Data ACquis1tion and Conversion 9t

which information is accurately converted, sample-hold circuits are used.

(In some cases, for analog signals with extra-wide range, logarithmic con
CHAPTER version is used.)
A schematic block diagram of a General Data Acquisition System (DAS) is
shown in Fig. 17.1.

17 Data Acquisition and

Conversion
Transducer
1
Signal
Conditioner Analog
data
Recorders
Desplay
Printer

Meter Digital
Transducer Signal Display
2
Conditioner
- A/D
Converter
Magnetic
Tape
Transducer Signal
Conditioner Transmission
3
e
Computer
171 INTRODUCTION Transducer Signal Processing
Conditioner
4
sensors with the 4
A typical data acquisition system consists of individual
necessary signal conditioning, data conversion, data processing, multiplexing, Fig. 17.1 GeneralisedData Acquisition System
data handling and associated transmission, storage and display systems.
Inorder to optimise the characteristics of the system in terms of performance, The characteristics of the data acquisition system depend on both the prop
together.
handiing capacity and cost, the relevant sub systems can be combined for the erties of the analog data and on the processing carried out.
form
Analog data is generally acquired and converted into digital Based on the environment, a broad classification divides the DAS into two
purpose of processing, transmission, display and storage. ranging from simple categories.
Processing may consist of a large variety of operations, 1. Those suitable for favourable environments (minimum RF interference
can be for such
Comparison to complicated mathematical manipulations. It and electromagnetic induction)
converting the data
purposes as collecting information (averages, statistics), torque and
2. Those intended for hostile environments
into a useful form (e.g., calculations of efficiency of motor speed, The former category may include, among other, laboratory instrument
data for controlling a process, performing
power input developed), using noise, generating applications, test systems for collecting long term dritt information on zeners,
repeated calculations to separate signals buried in the high calibration test instruments, and routine measurements in research, as mass
information for display, and various other purposes. spectrometers and lock-in amplifiers. In these, the systems are designed to
another)or
Datamay be transmitted over long distances (from one point to perform tasks oriented more towards making sensitive measurements
than to
short distances (from test centre to a nearby PC). problems of protecting the integrity of analog data.
CRT. The same be
The data may be displayed on a digital panel or on a The second category specifically includes measure. protecting the integrity
immediate use) or permanently for ready reference later. conditions arise
stored temporarily (for
collecting the input data of the analog data under hostile conditions. [Link]
Data acquisition generally relates to the process of in aircraft control systems, turbovisous in electrical power systems,
and in
in digital form as rapidly, accurately, and economically as necessary. The basic industrial process control systems.
or a
instrumentation used may be a DPM with digital outputs, a shaft digitiser, Most of these hostile measurement conditions require devices
capable of a
sophisticated high speed resolution device. operations, excellent shielding, redundant paths for
sensor, some formof wide range of temperature
To match the input requirements with the output of the critical [Link] considerable proçessing of the digital
data.
amplifier/
Scaling and offsetting is necessary, and this is achieved by the use of On the other hand, laboratory measurements are
performed over a narrow
sensitivity
employing high
attenuators.
either temperature range with much less electrical noise,
For converting analog information from more than one source, and precision devices for higher accuracies and resolution.
idditional transducers or multiplexers are employed. To increase the speed with
 Data ACquisitionand Conversion s 50)
598 Electronic Instrumentation

