Class notes on Applied Physics-II-Chapter-6

(Electromagnetism) for Polytechnic

Dr. Nur Hussain

Lecturer in Physics
Chirang Polytechnic
Bijni, Assam

June 30, 2021

Contents

0.1 Magnetic effect of current, nature of magnetic field............. . . . . . . . . . 2

0.2 Electromagnetic induction, emf induced in a coil due to magnet... . . . . . . 12
0.3 Transformer, step up and step down transformer,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
0.4 Previous Years Questions (PYQ)-solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism

Chapter-6-syllabus
1. Magnetic effect of current, nature of magnetic field due to straight, circular conductor
and due to solenoid, Fleming’s left hand rule, effect of current flowing through two
parallel conductors.

2. Electromagnetic Induction, e.m.f. induced in a coil due to magnet, explanation of

Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction, Lenz law, self and mutual induction,
Fleming Right hand rule.

3. Transformer, step up and step down transformer, numerical problems.

1
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

0.1 Magnetic effect of current, nature of magnetic field.............

• Magnetic effect of current: Scientist Oersted showed that a current carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field around it.
• Biot-savart law: The basic equation governing the magnetic field due to a current
distribution is the Biot-Savart law.
→
−
• Statement of Biot-Savart law: As shown in Fig. 1, consider a current element dl of a
conductor XY carrying current I. Let P be the point where the magnetic field dB ~ due
~ is to be calculated. Let the position vector of point P relative
to the current element dl
~
to element dl be ~r. Let θ be the angle between dl ~ and ~r. According to Biot-Savart

Figure 1: Biot-Savart law

~ is,
law, the magnitude of the field dB
1. directly proportional to the current I through the conductor,

dB ∝ I (1)

2. directly proportional to the length of the current element.

dB ∝ dl (2)

3. directly proportional to sinθ

dB ∝ sinθ (3)
4. inversely proportional to the square of the distance r of the point P from the current
element,
1
dB ∝ 2 (4)
r
Combining all these four factors, we get,
I dl sinθ
dB ∝
r2 (5)
I dl sinθ
⇒ dB = K
r2
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 2
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

where, the proportionality constant K depends on the medium between the observation
point P and the current element and the system of units chosen. For free space and SI
units,
µ0
K= = 10−7 T mA−1 (6)
4π
where µ0 is a constant called permeability of free space. Therefore, Biot-Savat law
can be expressed as,
µ0 I dl sinθ
dB = (7)
4π r2
In vector form we can write,
~ ×~r
µ0 I dl
dB = (8)
4π r3

~ The direction of dB
• Direction of dB: ~ is the direction of the vector dl
~ ×~r. It is given
by right hand screw rule. If we place a right handed screw at a point P perpendicular
~ to ~r, then the direction in which
to the plane of the paper and turns it handle from dl
~
the screw advances gives the direction of dB.

• special cases:

1. If θ = 0◦ , sinθ = 0, so that dB = 0, i.e., the magnetic field is zero at the point on

the axis of the current element.
2. If θ = 90◦ , sinθ = 1, so that dB is maximum, i.e., the magnetic field due to a
current element is maximum in a plane passing through the element and perpen-
dicular to its axis.

• SI unit of magnetic field: The SI unit of magnetic field is tesla.

• Definition of one tesla: According to Biot-Savart law:

µ0 I dl sinθ
dB = (9)
4π r2
If I=1A, dl=1m, r=1m, and θ = 90◦ so that sinθ = 1, then,
µ0
dB =
4π
4π × 10−7 (10)
⇒ dB = tesla
4π
⇒ dB = 10−7tesla

Therefore, one tesla is 107 times the magnetic field produced by a conducting wire of
length one metre and carrying current of one ampere at a distance of one metre from
it and perpendicular to it.

• Magnetic field due to a long straight current carrying conductor:

As shown in Fig. 2, consider a straight conductor XY carrying current I. We wish to
find magnetic field at the point P whose perpendicular distance from the wire is a i.e.,
PQ=a. Consider a small element dl ~ of the conductor at O. Its distance from Q is i.e.
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 3
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

OQ=l. Let~r be the position vector of point P relative to the current element and θ be
~ and ~r. According to Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of the field
the angle between dl
~ ~ will be,
dB due to current element dl

µ0 I dl sinθ
dB = (11)
4π r2
From the right angles ∆OQP
θ + φ = 90◦
⇒ θ = 90◦ − φ (12)
⇒ sinθ = sin(90◦ − φ ) = cosφ
Again,

Figure 2: Magnetic field due to a straight current carrying conductor

a
cosφ =
r
a (13)
⇒r= = a secφ
cosφ

Also,
l
tanφ =
a
⇒ l = a tanφ (14)
⇒ dl = a sec2 φ dφ
Hence,
µ0 I(a sec2 φ dφ )cosφ
dB =
4π a2 sec2 φ (15)
µ0 I
⇒ dB = cosφ dφ
4πa
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 4
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

According to right hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field at the point P due
to all such current elements will be in the same direction, namely, normally into the
plane of the paper. Hence the total field ~B at the point P due to the entire conductor is
obtained by integrating the above equation within the limits −φ1 and φ2 .

