
environment.
• Proposed the Ego Psychology, also known as Contemporary Psychoanalytic
or Ego Psychology
• Developmental stages extends from infantile into adolescence, adulthood,
 and old age, with specific struggle contributing to the personality
formation.
• From the struggle in adolescence, identity crisis is formed—a turning point

in one’s life that may either strengthen or weaken personality. • Elaborated

the psychosexual stages beyond childhood, placing more emphasis on both
social and historical influences.
7 BASIC POINTS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
OF DEVELOPMENT
3) The conflict produces an ego
1) Growth takes place according
quality or ego strength (basic
to the epigenetic principle
strength)
2) There is an interaction of
4) Too little basic strength results
opposites in every stage:
to core pathology
Syntonic and Dystonic
5) Biological aspect of human
 development is considered in 7) From adolescence forward,
the psychosocial stages personality development is
6) Ego identity is shaped by a characterized by an identity
multiplicity of conflicts and crises.
events
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage Psychosexual Mode Strength Pathology Important events
Psychosocial Crisis Basic Core Significant Relations
Hope Withdrawal Maternal Feeding
Infancy Oral-Respiratory Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust
Childhood Autonomy vs. Shame, Doubt Toilet Training
Anal-urethral muscular Will Compulsion Parents
Early

Play Age Infantile-genital Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Inhibition Family Exploration School Age Latency Industry vs.
Neighborhood,
Inferiority Competence Inertia SchoolSchool

Adolescence Puberty Identity vs. Identity Fidelity Role repudiation

Confusion Peer groups Social Relationships
 Relationships responsibilities
Work and Parenthood
Young
Adulthood Adulthood Proactivity Generativity vs. Old Age Generalization of sensual modes
Genitality Intimacy vs. Isolation Love Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Disdain
Sexual Whole humanity
Exclusivity partners,
Care Rejectivity
Divided labor,
household
friends, spouse Reflection in Life

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE

• Jean Piaget theorized that children undergo qualitative
changes in thinking as they grow older. Piaget depicted these
changes as series of stages.
• To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive
reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological
maturation and environmental experience. Children
construct an understanding of the world around them, then
 experience discrepancies between what they already know
and what they discover in their environment.
STAGE AGE COGNITIVE CHANGES

Sensory-motor Birth to age 2 Acquire object permanence, understands that things continue to
exist even when out of sight
Preoperationals Ages 2-7 Become increasingly adept at using mental presentations, and language
assumes an important role in describing,
remembering and reasoning about the
world
Concrete-operational Ages 7-11 Able to pay attention to more than one factor at a time and can
understand
someone else’s point of view
Formal -operational Ages 11 and older Acquire the ability to think abstractly and test ideas mentally
using logic.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE

 • Lawrence Kohlberg developed a stage theory about the
development of thinking but focused exclusively on moral
thinking. He proposed that children at different levels of
moral reasoning base their moral choices on different
factors.
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout
the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six stages of moral
development within three different levels.
LEVEL AGE MORAL REASONING STAGES
2nd stage: Children conform to social expectations in the
Pre-conventional morality hope of gaining
Early childhood 1st stage: Children are obedience-and rewards
punishment-oriented in the sense that they judge acts as
right or wrong in terms of physical consequences
Conventional morality Late childhood 1st stage: ‘Good Boy Morality’ –children conform to rules to win approval of others
and maintain good relationships.
2nd stage: if the social group accepts rules as appropriate for all group
members, they should conform to them to avoid social disapproval and
censure.
2nd stage: individuals conform to both social standards and
Post conventional morality to internalized ideals to avoid self-condemnation rather
st
Adolescence 1 stage: the individual believes that there than to avoid social censure.
should be flexibility in moral beliefs to make it possible to Morality is based on respect for others rather than on
modify and change moral standards if this will be personal desires.
advantageous to group members as a whole.

LEARNING/BEHAVIORISTIC PERSPECTIVE
• The learning viewpoint, or behaviorism, originated with John
B. Watson:
• Viewed infants as tabula rasa who develop habits from
 learning experiences
• Viewed development as a continuous process
• Viewed the environment as responsible for the direction of
individuals’ development
LEARNING/BEHAVIORISTIC
PERSPECTIVE ■ B. F. Skinner proposed operant
learning theory:
• Claimed that development reflects the operant conditioning of
children who are passively shaped by the reinforcers and
punishments that accompany their behaviors
■ Albert Bandura proposed cognitive social-learning
theory: • Viewed children as active information processors
• Viewed observational learning as the source of children’s
learning • Rejected Watson’s environmental determinism
• Proposed reciprocal determinism in which children have a hand in
creating the environments that influence their development
BIOLOGICAL/ETHOLOGICAL/EVOLUTIONA
L PERSPECTIVE