down the input gains, this is to mat

The important factors that decide the contiguration and sub systems of the A simple attenuator, is used to scale
data acquisition system are as follows. scale range.
the input signal level to the converter" fullfrom
1. Accuracy and resolution Linearisation of the data, for example the thermocouple Wheatstone's
2. Number of channels to be monitored techniques using either linear approximation, or
bridge, is performed by analog amplifier.
3. Analog or digital signal smooth series approximation using a low cost IC digitally after data acqut
4. Single channel or multichannel Alternately linear approximation can be performedsuitable linearisation table
(storing a
5. Sampling rate per channel sition and conversion by the use of ROMs
6. Signal conditioning requirements of each channel or programme initially).
averaging, phase detec
7. Cost
Analog differentiation, precision rectification and dividers and many other
The various general configurations include the following. conversion, ratio computation using
tion, logarithmic
1. Single channel possibilities types of processors are used, before DAS. are particularly applicable with
(i) Direct conversion
Two methods of signal conditioning which conversion, and (ii) logarithm
(iü) Pre-amplification and direct conversion advantage to data acquisition are (i) ratiometric
(iii) Sample and hold, and conversion conversion.
(iv) Pre-amplification, signal conditioning and any of the above
2. Multi channel possibilities 17.3.1 Ratiometric Conversion
(i) Multiplexing the outputs of single channel converters bridge. Tne
(ii) Multiplexing the output of sample-hold circuits Consider a transducer using four strain gauges in a Wheatstone's
strain gauge in
resistance of the
output voltage is a function of the change in
(iii) Multiplexing the inputs of sample-hold circuits
(iv) Multiplexing low level data each of the four arms, and the excitation voltage of the bridge.
If the strain gauges are under maximum
but constant unbalance and if the
varies by + x0.
excitation varies by + x%, the output of the bridge also
output of the
17.2 OBJECTIVE OF A DAS However, if the bridge output is conditioned in such a way that the
independent of
signal amplifier a voltage proportional to the strain only and
improves, since variations in the
1. It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at the correct the excitation voltage, the system accuracy
time. excitation voltage do not affect the sensitivity of the system.
divider to
2. Use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the The analog method of achieving this is to incorporate an analog the output
plant. which the amplifier output and excitation voltage are fed, so that excitation
the
3. It must monitor the complete plant operation to maintain on-line optimum voltage of the divider is the ratio of the amplifier output voltage to
and safe operations. voltage.
4. It must provide an effective human communication system and be able to External
identify problem areas, thereby minimising unit availability and maxi Reference
mising unit through point at minimum cost. R1
5. It must be able to collect, summarise and store data for diagnosis of Instrumentation A/D
Buffer
Amplifier Converter
operationand record purpose.
6. It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line, real
time data.
7. It must be flexible and capable of being expanded for future require
RA
ments.
8. It must be reliable. and not have a down time greater than 0.1%.
Fig. 17.2Ratiometric Conversion
17.3LSTGNAL CONDITIONING OF THE INPUTS One method, as shown in Fig. 17.2, is to feed the bridge excitation voltage
as an external reference voltage tothe analog/digital converter, in which the
Since all the data that haye to be acquired, do not generally originate from conversion factor is proportional to the reference voltage. The system sensiti
identical sources, signal conditioning becomes necessary in some cases. vity is therefore independent of the excitation voltage.
 600 ss Eectronic nstrunentaton Data Acquisition and Conversion 601