µ0 I φ2
Z φ2 Z
B= dB = cosφ dφ
−φ1 4πa −φ1
µ0 I φ2
⇒B= [sinφ ]−φ
4πa 1
(16)
µ0 I
⇒B= [sinφ2 − sin(−φ1 )]
4πa
µ0 I
⇒B= [sinφ2 + sinφ1 ]
4πa
This equation gives magnetic field due to a finite wire in terms of angles subtended at
the observation point by the ends of the wire.

• special cases

1. If the conductor XY is infinitely long and the point P lies near the middle of the
conductor, then φ1 = φ2 = π/2. Therefore,
µ0 I
B= [sin90◦ + sin90◦ ]
4πa (17)
µ0 I
⇒B=
2πa
2. If the conductor XY is infinitely long and the point P lies near the end Y (or X),
then φ1 = 90◦ , φ2 = 0◦ . Therefore,
µ0 I
B= [sin90◦ + sin0◦ ]
4πa (18)
µ0 I
⇒B=
4πa
• Magnetic field at the centre of a circular current loop: As shown in Fig. 3, con-
sider the circular loop of wire of radius r carrying current I. We want to calculate its
magnetic field at the centre O. The entire loop can be divided into a large number
of small current elements. Consider a current element dl ~ of the loop. According to
Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field at the centre O due to this element is,

~ ×~r
µ0 I dl
dB = (19)
4π r3
The field at point O points normally into the plane of paper, as shown by encircled
N
cross . The direction of dl ~ is along the tangent, so dl⊥~
~ r. Consequently, the mag-
netic field at the centre O due to this current element is,
µ0 I dl sin90◦ µ0 I dl
dB = 2
= (20)
4π r 4π r2

Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 5

Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

Figure 3: Magnetic field at the centre due to circular current loop.

The magnetic field due to all such elements will point into the plane of paper at centre
O. Hence the total magnetic field at the centre O is,
µ0 I dl µ0 I
Z Z Z
B = dB = 2
= dl
4π r 4π r2
µ0 I µ0 I
⇒B= l= · 2πr (21)
4π r 2 4π r2
µ0 I
⇒B=
2r

Instead of a single loop, there is a coil of N turns, all wound over one another, then,
µ0 NI
B= (22)
2r

• Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop:

As shown in Fig. 4, Consider a circular loop of wire of radius a and carrying current
I. Let the plane of the loop be perpendicular to the plane of the paper. We want to
find the field ~B at an axial point P at a distance r from the centre C. Consider a current
element dl~ at the top of the loop. It has an outward coming current. So, if ~s be the
position vector of point P relative to the element dl, ~ then from Biot-Savart law, the
field at point P due to the current element is,
µ0 I dl sinθ
dB = (23)
4π s2

~ s, i.e., θ = 90◦ , therefore,

Since dl⊥~
µ0 I dl
dB = (24)
4π s2

~ lies in the plane of paper and is perpendicular to ~s, as shown by PQ.

The field dB ~ Let
φ be the angle between OP and CP.

Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 6

Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

Figure 4: Magnetic field on the axis due to circular current loop.

The total magnetic field at the point P in the direction CP is,

Z
B= dBsinφ (25)

But, sinφ = as , therefore,

µ0 I dl a
Z
B= · (26)
4π s2 s

Since µ0 and I are constant, and s and a are same for all points on the circular loop,
we have,
µ0 Ia µ0 Ia
Z
B= 3
dl = · 2πa
4πs 4πs3
(27)
µ0 Ia2
⇒B=
2s3
Now,
s = (r2 + a2 )1/2 (28)

Therefore,
µ0 Ia2
B= (29)
2(r2 + a2 )3/2
Now if the coil consists of N turns, then,
µ0 NIa2
B= (30)
2(r2 + a2 )3/2

