Ministry of Secondary Education Republic of Cameroon

Progressive
 §*
Comprehensive
*
High School Peace – Work – Fatherland
BETHESDA – Douala SCHOOL YEAR 2021/2022
Department of Computer Studies

COMPUTERNETWORK&DATACOMMUNUCATION
Class:UpperSixthBy:EKABOLEMARTIN

Todaycomputerisavailableinmanyofficesandhomesandthereforethereisaneedtosharedataandprogr
[Link]
onbetweencomputershasincreasedandthusithasextendedthepowerofcomputerbeyondthecomputerr
[Link]
[Link]
ommunication.

Learningobjectives

Itisexpectedthataftergoingthroughthislesson,youwouldbeableto
- Understandbasicsofthevarioustypesnetworktechnologiesintheareaofcomputers,LocalArea
Network(LAN)anddifferentcomponentsofcomputernetwork
- explainthefeaturesandtheuseofcomputernetworkanddatacommunication
- describetheOSImodelandits7layers
- Givesomenetworksecurityproblemsandeventualsolutions

Contents
I. .............................................................................................................................................................2
II. .............................................................................................................................................................4
III. .........................................................................................................................................................6
IV. .......................................................................................................................................................11
V. ...........................................................................................................................................................13
VI. .......................................................................................................................................................17
VII. .......................................................................................................................................................19
VIII. .......................................................................................................................................................22
IX. .......................................................................................................................................................23

1
I. BASICNETWORKINGCONCEPTS

I.1-DefinitionandNetworkBasics

[Link](roads,
computers,
…)[Link]
[Link]:

- Aresourcetoshare(resource)
- Apathwaytotransferdata(transmissionmedium)
- Asetofrulesgoverninghowcommunicationbetweendevicestakesplace(protocols)

I.2-BENEFITSOFCOMPUTERNETWORK
Specifically,networksareaboutsharingthreethings:information,resources,andapplications.

 Sharinginformation:networksallowuserstocommunicatewitheachotherinvariousways:email,ch
at,forums,etc.
 Sharingresources:Certaincomputerresources,suchasprintersorharddrives,canbesetupsothatnetw
[Link]
sedtoshareanInternetconnection.
 Sharingapplications:severaluserscanworktogetheronasinglebusinessapplication.

Apartfromsharing,otherbenefitsofacomputernetworkare:

 FlexibleAccess:Networksallowtheiruserstoaccessfilesfromcomputersthroughoutthenetwork.
 Reducingofcost:Insteadofbuyingaprinterforeachcomputerofabignetwork,asingleprintercanbesha
red,andthencostisconsiderablyreduced

I.3-DOWNSIDES(SHORTCOMMINGS)OFNETWORKING
Althoughnetworksareoneofthebestthingsthateverhappenedtocomputers,noteverythingaboutnetworksisro
[Link]:

 Viruses:Ifavirusisintroducedtothenetwork,eitherintentionallyorunintentionally,itwillrapidlysp
readaroundalloftheworkstationsandcouldstarttocausehavoctopeoples'filesortotheefficientworki
ngofthenetwork.
 Networkfailure:Ifthefileserverfailsthenno-
[Link]
ization,thiswouldbeextremelycostlyanddisruptive.

2
  Slowservice:Asmoreuserslogontothenetworkandrequestfiles,sendthingstobeprintedandopenm
oresoftwareapplications,thenetworkcanstarttoslowdown.
 Cost:Buildinganetwork,itsinitialcostisveryexpensive.

I.4-Networkinghardware
Networkinghardwareincludesallcomputers,peripherals,interfacecardsandotherequipmentneededtoperf
ormdata-
[Link]:FileServers,
Workstations,NetworkInterfaceCards,Hubs,Switches,Repeaters,Bridges,andRouters:

 Workstations:[Link]
onisacomputerthatisconfiguredwithanetworkinterfacecard,networkingsoftware,andtheappropriat
ecables.
 NetworkInterfaceCards(NIC):Itisaninternaldevicethatprovidesthephysicalconnectionbetweent
henetworkandthecomputerworkstation.
 Hub:Ingeneral,ahubreferstoahardwaredevicethatenablesmultipledevicesorconnectionstobeconn
[Link]
 Switch:Itisahardwarefiltersforwardspackets(orconcentrators)workthesamewayashubs,buttheyca
nidentifytheintendeddestinationoftheinformationthattheyreceive,sotheysendthatinformationtoonl
ythecomputersthataresupposedtoreceiveit.
 Repeaters:Sinceasignallosesstrengthasitpassesalongacable,itisoftennecessarytoboostthesignalw
[Link].
 Bridges:Abridgeisadevicethatallowsyoutosegmentalargenetworkintotwosmaller,moreefficientn
[Link].
Bridgesmustbeusedbetweennetworkswiththesameprotocol.
 Routers:Arouterisadevicethatforwardsdatapacketsbetweencomputernetworks,creatinganoverla
[Link]
 Gateway:Agatewayisanetwork
 Firewall:AsoftwarehardwarenetworkaccessportsFirewallsareagreatstepforhelpingpreventun-
authorizedaccesstoacompanyorhomenetwork.
 Modem:TheModemisahardwaredevicethatenablesacomputertosendandreceiveinformationovert
elephonedigitalanalogmodulation)andthenconvertingitbackoncereceivedontheotherend(demodu
lation).
 Proxy:Aproxyisacomputerserverorsoftwareprogramthatispartofthegatewaycachebandwidth.