To
17.3.2 Logarithm Compression (Conversion) A/D
Buffer
Computer
Converter Print Out/
A logarithm compression circuit enables the measurement of a fractional Storage
change in the input as a percentage of the input magnitude rather than a
percentage of a range.
For example, for an input in he rang of 100 uV to 100 mV, the output Convert
Command
voltage may corespond to 0 for 100uV and 3 V for 100 mV,if the logarithm
conversion gain is 1% per decade. Fig. 17.3 Single Channel DAS
Consider now a change of 1%, i.e. the input changes from 100 mV to
101 mV. The output of the logarithm amplifier would change by 4:1 Analog to Digital Converters (A/D)
AV= (log 1.01) x 1V=4.3 mV Analog to digital converters used for DAS applications are usually designed to
where 1.01 is the ratio of the inputs, 101 mVI100 mV. receive external commands to convert and hold. For dc and low frequency
Since the output change is related to the ratio of the input, it is evident that signals, adual slope type converter is often used. The advantage is that it has a
the change in output is the same, i.e. 4.3 mV, whether the input changes from linear averaging capability and has a null response for frequencies harmonically
10.0 mV to 10.1 mV or from 100uV to 101 uV. related to the integrating period.
If the logarithm amplifier output is converted into digital output using a 12 (Generally, the integrating time is selected equal to the period of the line
bit BCD converter, the resolution of the converter would be 3 V/1000 =3 mV frequency, since a major portion of the system interference occurs at this
for a 3 V full scale. provided the output of the logarithm amplifier is scaled frequency and its harmonics.)
properly. A/D converters based on dual slope techniques are useful for conversion of
in the presence of
low frequency data, such as from thermnocouples, especially applications
With this resolution of the converter, it is possible to monitor and record data system is the
noise. The most popular type of converter for
changes as low as 1 uV for an input of 100 V or 10 V for 1mV. If no
logarithm amplifier had been used, the resolution would have been 100 V successive approximation type (refer to Ch. 5), since it is capable of high resolu
(100mV/1000 = 100 uV). Hence a 110 to 1 improvement is possible using a tion and high speed at moderate cost. (For a conversion time of 10 uS, the
is a
maximum dv/dr for full scale and 0.1% resolution is about 1 V/ms, which
logarithm amplifier. considerable improvement.)
Higher speeds are obtained by preceding the A/D converter by a sample hold
174 SIEGLE CHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (SIH). The sample hold is particularly required with successive approximation
type A/D converters, since at higher rates of input change the latter generates
substantial non-linearity errors because it cannot tolerate changes during the
A single channel data acquisition system consists of a signal conditioner conversión process.
followed by an analog to digital (AD) converter, performing repetitive Direct digital conversion carried out near the signal source is very advanta
conversions at a free running, internally determined rate. The outputs are in geous in cases where data needs to be transmitted through a noisy environ
digital code words including over range indication, polarity information and a ment. Even witha high level signal of 10 V,an 8 bit converter (1/256 resolution)
status output to indicate when the output digits are valid. can prodye 1 bit ambiguity when affected by noise of the order of 40 mV.
Asingle channel DAS is shown in Fig. 17.3. The digital outputs are further 17.4.2 Pre-amplification and Filtering
fed to astorage or printout device, or to adigital computer device, or to adigital
computer for analysis. The popular Digital panel Meter (DPM) is a well known Many low resolution (8/10 bit) A/D converters are constructed with a singl
example of this. However. there are two major drawbacks in using it as a DAS. ended input and have a normalised analog input range of the order of 5-10 V,
1. It is slow and the BCD has to be changed into binary coding, if theoutput bipolar or unipolar. For signal levels which are low compared tojnput
is to be processed by digital equipment. requirements, amplification may be used in order to bríng up the level of the
. While it is free running, the data from the A/D converter is transferred to input to match converter input requirements, so that optimum use can be made
he interface register at a rate determined by the DPM itself, rather than in terms of accuraçy and resolution. The amplifier used has a single ended input
commands beginning from the external interface. or a differential input, as shown in Fig. 17,4.
 +Vcc Data Acquisition and
W R2 R
17.5.1 Multi-Channel Analog Conversion e tt.

The málti-channel DAS has a Multiplexed System

-VEE as shown in Fig. single A/D converter by a preceded
17.5. muitiplexer.
+Vcc Conversion Command
e
Analog Scaling.
Gain
A3 A/D Signal Amplification,
Converter Buffer 1 Signal
Conditioning
1

-Vcc -VEE Status

R To Scaling.
R3 Ra Computer Analog
A2 or Signal Amplification,
Signal
2
Transmission Conditioning
System 2
eom -VEE
Muitiplexer
Analog Pre-amplifier Gain=1000 Analog Scaling.
Signal Amplification,
Signal
3
Fig. 17.4 DAS with Pre-amplificatiön Conditioning
3