• Special cases
1. At the centre of the current loop, r=0, therefore,
µ0 NIa2 µ0 NI
B= = (31)
2a3 2a
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 7
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

2. at the axial point far away from the coil, r >> a, so that,

µ0 NIa2 µ0 NI
B= = (32)
2r3 2a
• Ampere’s circuital law Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of the mag-
netic field ~B around any closed circuit is equal to µ0 (permeability constant) times the
total current I passing through this closed circuit. Mathematically,
I
~ = µ0 I
~B · dl (33)

• Magnetic field inside a straight solenoid: The magnetic field inside a closely wound
long solenoid is uniform everywhere and zero outside it. Figure 5 shows the sectional
view of a long solenoid. At various turns of the solenoid, current comes out of the
J
plane of paper at points marked and enters the plane of the paper at points marked
N
.

Figure 5: Magnetic field of a very long solenoid.

To determine the magnetic field ~B at any inside point, consider a rectangular closed
path abcd as the Amperean loop. According to Ampere’s circuital law,
I
~ = µ0 × total current through the loop abcd
~B · dl
I Z b Z c Z d Z a (34)
⇒ ~ =
~B · dl ~ +
~B · dl ~ +
~B · dl ~ +
~B · dl ~
~B · dl
a b c d

But,
Z c Z c
~ =
~B · dl Bdlcos90◦ = 0 (35)
b b
Z ca Z a
~ =
~B · dl Bdlcos90◦ = 0 (36)
d d
Z d
~ =0
~B · dl (37)
c
as B=0 for points outside the solenoid.
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 8
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

Therefore,
I Z b
~ =
~B · dl ~
~B · dl
a
I Z b Z b (38)
~ =
~B · dl ◦
⇒ Bdlcos0 = B dl = Bl
a a

where, l=length of the side ab of the rectangular loop abcd.

Let number of turns per unit length of the solenoid =n. Then number of turns in length
l of the solenoid =nl.
Thus the current I of the solenoid threads the loop abcd, nl times.
Therefore, total current threading the loop abcd = nlI.
Hence, Bl = µ0 nlI or B = µ0 nI

• Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

Electric charges moving in a magnetic field experience a force, while there is no such
force on static charges.
Suppose a positive charge q moves with velocity ~v in a magnetic field ~B and ~v makes
an angle θ with ~B as shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 6: Magnetic Lorentz force.

It is found from experiment that the charge q moving in the magnetic field ~B experi-
ences a force ~F such that,

1. the force is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field, i.e.,

F ∝B (39)

2. the force is proportional to charge q, i.e.,

F ∝q (40)

3. the force is proportional to the component of the velocity v in perpendicular

direction of he field B, i.e.,
F ∝ v sinθ (41)
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 9
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

Combining the above factors, we get,

F ∝ Bqv sinθ
(42)
⇒ F = kBqv sinθ

The unit of magnetic field is so defined that the proportional constant k becomes
unity in the above equation. Therefore, we can write,

F = Bqv sinθ (43)

In vector form the above equation can be written as,

F = q(~v × ~B) (44)

• Special cases

1. If v = 0, then F = 0. Thus a stationary charged particle does not experience any

force in a magnetic field.
2. If θ = 0◦ or θ = 180◦ , then F = 0. Thus a charged particle moving parallel or
antiparallel to a magnetic field does not experience any force in a magnetic field.
3. If θ = 90◦ , then F = qvB. Thus a charged particle experiences the maximum
force when it moves perpendicular to the magnetic field.

• Rules for finding the direction of the force

–Fleming’s left hand rule: Stretch the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand
mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger points the direction of magnetic
field, the central finger in the direction of current, then the thumb gives the direction
of the force on the charged particle as shown in Fig. 7

Figure 7: Fleming’s left hand rule.

• Lorentz force: The total force experienced by a charged particle moving in a region
where both electric and magnetic fields are present, is called Lorentz force.
A charge q in and electric field ~E experiences the electric force,

~e = q~E
F (45)

Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 10

Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

This force acts in the direction of field ~E and is independent of the velocity of the
charge.
The magnetic force experienced by the charge q moving with velocity ~v in the mag-
netic field ~B is given by,
F~m = q(~v × ~B) (46)
This force acts perpendicular to the plane of ~v and ~B and depends on the velocity ~v of
the charge. The total force, or the Lorentz force experienced by the charge q due to
both electric and magnetic field os given by,
~F = F
~e + F~m
(47)
⇒ ~F = q(~E +~v × ~B)

• Force between two parallel current carrying wires: As shown in Fig. 8, consider