II. CLASSIFICATIONOFCOMPUTERNETWORK

Computernetworkscanbeclassifyindifferentways:accordingtothegeographicalareacovered,thestrategyuse
dortypeofconnection

II.1ACCORDINGTOTHETYPEOFCONNECTION

3
Accordingtothetypeofconnection,[Link]
ion

II.1.1Wiredconnection

AwirednetworkiswhenyouphysicallyconnectyourcomputerorothercompatibledevicetoyourSuperHubwit
[Link](wiredisfastert
hanwireless).Thismakesitidealforthingsthatusealotofbandwidth,likeplayingonlinegamesonyourXbox.

II.1.2Wirelessconnection

Awirelessnetwork,asitsnamewouldsuggest,isanetworkofcomputersandcomputerperipheralsthatareconne
ctedtoeachotherwithoutwires.

Advantages
 Itiseasiertoaddormoveworkstations.
 Itiseasiertoprovideconnectivityinareaswhereitisdifficulttolaycable.
 Installationisfastandeasy,anditcaneliminatetheneedtopullcablethroughwallsandceilings.
 Accesstothenetworkcanbefromanywherewithinrangeofanaccesspoint.
Disadvantages
 Asthenumberofcomputersusingthenetworkincreases,thedatatransferratetoeachcomputerwilldecre
aseaccordingly.
 Asstandardschange,itmaybenecessarytoreplacewirelesscardsand/oraccesspoints.
 Securityismoredifficulttoguaranteeandrequiresconfiguration.
 Deviceswillonlyoperateatalimiteddistancefromanaccesspoint.

II.2ACCORDINGTOTHEGEOGRAPHICALAREACOVERED

Accordingtothegeographicalareacovered,thereexistthreemaintypesofnetwork:LAN,MANandWAN

II.2.1LocalAreaNetwork(LAN)

ALANisacomputernetworkthatspansonlyasmallgeographicalareasuchasanoffice,homebuildingorclosedb
[Link],printers,[Link]
[Link]:Aschoolnetwork

II.2.2MetropolitanAreaNetwork(MAN)

[Link]
sionnetwork,[Link](withse
veralofficesinonecity)[Link]
[Link]:AnetworkofalltheagenciesofCAMCCULinBamenda

II.2.3WideAreaNetwork(WAN)

4
AWANisasystemofinterconnectingmanycomputeroveralargegeographicalareasuchasstates,countriesore
[Link],satellitelinkandotherlong-
[Link]
[Link],Bame
nda,Douala,Bafoussam,Yaoundé[Link]
edbyprivatebusiness,itisusuallyapublicnetwork,[Link]
wnandthelargestWANisInternet.

II.3ACCORDINGTOTHEARCHITECTURE

Accordingtothestrategyusedthereexisttwomaintypesofnetwork:Client/
ServernetworkandPeertoPeer(P2P)network:

II.3.1Client/servernetworks

[Link]
[Link],acomputerthatprovidesothernetworknodeswithaccesstonetworkstoragedevicesiscall
[Link]
[Link]
workresourcesarecalledclient/[Link]/
servernetwork,theroleoftheserveristoprovideservicesdemandedbyclientcomputers

II.3.2Peer-to-peernetworks

[Link],centralize
[Link]-to-
[Link]
[Link]
[Link],orpeer,status.

II.3.3ComparisonbetweenPeertoPeernetworkandClient/Servernetwork

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages

·Heavyprocessingpowercanbelocalizedwhenneeded. ·Administrativetasksnotentir
·Overallinstallationcostsarelessthanahierarchicalnetwork. elycentralized.
Client/
Server

·Serversprovideclientswithaccesstosharedprinters,networks ·Expensivetoaddnodes.
torage(includingsharedapplications),networksecurityfeature
s,andothernetworkresources.
·Relativelyinexpensivetoimplement,canoftenbeimplemente ·Decentralizedadministratio
donexistingequipment. n.
P2P

·Potentially,allresourcescanbemadeavailableoveranetwork. ·Securitycanbedifficulttocon
·Processingpowercanbelocalizedtothepointofneed. trol

5
III. NETWORKTOPOLOGIES

Networktopologyisthelayoutpatternofinterconnectionsofthevariouselements(linksnodestopology

III.1PhysicalTopology
Itisthephysicalconfigurationofanetworkthatdetermineshowthenetwork'[Link]
nconfigurationsincludethebustopology,meshtopology,ringtopology,startopology,treetopologyandhybri
dtopology.

III.1.1-BusTopology
[Link],allthenodes(computersaswellasser
vers)areconnectedtothesinglecable,[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
dcastedbutonlytheintendedrecipient,whoseMACaddressorIPaddressmatches,[Link]
edatendsofthecentralcable,[Link].

Advantages(benefits)ofLinearBusTopology

1) Itiseasytoset-upandextendbusnetwork.
2) Cablelengthrequiredforthistopologyistheleastcomparedtoothernetworks.
3) Bustopologycostsveryless.
4) [Link].