If the signal levels are below a tenth of an mV, or

when resolution of 14 bits Scaling,
or 16 bits is needed, the use of differential Analog Amplification,
amplifiers can become a necessity.
When differential output has to be handled from a bridge Signal Signal
4
mentation amplifiers are employed. network, instru Conditioning
4
S/H A/D Buffer
The accuracy, linearity and gain stability specifications should be carefully To Computer
considered, to ensure the system is not affected by any limitations. jLogic or Data
Transmission
If the input signals are to be physically isolated from [Link], the
Fig. 17.5 Multi-channel DAS (A/D Preceded by a Multiplexer)
conductive paths are broken by using a transformer coupled or an optocoupled
isolation [Link] techniques are advantageous in handling signals from
high voltage sources and transmission towers. In biomedical applications such The individual analog signals are applied directly or after amplitication and/or
isolation becomes essential.
signal conditioning, whenever necessary, to the multiplexer. These are further
converted to digital signals by the use of AD converters, sequentially.
Pre-amplifiers can be coupled with active filters before processing of data, in For the most efficient utilisation of time, the multiplexer is made to seek the
order to minimise the effect of noise carriers and interfering high frequency next channel to be converted while the previous data stored in the sample/hold
components. They effective compensate for transmission sensitivity loss at high is converted to digital form.
frequency and hence enable measurements over an enhanced dynamic When the conversion is complete, the status line from the converter causes
frequency range. the sample/hold to return to the sample mode and acquires the signal of the next
Special purpose filters, such as tracking filters, are used for preserving channel. On completion of acquisition, either immediately or upon command,
phase dependent data. the S/H is switched to the hold mode, a conversion begins again and the
multiplexer selects the next channel. This method is relatively slower than
MULTI-CHANNEL DAS systems where SH outputs or even A/D converter outputs are multiplexed, but
bas the obvious advantage of low cost due to sharing of a majority of
sub-systems.
The various sub-systems of the DAS can be time shared by two or more input Sufficient accuracy in measurements can be achieved even without the S/H,
sources. Depending on [Link] properties of the multiplexed system, a in cases where signal variations are extremely slow.
number of techniques are employed for such time shared measurements.
 605
604 meElectronic Instrumentation Data Acqsistin and Conversion

many strain gauges.

17.5.2 Muitiplexingthe Outputs of Samnple/Hold advantages in industrial data acquisition systerns where areas. Since the
thermocouples and LVDTs are distributed over large plant
When alarge number of channels are to be monitored at the same time the digital transmission of the data to
analog signals are digitised at the source, can
to a communication channel)
(synchronously) but at moderate speeds, the technique of multiplexing the the data centre (from where it can go on
outputs of the S/H is particularly attractive. provide enhanced immunity against line frequency and other ground loop
perform logic
An individual S/H is assigned to each channel as shown in Fig. 17.6, and interferences. The data converted to digital form is used tochanges occur in
they are updated synchronously by a timing circuit. decisions. Based on the relative speed at which
operations and
decreased.
the data, the scanning rate can be increased or
Sample/
Conditioning Hold
(SH) Analog Data
AD Processor Buffer
SIH
for Signal
Conditioning
Digital
Signal (SH)
S/H A/D Processor Buffer Multiplexer

After To
Transmission
Buffer
Inputs (S/H) Multiplexer A/D Interface or
Processing
SIH AWD Processor

system
Sub-channels
Analog
(SH) Multiplexer
Timing

Fig. 17.7 Multi-channelDAS Using Digital Multiplexing

(SH)
Alternatively, input channels having slowly varying data can be pre
Timing
multiplexed in any of the forms suggested earlier, so that a set of sequentially
multiplexed sub channels can then replace one channel of the main digital
Fig. 17.6 Simultaneous Sampled System Multiplexer multiplexçd system, as indicated in Fig. 17.7.
The S/H outputs are connected to an A/D converter through
a multiplexer,
17.5, Multiplexing Low Level Data
resulting in a sequential readout of the outputs. measure A low level data multiplexing system, as shown in Fig. 17.8, enables the use of
(Applications that might require this approach include wind tunnel a single high quality data amplifier for handling multichannel low level inputs.
seismographic experimentation, radar and fire control systems. The
ments, phenomenon and information is To other Channels
event to be measured is often a one-shot
required at a critical point during a one-shot event.)
Guard

17.5.3 Mukíplexing After A/D Conversion Differential

Input
It now economically feasible to employ
an A/D converter for each analog |:Instrumentation S/H A/D Buffer
Amplifier
input and multiplex the digital outputs. (A/D) is assigned to an individual
Guard

Since each analog to digital converter onlybe as fast as is needed for that Multiple
channel, the conversion rate of the A/D need Switches
would be needed if it were used as in
channel, compared to the higher rates that Fig. 17.8Low Level Multiplexing
a multi channel analog multiplexed system. additional
shown in Fig. 17.7 provides
The parallel conversion scheme
 Data ÁCquisiiohindy
606 Electronic Instrumentation