Figure 8: (a) Parallel current attracts and (b) antiparallel currents repel.

two long parallel wires AB and CD carrying currents I1 and I2 . Let r be the separation
between them.
The magnetic field produced by current I1 at any point on wire CD is,
µ0 I1
B1 = (48)
2πr
This field acts perpendicular to the wire CD and points into the plane of the paper. It
exerts a force on the current carrying wire CD. The force acting on length l of the wire
CD will be,
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 11
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

µ0 I1
F2 = I2 lB1 sin90◦ = I2 l · (49)
2πr
Force per unit length,
µ0 I1 I2
F2 = I2 B1 sin90◦ = (50)
2πr
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts right angles to CD, towards AB
in the plane of the paper. Similarly, an equal force is exerted on the wire AB by the
filed of wire CD. Thus when the currents in the two wires are in the same direction,
the forces between them are attractive.
On the other hand antiparallel currents repel each other.

0.2 Electromagnetic induction, emf induced in a coil

due to magnet...

• Magnetic flux: The magnetic flux through any surface placed in a magnetic field
is the total number of magnetic lines of force crossing this surface normally. It is
measured as the product of the component of the magnetic field normal to the surface
and the surface area.
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity, denoted by φ or φB . If a uniform magnetic field
~B passes normally through a plane surface area A, as shown in Fig. 9 (a), then the
magnetic flux through this area is,

φ = BA (51)

Figure 9: Magnetic flux through an area.

If the field ~B makes angle θ with the normal drawn to the area A, as shown in Fig. 9
(b), then the component of the field normal to this area will be Bcosθ ,

φ = B cosθ · A
(52)
⇒ φ = BAcosθ = ~B · ~A

Hence the direction of ~A is the direction of the outward drawn normal to the surface.
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 12
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

The flux through an area which is not uniform can be obtain by integrating,
Z
φ= ~
~B · dA (53)

• SI unit of magnetic flux: SI unit of magnetic flux is weber. One weber is the flux
produced when a uniform magnetic field of one tesla acts normally over an area of 1
m2 .
1weber = 1tesla × 1metre2
(54)
1W b = 1T m2

• Positive and negative flux: A to a plane can be drawn from either side. If the normal
drawn to a plane points out in the direction of the field, then θ = 0◦ and the flux is
taken as positive. If the normal points in the points in the opposite direction of the
field, then θ = 180◦ and the flux is taken as negative.

• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

2014: [Link] are the laws of electromagnetic induction? Define coefficient of self
induction and mutual induction. 3+2
2017: Q. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. What is Lenz’s law? 3
Whenever the flux of magnetic field through the area bounded by a closed conducting
loop changes, an emf is produced in the loop. The emf is given by,
dΦ
ξ =− (55)
dt
Where Φ = ~B · dA ~ is the flux of the magnetic field through the area. Equation 55 is
R

called Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes
the change in magnetic flux.
The emf so produced drives an electric current through the loop. If the resistance of
the loop is R, the current is,
ξ 1 dΦ
i= =− (56)
R R dt
The emf developed by a changing flux is called induced emf and the current produced
by this emf is called induced current.

• Direction of induced current:

Put an arrow on the loop to choose the positive sense of current. This choice is arbi-
trary. Using right hand thumb rule find the positive direction of the normal to the area
bounded by the loop. If the fingers curl along the loop in the positive sense, the thumb
~ ~
R
represents the positive direction of the normal. Calculate the flux Φ = B · dA through
the area bounded by the loop. If the flux increases with time, dΦ dt is positive and ξ is
negative from Eq. 55. Correspondingly, the current is negative. It is, therefore, in
the direction opposite to the arrow put on the loop. If Φ decreases with time, dΦ dt is
negative, ξ is positive and the current is along the arrow.

• Lenz’s law: Lenz’s law states that the direction of induced current in a circuit is such
that it opposes the cause or the change which produces it.
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 13
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