Disadvantages(Drawbacks)ofLinearBusTopology

1) Thereisalimitoncentralcablelengthandnumberofnodesthatcanbeconnected.
2) [Link]([Link])encounters
someproblem,wholenetworkbreaksdown.
3) Itisdifficulttodetectandtroubleshootfaultatindividualstation.
4) Maintenancecostscangethigherwithtime.
5) EfficiencyofBusnetworkreduces,asthenumberofdevicesconnectedtoitincreases.
6) Itisnotsuitablefornetworkswithheavytraffic.
7) Securityisverylowbecauseallthecomputersreceivethesentsignalfromthesource.

III.2-RingTopology

6
[Link]
onisconnectedtotwoothercomponentsoneitherside,anditcommunicateswiththesetwoadjacentneighbors.D
atatravelsaroundthenetwork,[Link].T
okencontainsapieceofinformationwhichalongwithdataissentbythesourcecomputer.

AdvantagesofRingTopology

1) [Link]
[Link].
2) Evenwhentheloadonthenetworkincreases,itsperformanceisbetterthanthatofBustopology.
3) Thereisnoneedfornetworkservertocontroltheconnectivitybetweenworkstations.
4) Additionalcomponentsdonotaffecttheperformanceofnetwork.
5) Eachcomputerhasequalaccesstoresources.

DisadvantagesofRingTopology

1) [Link]
hanStartopology.
2) Ifoneworkstationorportgoesdown,theentirenetworkgetsaffected.
3) Networkishighlydependentonthewirewhichconnectsdifferentcomponents.

III.3-StarTopology
InStartopology,allthecomponentsofnetworkareconnectedtoacentraldevicewhichmaybeahub,arouteroras
[Link].
ThislateractsasajunctiontoconnectdifferentnodespresentinStarNetwork,andatthesametimeitmanagesandc
ontrolswholeofthenetwork.

AdvantagesofStarTopology

1) AscomparedtoBustopologyitgivesfarmuchbetterperformance,signalsdon’tnecessarilygettransmit
tedtoalltheworkstations.
2) [Link]
tingrestofthenetwork.
3) [Link].
4) Failureofonenodeorlinkdoesn’[Link]’seasytodetectthefailurea
ndtroubleshootit.

DisadvantagesofStarTopology

1) Ifthecentraldevicefailswholenetworkgoesdown.

7
 2) Theuseofanextracentraldeviceincreasestheoverallcostofthenetwork.
3) Performanceandaswellnumberofnodeswhichcanbeaddedinsuchtopologyisdependedoncapacityof
centraldevice.

III.4-TreeTopology
[Link],thenumberofStarnet
[Link],andotherstarnetworksasthebran
[Link].

AdvantagesofTreeTopology

[Link].
[Link],wedividethewholenetworkintosegments(starnetworks),whichcanbeeasilymanagedandmaintained
.
[Link].
[Link],othersegmentsarenotaffected.

DisadvantagesofTreeTopology

[Link],treetopology,reliesheavilyonthemainbuscable,ifitbreakswholenetworkiscri
ppled.
[Link],themaintenancebecomesdifficult.
[Link].

III.5-Meshtopology
Inameshnetworktopology,eachofthenetworknode,computerandotherdevices,areinterconnectedwithonea
[Link]
yistheonewhereeverynodeisconnectedtoeveryothernodeinthenetwork.

TocalculatethenumberofcablesneededinacompletemeshtopologyuseN(N-1)/
2whereNisthenumberofcomputers

AdvantagesofMeshtopology

1)[Link]
gycanwithstandhightraffic.
2)[Link]
atatransferdoesn’tgetaffected.
3)Expansionandmodificationintopologycanbedonewithoutdisruptingothe
rnodes.

DisadvantagesofMeshtopology

8
1)Therearehighchancesofredundancyinmanyofthenetworkconnections.
2)Overallcostofthisnetworkiswaytoohighascomparedtoothernetworktopologies.
3)[Link].
III.6Hybridtopology
Similarlyinthistypeoftopologyweintegratetwoormoredifferenttopologiestoformaresultanttopologywhich
hasgoodpoints(aswellasweaknesses)ofalltheconstituentbasictopologiesratherthanhavingcharacteristicsof
onespecifictopology.

AdvantagesofHybridNetworkTopology
1) Reliable:Unlikeothernetworks,faultdetectionandtrouble
shootingiseasyinthistypeoftopology.
2) Scalable:It’seasytoincreasethesizeofnetworkbyaddingn
ewcomponents,withoutdisturbingexistingarchitecture.
3) Flexible:HybridNetworkcanbedesignedaccordingtother
equirementsoftheorganizationandbyoptimizingtheavailable
resources.

DisadvantagesofHybridTopology

1) ComplexityofDesign:It’snoteasytodesignthistypeofarchitectureandit’satoughjobfordesigners.C
onfigurationandinstallationprocessneedstobeveryefficient.
2) CostlyHub:Thehubsusedtoconnecttwodistinctnetworks,[Link]
tfromusualhubsastheyneedtobeintelligentenoughtoworkwithdifferentarchitecturesandshouldbefu
nctionevenifapartofnetworkisdown.
3) CostlyInfrastructure:Ashybridarchitecturesareusuallylargerinscale,theyrequirealotofcables;co
olingsystems,sophisticatenetworkdevices,etc.