• Views humans as born with adaptive attributes that have evolved through
natural selection
• Says that adaptive attributes channel development to promote
survival • Views humans as influenced by their experiences
• Argues that certain adaptive characteristics are most likely to develop
during sensitive periods, provided that the environment fosters this
development
• Emphasizes that humans’ biologically influenced attributes affect the kind
of learning experiences they are likely to have
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
• Views
■ Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed the ecological systems theory:
development as the product of transactions be- tween an ever-
changing
person and an ever-changing environment • Bronfenbrenner proposes that
the natural environment actually consists of interacting contexts or systems:
• Microsystem (relationships and interactions), mesosystem (links),
exosystem (influences of development)
• Macrosystem (educational, legal, cultural), chronosystem (transitions,
 sociohistorical)
• This detailed analysis of person-environment interactions has stimulated
many new interventions to optimize development.
RESEARCH STRATEGIES:
• Self-report methodologies: interviews, questionnaires and the clinical
method
• Observational methodologies: naturalistic, time-sampling,
structured • Case studies: individual or multiple
• Ethnography: participant observation, longitudinal, cultural context •
Psychophysiological methods: physiological responses and behaviors •
Detecting relationships: Correlational, Experimental and Cross-cultural
designs
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
1) Protection from harm: the right of research participants to be protected from
physical or psychological harm.
2) Informed consent: the right of research participants to receive an explanation, in
language they can understand, of all aspects of research that may affect their
willingness to participate.
3) Confidentiality: the right of participants to concealment of their identity with respect
to the data that they provide.
4) Benefits-to-risks ratio: a comparison of the possible benefits of a study for advancing
knowledge and optimizing life conditions versus its costs to participants in terms of
inconvenience and possible harm.
5) Deception/debriefing/knowledge of results: children also have the right to be
informed, in language they can understand, of the results of the research in which
 they have participated.
Developmental Issues
• Nature vs. Nurture- Involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or
nurture
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity- This issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual,
cumulative change or distinct stages
• Stability vs. Change- This issue involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early
experience or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in
development. It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences
are the key determinants of a person’s development.
• Activity vs. passivity- Issue whether if the individual is of more in control with surroundings or having less
control with behaviors. One might see development as more a product of the environment or social
influences or due to biological changes.
• Universal vs. particular-universal development- Issue about children learning to do the same or developing
in the same way no matter what culture they come from or that it is contextual, that the aspects of the
child's life would be directly affected by their culture.
CHILDREN
• "Children" refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or
those over but are unable to fully take care of themselves or
protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or
discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or
condition (RA 7610)
• Generation Z from 2003 to 2010 and Generation Alpha 2011-
present
• Stages of Psychosocial Development: Basic trust and Mistrust (0-
1.5 years old) to Identity vs Role Confusion (12-17)
Who are the Children with
 Exceptionalities?
• Children who have emotional and mental health needs which include: Intellectual
disability, which causes them to develop more slowly than other children. Speech and
Language Impairment, such as a problem expressing themselves or understanding
others. Physical Disability, such as vision problem, cerebral palsy, or other conditions.
Learning Disabilities, which distort messages from their senses. Emotional Disabilities,
such as restricted social skills and interaction, impulsiveness, or difficulty in following
rules and others.
• Children who differ from the norm, either above or below, in physical attributes or
learning ability to such an extent that they need specialized educational services or
physical accommodations to benefit fully from schooling (Heward, 2012).
• The “exceptional” rubric is preferred to terms involving disabilities, impairments or
handicaps because it includes gifted and especially talented children.
• Twice-exceptional (2e children/students) intellectually gifted children who have oner or
more neurodevelopmental or other mental disorders (ADHD, ASD, dyslexia)

What are the usual reactions/signs of socio

emotional and mental health issues?
• Isolation from friends and family
• Changes in appetite (eating a lot or very little)
• Changes in sleep (sleeping too much or not enough)
• Changes with friendships (not wanting to see friends)
• Changes in grades (not doing their homework, failing
classes) • Changes in mood (being weepy, withdrawn, or
irritable)
• Risky behaviors (self-harming, expressing suicidal thoughts, running away,

etc.) • Increased irritability

• Loss of interest in activities they enjoy
• Avoidance of things, people, or activities
WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT MARKERS TO
IDENTIFY IF THERE IS A MENTAL HEALTH
ISSUE?

• DEVIATION (not acceptable behaviors according to societal

norms)
• DURATION (persistence of symptom/s, frequency)
• DISTRESS (aversive, self-focused emotional reaction, e.g.
anxiety, worry, discomfort)
• DYSFUNCTION (unable to perform expected social roles)
• DANGER (violation of rights and the rights of others, e.g.
violence, self-harming)
WHAT MAY BE DONE TO ADDRESS THESE
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL AND MENTAL
HEALTH ISSUES?
1) A MULTI-METHOD ASSESSMENT OF MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES: Classroom and
home observations, parent and teacher rating scales, parent and teacher
interviews, direct screening and interviews of the child. An assessment report
with diagnosis and recommendation for a treatment plan will be achieved.
2) THERAPY FOR CHILDREN WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES WITH MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES:
Psychological therapy to treat mental health conditions or help manage symptoms
to achieve socio-adaptive, emotional and mental functioning.
3) MEDICATION AS RECOMMENDED: Medication should be used if other options,
like therapy, aren’t effective, and should be part of a comprehensive treatment
plan.
4) INTENSIVE CARE OPTIONS: Emergency hospitalization will be needed if the child
is expressing or behaving in a way that is endangering themselves and others. 5)
RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT: Recommended for children who do not respond to
outpatient services or have significant mental or behavioral health needs.