Individual amplifiers are used for each low level signal. Low level 7. Analy the data and present the derived data, do perlomt
plnt
tions to depict the performance of several equipments and
multiplexing can be attractive when a large number of channels (25), all having operating conditions tin
8. Display alarms, indicating abnormal plant
low level outputs, need to be used at moderate speeds. The use of individual CRT.
channels is possible because of the availability of high quality amplifiers at 9. Provide trending of analog variables on strip chart
revorders. in the tom
moderate cost. (A typical application is a200 channel stress measurement of ahistogram on the CRT, and provide dynamic updating ct paranetes
system in a transmission tower set up.) and various plant
10. Produce ahard copy record of all plant operating events
Several factors have to be consideredtoaccomplish low level multiplexing logs.
successfully. Guarding may have to be employed for every channel, and each 11. Provide a recording of the sequence of events,
whenever an emergen y
individual guard may have to be switched, so that the appropriate guard is OcCurS.
driven by the common mode pertaining to that channel.
Problems of pickup gets more complicated and have to be taken care of, to
preempt the possibility of signal-to-signal, and even common mode-to differen 17.7 DIGITAL TO ANALOG (DIA) AND ANALOG TO
tial mode signal cross-talk. DIGITAL (A/D) CONVERTERS
Capacitance balance may need to be carried out. When the number of
two very important
channels to be multiplexed increases, the problems of stray capacitances and Digital to analog and analog to digital conversion form
capacitive balance are worsened. aspects of digital data processing.
analog infor
In the specific case of a 48 channel system, the input channels are subdivided DIA involves translating digital information into equivalent
digital system might be changed to analog
into groups of eight channels in the first tier. Each of these six subgroups are in mation. For example, the output of a
might be required for the
turn multiplexed by asix channel multiplexer on the second tier. The main form to drive a pen recorder. Similarly, a signal considercd as
can also be
advantage of using this is the reduction of capacitance effects. servo-motors which drive the arms of a plotter. D/A
digital system
adecoding device, since it operates on the output of achanging
used for the reverse process of analog signals
A/D converters are
17.6 COMPUTER BASEDDAS to equivalent binary signals. AD might be used to change analog output signals
pressure, vibration, etc) into
to from transducers (measuring temperature,
If a large number of inputs are to be measured, some equipment is needed is often referred to as an encoding device
equivalent digital signals. An A/D
measure them and display the results in a meaningful and operationally useful A/D conversion
A DIAconverter is usually an integral part of any
fashion. All this is possible with DAS, which utilises a computer driven visual
display unit (CRT) as an operator aid. 17.7.1 Variable Resistor Network
A screen display can be obtained within two seconds by
pressing a button.
equivalent analog signal
Information may be displayed only when called up. The screen display can be The basic problem in converting a digital signal into an
and numeric equivalent analog voltage. This
designed in several ways, using a combination of graphical is to change the n digital voltage levels intoone
which changes
network
displays, soas to be of maximum utility to the operator. can be achieved most easily by designing a resistive
(or current)
DAS aids operate in the following manner. each of the digital levels into an equivalent binary weight voltage
the truth
1. Display information instantly in condensed,
understandable and legible To understand the meaning of equivalent binary weight consider
manner so that it can be easily assimilated. table for the 3 bit binary signal shown in Table 17.1.
variation. Suppose we wish to change the 8 possible states of digital signals into
2. Display spatial as well as time
logically and concisely, equivalent analog voltages. The smallest number represcnted by G00 is OV and
3. Display vital parameters grouped together scattered instruments. the largest number represented is 11l. Let us make this signal equal to + /V
eliminating the need of looking at many
This then establishes the range of the analog signal which will be developed.
4. Display CRT graphic displays of plant sub-systems. as required. Now, between 000 and 111 there are seven discrete levels to be defincd
basis,
5. Display short trends on a long and short term Therefore, it is convenient to divide the analog signal into seven levels,.
6. Analyse the data and present the highest
priority problem first, and
display operator guidance messages.