III.2Logicaltopology
[Link]
[Link]
ngare:CSMA/CD,CSMA/CAandTokenPassing

a) CSMA/CD(CarrierSenseMultipleAccess/CollisionDetection)

EthernetusesCSMA/
CDtomanagemediaaccess,[Link]
ranopeningonthelinebeforetransmitting(CarrierSense)andwhenadevicedetectsanopening,ittransmitsitsd
[Link],severaldevicesmaysimultaneouslysensethatthelineisclearandtheymayalltransmitatthesamet
[Link],[Link].

UsingtheCSMA/
CDprotocol,thedeviceswilleachdetectthatacollisionhasoccurred(collisiondetection)andeachofthemwillw

9
[Link]
amedelayisalmostzero,soretransmissionislikelytobesuccessful.

b) CSMA/CA(CarrierSenseMultipleAccess/CollisionAvoidance)

WithCSMA/CA,adevicelistensforanopportunitytotransmititsdatainasimilarfashiontoCSMA/
[Link],whenadevicesensesanopening,itfirsttransmitsasignalnotifyingotherdevicesthatitistransmitt
[Link],althoughwarningpackets
[Link],CSMA/
CAcreatesasignificantoverheadasitaddsunnecessarytraffictothenetwork,[Link]
/
CAwascommonlyusedbyolderAppleTalknetworks,butnowadaysmostApplesystemscanuseEthernethard
wareanduseofCSMA/[Link]/CAcontinuestobeusedisinwirelessnetworks.

c) TokenPassing

InCSMA/CDandCSMA/
[Link],thechancesofcollisionsals
[Link],whenahostwanttotransmitdata,itshouldholdthetoken,whichisanempt
[Link],itshouldwait
[Link],theworkstationcantakethetokenfromthenetwork,fil
litwithdata,markthetokenasbeingusedandplacethetokenbacktothenetwork.

IV. COMMUNICATIONOVERNETWORK
IV.1Whatisdatacommunication?
Acommunicationsystemcanbedefinedasthecollectionofhardwareandsoftwarethatfacilitatesintersysteme
xchangeofinformationbetweendifferentdevices.

Datacommunicationistheexchangeofdatabetweentwodevicesusingsomeformofwiredorwirelesstransmis
[Link],themethodoftransferandthepreservationofdataduringthetransfe
rprocess.

IV.2Characteristicsofdatacommunication
Fordatacommunicationtobeeffective,thefollowingthreefundamentalcharacteristicsshouldbeconsidered:

 Delivery:Thesystemmustdeliverdatatothecorrectortheintendeddestination.
 Accuracy:Thesystemmustdeliverdataaccurately(error-free).
 Timeliness:Thesystemmustdeliverdatainatimelymannerwithoutenoughtimelags.

IV.2-DataCommunicationComponents
Therearefivebasiccomponentsinadatacommunicationsystem

10
  Message:Themessageistheinformationthatistobecommunicated.
 Sender:Thesenderisthedevicethatsendsthemessage.
 Receiver:Thereceiveristhedevicethatreceivesthemessage.
 Medium:Thetransmissionmediumisthephysicalpaththatcommunicatesthemessagefromthesender
tothereceiver.
 Protocol:Protocolreferstoasetofrulesthatcoordinatestheexchangeofinformationbetweencomputer
[Link]
mmunicatedata.

IV.3-DataTransmissionMode
[Link]
ransmissionmodes—simplex,half-duplexandfull-duplex

1) Simplex:Theinformationflowsinonedirectionacrossthecircuit,withnocapabilitytosupportrespons
eintheotherdirection.
2) Half-duplex:Inhalf-
duplexmode,eachcommunicatingdevicecanreceiveandtransmitinformation,butnotatthesametime.
3) Full-duplex:[Link]-
duplexmodecanbecomparedtoatwo-wayroadwithtrafficflowinginbothdirections.

IV.4-DataCommunicationMeasurement

11
Themeasurementofthequantityofdatathatcanbepassedoveracommunicationlinkinagiventimeisdoneinter
[Link],bandwidthismeasuredinbitspersecond(bps).Inthedigitalcontext,thele
velofbandwidthfallsintothreecategories.

 Narrowband:Innarrowband,[Link]
mberof64Kbpschannels(N×64Kbps),buttotalcapacityisnotmorethan1.544Mbps.
 Wideband:Inwideband,thebandwidthliesbetween1.544Mbps(alsocalledT1line)and45Mbps(T3li
ne).
 Broadband:[Link],cabletelevision,micro
waveandsatelliteareexamplesofbroadbandtechnologies.

IV.5AnalogandDigitalDataTransmission
[Link]
ontheformofsignalused,datatransmissioncanbeanalogdatatransmissionordigitaldatatransmission.

 AnalogSignals:Valuesonanalogdevicesare(normally)[Link]
acar'[Link]
dcantakeanyvaluethatthecar'senginecancreate.
 DigitalSignals:Digitalsignalsandobjectsdealintherealmofthe discrete or finite,meaningthereisali
[Link],255,4,294,967,296,oranyt
hingaslongasit’snot∞(infinity).