• Self induction: When a current is established in a closed conducting loop, it produces

a magnetic field. This magnetic field has its flux through the area bounded by the
loop. If the current changes with time, the flux through the loop changes and hence
an emf is induced in the loop. This process is called self induction. The name is so
chosen because the emf is induced in the loop by changing the current in the same
loop. Definition: the self induction is the phenomenon of production of induced emf
in a coil when a changing current passes through it.
The magnetic field at any point due to a current is proportional to the current. The
magnetic flux through the area bounded by a current carrying loop is therefore, pro-
portional to the current. We can write,
Φ = Li (57)
where L is a constant depending on the geometrical construction of the loop. This
constant is called self-inductance of the loop. The induced emf ξ , when the current in
the coil changes, is given by,
dΦ
ξ =− (58)
dt
Using Eqs. 57 and 58, we can write,
di
ξ = −L (59)
dt
• SI unit of L: The SI unit of self inductance L is weber/ampere.
• Mutual induction: Mutual inductance is the phenomenon of production of induced
emf in one coil due to a change of current in the neighbouring coil.
As shown in Fig. 10, consider two coils P and S placed close to each other. The coil
P is connected in series to a battery B and a rheostat Rh through a tapping key K.
The coil S is connected to a galvanometer G. When a current flows through coil P,
it produces a magnetic field which produces a magnetic flux through coil S. If the
current in the coil P is varied, the magnetic flux linked with the coil S changes which
induces an emf and hence a current in it, as seen in the galvanometer. The coil P
is called the primary coil and the coil S, the secondary coil, because it is the former
which causes an induced emf in the latter.

Figure 10: Mutual coductance.

At any instant, magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil is proportional to the
current to the primary coil. i.e.,
Φ∝I
(60)
⇒ Φ = MI
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 14
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

The proportionality constant M is called the mutual inductance or the coefficient of

mutual inductance of the two coils. Any change in the current I sets up an induced
emf in the secondary coil which is given by,

dΦ dI
ξ =− = −M (61)
dt dt

• unit of mutual inductance

ξ
M=− (62)
dI/dt

SI unit of mutual inductance= V sA−1 =henry.

The mutual inductance of two coils is said to be 1 henry if an induced emf of one volt
is set up in one coil when the current in the neighbouring coil changes at a rate of 1
ampere per second.
Eddy currents Currents can be induced, not only in conducting coils but also in
conducting sheets or blocks. Whenever the magnetic flux link with a metallic sheets
or block changes, an emf is induced in it. The induced currents flow in closed paths
in planes perpendicular to the lines of force throughout the body of the metal. These
currents looks like eddies or whirl-pools in water and so they are like eddy currents.
Therefore, Eddy currents are the currents induced in solid metallic masses when the
magnetic flux threading through them changes.

• Fleming’s right hand rule: This rule gives the direction of induced current set up in
a conductor moving perpendicular to a field and can be stated as follow:
If we stretch the thumb and the first two figures of our right hand in mutually perpen-
dicular directions and if the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field,
thumb in the direction of motion of the conductor; then the central finger points the
direction of currents induced in the conductor.

Figure 11: Fleming’s right hand rule.

0.3 Transformer, step up and step down transformer,..

• Transformer A transformer is an electric device for converting an alternating current

at low voltage into that at high voltage or vice versa. If it increases the input voltage
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 15
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

it is called step up transformer and if it decreases the input voltage, it is called step
down transformer.
Construction: A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire
having different number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil P to
which electric energy is supplied is called the primary and the coil from which energy
is drawn or output is obtained is called the secondary.

Figure 12: (a) Step-up transformer (b) step-down transformer

Working: As the alternating current flows through the primary, it generates an alter-
nating magnetic flux in the core which also passes to the secondary. This changing
flux sets up an induced emf in the secondary, also a self induced emf in the primary.
If there is no leakage of magnetic flux, then flux linked with each turn of the primary
will be equal to that linked with each turn of the secondary.
Theory: Consider the situation when no load is connected to the secondary, i.e.,
its terminals are open. Let, N1 and N2 be the number of turns in the primary and
secondary respectively. Then,
Induced emf in the primary coil is,
dΦ
ξ1 = −N1 (63)
dt
Induced emf in the secondary coil,
dΦ
ξ2 = −N2 (64)
dt
where, Φ is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the primary or secondary at any
instant. Thus,
ξ2 N2
= (65)
ξ1 N1
• Step up and step down transformer If N2 > N1 , the secondary emf ξ2 is larger
magnitude than the primary emf ξ1 . This type of transformer is called a step up
transformer.
If N2 < N1 , the emf of the secondary circuit is smaller in magnitude than the primary
emf. This type of transformer is called a step-down transformer.
Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 16
Chapter-6, Electromagnetism Dr. Nur Hussain

Efficiency of a transformer is defined as,

Output power
η= (66)
input power

0.4 Previous Years Questions (PYQ)-solutions

2014: Q. What are the laws of electromagnetic induction? Define coefficient of self
induction and mutual induction. 3+2
Ans: see the notes above
2017: Q. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. What is Lenz’s law? 3

Chirang Polytechnic, Bijni 17