IV.6SerialandParallelCommunication
[Link]
e,[Link],1bitissentwitheachclocktick.

IV.7DataTransmissionMethod
Whilethereisonlyonewaytosendparalleldata,therearetwosubclassesofserialtransmission:asynchronous,sy
nchronous.
 With asynchronoustransmission signaltimingisnotrequired;signalsaresentinanagreedpatternofb
itsandifbothendsareagreedonthepatternthencommunicationcantakeplace.
 Withsynchronoustransmissionisdatatransfermethodsignalselectronicreceiverblockscalledfram
espackets

V. TRANSMISSIONMEDIA
Atransmissionmedium(pluraltransmissionmedia)referstothephysicalmediathroughwhichcommunicatio
nsignals(dataandinformation)[Link]
nsmissionmediausedincomputercommunications:

12
 - GuidedMedia(orBoundedMedia,orWiredMedia)
- UnguidedMedia(orunboundedMedia,orWirelessMedia)

V.1-Guided(Bounded)Media
[Link]
[Link],[Link]
ever,[Link]
[Link]:coaxialcable,twistedpaircableandFiberopticcables

a) Twisted-PairWiring

Twisted-
pairwiringreferstoatypeofcablecomposedoffour(ormore)copperwirestwistedaroundeachotherwithinaplas
[Link]-45connectorsontwisted-
[Link]-
paircablescomeintwovarieties:ShieldedTwistedPair(STP)andunshieldedTwistedPair(UTP).

→ Unshieldedtwistedpair(UTP)UTPcableisthemostcommontypeoftelecommunicationmediuminu
[Link]
[Link].
[Link]
- Cat1:Theseareusedintelephonelinesandlowspeeddatacable.
- Cat2:Thesecablescansupportupto4mpsimplementation.
- Cat3:Thesecablesupportsupto16mpsandaremostlyusedin10mps.
- Cat4:Theseareusedforlargedistanceandhighspeed.Itcansupport20mps.
- Cat5:ThisisthehighestratingforUTPcableandcansupportupto100mps.
→ [Link]
edtwistedpair(STP)issuitableforenvironmentswithelectricalinterference;however,theextrashield
[Link]
ology.

b) CoaxialCable
Coaxialcableshaveasinglecentralconductor,whichismadeupofsolidwire(usuallycopper).Thisconductoriss
[Link]
lmeshisagainshieldedbyanoutercoveringofathickmaterial(usuallyPVC)[Link]
[Link],italsooffershigherbandwidth
.Acoaxialcableiscapableoftransmittingdataatarateof10Mbps.

c) Fiber-OpticCable
Fiberoptic(oropticalfiber)referstothetechnologyassociatedwiththetransmissionofinformationaslightimp
[Link]

13
[Link],becausedataaretransferredasapulseoflight,[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link],itismoredifficulttoinst
allandmodify.10BaseFreferstothespecificationsforfiberopticcablecarryingEthernetsignals.

Fig4:boundedmedia

V.2-UnboundedTransmissionMedia
UnguidedmediafacilitatedatatransmissionthroughtheEarth'satmosphere(air,waterorvacuum)atamuchfast
[Link]
ommonlyusedunguidedmediaoftransmissionincluderadiofrequency(RF)propagation,microwavetrans
mission,satellitetransmission,infraredwavetransmission,BluetoothandWi-Fi.

a) RadioFrequencyPropagation

Inradiofrequencypropagation,thesignaliscarriedovercarrierwaves(waves,whichcarrysignalsoverthem),w
[Link]
ion—groundwave,ionosphericandlineofsight.

b) MicrowaveTransmission

Microwavetransmissionusemicrowavesignalsthattravelatahigherfrequencyandarepopularlyusedfortrans
[Link](satelliteTVdishantenna
s)thataremountedonthetower,whichcouldbetensofkilometersaway,[Link],r
epeatersareusedatregularintervalsinbetweenthetransmitterandthereceivertoboostthesignals

c) InfraredWaveTransmission

14
[Link]-frequencywavesusedforshort-
[Link],directionalandcanbeeasilybuilt;however,thewavesdonotpassth
[Link],[Link]
nesinanofficecaneasilybeconnectedtoawirelessLANusinginfraredwaves

d) SatelliteTransmission

Satellitetransmissionissimilartomicrowavetransmissionexceptinsteadoftransmissioninvolvinganotherne
arbymicrowavedishantenna,[Link]
[Link]
[Link].

e) Bluetoothtransmission

TheBluetoothtechnologyisusedtocreateapersonalareanetwork(PAN)orpiconetthatletselectronicdevicessu
chascomputers,cellphones,PDAsandwirelesskeyboardstocommunicatewitheachotherwithintherangeof1
[Link],thatis,[Link],the
communicatingdevicesneednotbealignedwitheachother.

f) Wi-Fitransmission

bl

ThetermWi-
Fi,whichstandsforWirelessFidelityiswidelyusedforcreatingwirelessLANsandalsoforprovidingwirelessIn
[Link],thedevicesinthenetworksuchascomputer,laptopandPDAshouldbeequ
ippedwithwirelessnetworkinterfacecard(NIC)[Link]-Fi-
enaeddeviceshouldbewithinaspecificrange(i.e.upto50m)fromthenetworktoconnect.

MediaType Bandwidth Performance:TypicalErrorRate Transferrate

Twisted-pair(LAN) 1MHz Poortofair(10–5) 10Mbps–100Mbps
Coaxialcable(LAN) 1GHz Good(10–7to10–9) 10Mbps–1Gbps
Microwave(WAN) 100GHz Good(10–9) 6Mbps–54Mbps
Satellite(WAN) 100GHz Good(10–9) 50Kbps–100Mbps
Fiber(WAN) 75THz Great(10–11to10–13) 50Kbps–100Mbps
Table2:TraditionalTransmissionMediaCharacteristics

VI. COMMUNICATIONPROTOCOLS

Acommunicationprotocolisasetofrulesthatcoordinatesthe
exchangeofinformationbetweencomputersconnectedtoanet
[Link]
ybothfollowthesameprotocol,themessagegetsthrough;regar

15
[Link]
avesoftwarethatcanmanagetheprotocol,communicationispossible.

VI.1Networkprotocol
Aprotocoldefineswhatiscommunicated,howitiscommunicated,[Link]
ntsofaprotocolaresyntax,semantics,andtiming.

 Syntax:Syntaxreferstothestructureorformatofthedata,meaningtheorderinwhichtheyarepresented.
 Semantics:[Link]
reted,andwhatactionistobetakenbasedonthatinterpretation.
 Timing:Timingreferstotwocharacteristics:whendatashouldbesentandhowfasttheycanbesent.

Someimportantprotocolsare:

Protocol Fullmeaning Itsjob

FTP FileTransferProtocol Allowsfiletransferbetweentwocomputers
HTTP HyperTextTransferPro Protocolusedinthewebservice
tocol
TCP TransmissionControlP Areliableconnectionorientedprotocolusedtocontrolthemanagem
rotocol entofapplicationlevelservicesbetweencomputers.
IP InternetProtocol identifierofeachcomputerorcommunicationdevicesonthenetwork
andinternet.
ARP Addressresolutionprot enablesthepackagingofIPdataintoethernetpackage
ocol
ICMP Internetcontrolmessag providesmanagementanderrorreportingtohelpmanagetheprocess
eprotocol ofsendingdatabetweencomputers.
SMTP SimpleMailTransferPr AnInternetprotocolfortransferringe-mail.
otocol
POP postofficeprotocol Transfertofe-5mail,usedtosynchronizemessages
Telnet TelephoneNetwork Amethodofopeningausersessiononaremotehost.
PPP Point-to-PointProtocol Datatransferusingmodem
UDP UserDatagramProtoco Anunreliableconnectionlessprotocolusedtocontrolthemanageme
l ntofapplicationlevelservicesbetweencomputers.
DHCP Dynamichostconfigur isamethodofassigningandcontrollingtheIPaddressesofcomputers
ationprotocol onagivennetwork

VI.2TheOSIModel
OpenSystemsInterconnection(OSI)isasta
ndardreferencemodelforcommunicationbet
weentwoendusersinanetwork.In1983,theIn
ternationalOrganisationforStandardisatio
n(ISO)publishedadocumentcalled'TheBasi
cReferenceModelforOpenSystemsIntercon

16
nection',whichvisualizesnetworkprotocolsasasevenseparatebutrelatedlayers:physical,datalink,network,t
ransport,session,presentationandapplicationlayers.

ThesevenlayersoftheOSIreferencemodelcanbedividedintotwocategories:

 UpperLayers:TheupperlayersoftheOSImodelconsistoftheapplication,presentationandsessionl
[Link],theselayersdealwithapplicationissuesandareimplementedonlyinthesoftware.
 LowerLayers:ThelowerlayersoftheOSImodelcomprisethetransport,network,datalink,andphysi
[Link]
[Link]
are.

Thislayerconveysthebithardwarecards
Physical
Protocols:FastEthernet,ATMBit
(Layer1)
Device:Hubs,Repeaters,CablesandConnectors
Physicaladdressing,Provideslow-
[Link]
DataLink eforretransmittingthepacket.
(Layer2) Protocols:PPP,FDDI,Tokenring,Ethernet,SLIP
Device:NIC,TokenRingswitches,Bridges
DataUnit:Frame
Thislayerprovidesswitchingroutingnodeinternetworkingpacket
Network
Protocols:IPv4,IPV6,IPX,OSPF,NWlink,NetBEUI,ICMP,ARP,RARP
(Layer3)
DataUnit:Packet,Datagram
Thislayerprovidestransparent
Transport
Protocols:TCP,SPXandUDP
(Layer4)
Device:Router,gatewayDataUnit:Segments
Thislayerestablishes,[Link]
Session nlayersetsup,coordinates,andterminatesconversations,exchanges,anddialoguesbetweent
(Layer5) [Link].
Protocols:NetBIOSDevice:gatewayDataUnit:data
[Link]
Presentation ormatsandencryptsdatatobesentacrossanetwork,providingfreedomfromcompatibilityp
(Layer6) [Link].
Protocol:SSL,WEP,WPA,KerberosDevice:Gateway
Application Thislayersupportsapplicationandend-
(Layer7) [Link],qualityofserviceisidentified,userau
thenticationandprivacyareconsidered,[Link]

17
 ythingatthislayerisapplication-
[Link],e-
mail,andothernetworksoftwareservices.
Protocol:DHCP,DNS,FTP,HTTP,IMAP4,NNTP,POP3,SMTP,SNMP,SSH,TELNETa
ndNTP
Device:PCDataUnit:Data

VII. LANTECHNOLOGIES

[Link]
eformofdata'packets'.Thestandardsfollowedtoregularizethetransmissionofpackets,arecalledLANstandar
[Link],TokenRing,[Link]
mediaaccesstechnologyandthephysicaltransmissionmedium.

VII.1-EthernetMediaStandards
TheIEEE(InstituteofElectricalandElectronicEngineer)802Standardscomprisesafamilyofnetworkingstand
[Link],FastEthernetand10BASE-T.
 ThefirstpartoftheMediaStandardspecifiesthetransmissionspeed(10,inthiscasespecifies10Mbps)
 Thesecondpartofthename"BASE"specifiesthattheEthernetsignalisaBasebandsignal.
 [Link]-
[Link].
Name CableType Connector MaximumLength Speed
10Base-T Category3orbetterU RJ-45 100meters(328ft) 10mbps
TPcable
10Base-FL Fiberopticcable ST,SC,LC,MT-RJ 2000meters 10mbps
100Base-TX Cat5twistedpair RJ-45 100meters(328ft) 100mbps
100Base-FX FiberOptic ST,SC,LC,MT-RJ 2000meters 100mbps
1000Base-T CAT5eorhigher RJ-45 100meters(328ft) 1gbps
Note:Xrepresentsahighergradeofconnection,and100BaseTXistwisted-
[Link]-
opticcablesuchas100BaseFX,[Link]“L”standsfor“Long”inlongwa
velengthlasersand"S"standsforShortWaveLength.

VII.3-LANprotocols

a) Ethernet/fastEthernet
TheEthernetcalledCSMA/CDmethod.
TheEthernetprotocolallowsforlinearbus,star,[Link]
oints,twistedpair,coaxial,[Link]

18
edoftransmission,[Link]
ycalledFastEthernet.
AdvantagesofEthernetare:Lowcostcomponents,Easytoinstall,Easytotroubleshoot

b) LocalTalk

LocalTalkisanetworkprotocolthatwasdevelopedbyAppleComputer,[Link]
hodusedbyLocalTalkisCSMA/
[Link],star,[Link]
advantageofLocalTalkisspeed.Itsspeedoftransmissionisonly230Kbps.

c) TokenRing

[Link]-
[Link]-
[Link]
otheincreasingpopularityofEthernet,theuseofTokenRinginschoolenvironmentshasdecreased.

d) FDDI

FiberDistributedDataInterface(FDDI)[Link]
volvestoken-
[Link];however,ifabreakoccurs,thesystemkeepsinformat
[Link]
FDDIisspeed.Itoperatesoverfiberopticcableat100Mbps.

e) ATM

AsynchronousTransferMode(ATM)isanetworkprotocolthattransmitsdataataspeedof155Mbpsandhigher
.ATMworksbytransmittingalldatainsmallpacketsofafixedsize;whereas,otherprotocolstransfervariablelen
[Link],CD-
qualityaudio,[Link],whichcanworkwithfiberopticaswellastwistedpairc
able.

19
Protocol Cable Speed Topology Method
TwistedPair,Coaxial,F
Ethernet 10Mbps LinearBus,Star,Tree CSMA/CD
iber
FastEthernet TwistedPair,Fiber 100Mbps Star CSMA/CD
LocalTalk TwistedPair .23Mbps LinearBusorStar CSMA/CA
TokenRing TwistedPair 4Mbps-16Mbps Star-WiredRing Tokenpassing
FDDI Fiber 100Mbps Dualring Tokenpassing
ATM TwistedPair,Fiber 155-2488Mbps Bus,Star,Tree
TableComparetheNetworkProtocols

VIII. NETWORKADRESSING

XI.1-WhatisanIPaddress?

AnIP(InternetProtocol)[Link]
essversion4(IPv4)isa32bitbinarynumberusuallyrepresentedas4decimalvalues,eachrepresenting8bits,inth
erange0to255(knownasoctets)[Link]"dotteddecimal"[Link]
ple:[Link]

Itissometimesusefultoviewthevaluesintheirbinaryform.140.179.220.200becomes10001100.10110011.1
1011100.11001000

EveryIPaddressconsistsoftwoparts,[Link]
ddressandthesubnetmaskdeterminewhichpartbelongstothenetworkaddressandwhichpartbelongstotheno
deaddress.

XI.2-AddressClasses

[Link]
rosoftTCP/
IPsupportsclassA,B,[Link]
[Link]
ostspernetwork.

Class 1stOctetDeci 1stOctetHi Network/ DefaultSubnet NumberofNetworks HostsperNetwork(Us

malRange ghOrderB HostID(N=Ne Mask ableAddresses)
its twork,H=Hos
t)
A 1–126* 0 N.H.H.H [Link] 126(27–2) 16,777,214(224–2)
B 128–191 10 N.N.H.H [Link] 16,382(214–2) 65,534(216–2)
C 192–223 110 N.N.N.H [Link] 2,097,150(221–2) 254(28–2)
D 224–239 1110 ReservedforMulticasting
E 240–254 1111 Experimental;usedforresearch

20
Note:
→ ClassAaddresses127.0.0.0to127.255.255.255cannotbeusedandisreservedforloopbackanddiagno
sticfunctions.
→ [Link]-
[Link]
estedhostsrecognize.
→ [Link]-
orderbitsinaclassEaddressaresetto1111.
→ AllbitswithinthenetworkIDcannotbesetto1.All1'sinthenetworkIDarereservedforuseasanIPbroad
castaddress.
→ AllbitswithinthenetworkIDcannotbesetto0.All0'sinthenetworkIDareusedtodenoteaspecifichoston
thelocalnetworkandarenotrouted.

PrivateIPAddresses:Thereareaddressesusedintheprivatenetworks

Class PrivateNetworks SubnetMask AddressRange

A [Link] [Link] [Link]-[Link]
B [Link]-[Link] [Link] [Link]-[Link]
C [Link] [Link] [Link]-[Link]

IX. NETWORKSECURITY

Networksecurity consistsoftheprovisionsandpoliciesadoptedbya networkadministratortopreventandmo

nitorunauthorizedaccess,misuse,modification,ordenialofacomputer network and network-
accessibleresources.

IX.1NetworkSecurityProblems
Networksecurityproblemscanbedividedroughlyintofourintertwinedareas:secrecy,authentication,nonrep
udiationandintegritycontrol.

1. Secrecy:Thisisalsocalledconfidentiality,andhastodowithkeepinginformationoutofthehandsofun
authorizedusers.
2. Authentication:thisdealwithdeterminingwhomyouaretalkingtobeforerevealingsensitiveinformat
ionorenteringintoabusinessdeal.
3. Nonrepudiation:Thisdealswithsignatures:[Link]
derforabook,whichKartikclaimsheneverplaced?
4. Integrityofservice:Howdoesoneensurethatthemessagereceivedwasreallytheonesent,andnotsome
thingthatamaliciousadversarymodifiedintransitorconcocted?

21
 IX.2Typesofattacksoveranetwork
Weclassifytheattacksthatcompromisenetworksecurityaspassiveattacksandactiveattacks.

a) PassiveAttacks:Theseattacksareinthenatureofeavesdroppingon,ormonitoringof,transmissions.T
[Link]
[Link]:
 releaseofmessagecontentswhereaneavesdroppertriestolearnthecontentsofwhatisbeingtransmitted
.Thiscanbepreventedbyencryption
 trafficanalysis:wheretheopponenttriestoobservethepattern,frequencyandlengthofmessagesbeing
exchangedwhichcouldbeusedinguessingthenatureofthecommunicationthatistakingplace.
b) ActiveAttacks:Activeattacksinvolvesomemodificationofthedatastreamorthecreationofafalsestre
[Link]
[Link],thegoalistodetectthemandtorecoverfroma
nydisruptionordelayscausedbythem.

IX.3Datacompressionanddataencryption
Inothertosenddataeasilythroughanetwork,itisrequiredtocompressitinothertoreducespaceforstorageandba
[Link]
ormat,[Link]:

a) GraphicInterchangeFormat(GIF):Thisisawidelyusedcompressionformatthatisusedforstoringan
dtransferringgraphicimagesinrelativelysmallfilesovercomputernetworksuchasInternet
b) JointPictureExpertGroup(JPEG):Thisisapopularfilecompressionformatforstoringandtransferri
ngcolourphotographandhighqualityimagesinrelativelysmallfilesovercomputernetworksuchasInte
rnet
c) MotionPictureExpertGroup(MPEG):Thisisastandardfilecompressionformatforstoringandtrans
ferringdigitalaudioandvideo(movingimages)inrelativelysmallfilesovercomputernetwork
d) Huffmancoding:Thisisalosslesscompressiontechniqueinwhichthecharactersinadatafileareconver
tedtoabinarycode,wherethemostcommoncharactersinthefilehavetheshortestbinarycode,andthelea
stcommonhavethelongest.
e) Run-
lengthencoding:Thisacompressiontechniquethatisdesignedforcompressing,long,repetitivecharac
terstringsinapieceoftext,aswellascompressingbyteofamonochromeimagefile.

[Link]
[Link]:losslesscompressionandloss
ycompression.
- Losslesscompressionistheformofcompressioninwhichtheoriginaldatacanberestoresexactly.
(ex:zip)

22
 - Lossycompressionistheformofcompressioninwhichtheoriginaldatacannotberestoredexactlyduet
olossofsomeofitselements(ex:mp3)
Dataencryptionreferstomathematicalcalculationsandalgorithmicschemesthattransformplaintextintocyp
hertext,aformthatisnon-
[Link]
echanismtodecryptthedata,transformingittotheoriginalplaintextversion.

23