10.

EXCRETION

 Removal of waste products of metabolism, toxins and excess substances (e.g. water and
salts.

Excretory organs

 Kidneys
 Lungs
 Liver
 Skin

Lungs - remove carbon dioxide produced from respiration from the body.

Liver - removes bile pigments formed during destruction of red blood cells. Bile pigments
are the

only excretory wastes that are removed the alimentary canal.

Skin - removes salts and traces of urea. Loss of waste products through the skin is called
incidental

loss.

Kidneys

Functions: excretion – remove urea, toxic substances, used hormones and substances in
excess e.g.

salts and water.

Osmoregulation – regulation of the amount of water in blood.

KIDNEY STRUCTURE

- Humans have two kidneys, bean-shaped and reddish brown in colour. They are located
towards the back of the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the vertebral column.
Adrenal gland is found on top of each kidney.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION – shows two main areas, the cortex and the medulla

The cortex

 Is the outer, darker region consisting of many small tubes called kidney/renal tubules.
Each tubule starts in the cortex as a Bowman’s/renal capsule; which is cup-shaped. Each
Bowman’s capsule consists of a glomerulous; which is a knot or coil of capillary.

The medulla

 Inner, lighter and thicker region which consists of conical shaped structures called
pyramids. Pyramids are kidney tubules or nephrons together with their collecting ducts.
The medulla leads to a funnel shaped space called renal pelvis. The renal pelvis is an
enlarged part of the ureter inside the kidneys.

Each ureter leads to a urinary bladder; which is an elastic muscular bag. The Urinary bladder is
situated in front of the rectum. It temporarily stores. At the bottom of the bladder is a ring
sphincter muscle; which controls movement of urine (when it relaxes, it opens to let urine out
through a urethra). Urethra is a duct through which urine passes from the bladder to the outside
of the body.
STRUCTURE OF A NEPHRON
THE URINARY SYSTEM
FORMATION OF URINE

 There are two processes involved during formation of urine – ultrafiltration and selective
reabsorption

ULTRAFILTRATION

 Blood is sent to the kidneys through the renal arteries which finally go into the
glomerulus (high coil of blood capillary) in the renal capsules. The high blood pressure in
the glomerulus forces water and small molecules such as glucose, amino acids, excess
salts and nitrogenous wastes out of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule forming a
glomerular filtrate. Blood cells, platelets, blood/plasma protein etc. remain in blood.
Ultrafiltration occurs because of ; high blood pressure from the heart as well as a filter
membrane of the Bowman’s capsule which allows only small molecules to pass through
it.

SELECTIVE REABSORPTION

 As the filtrate trickles down the renal tubule, useful substances are taken back into the
bloodstream by selective reabsorption. All glucose and amino acids, most of the water,
some salts (mineral ions) are absorbed back into blood. Urea, together with excess salts,
used hormones and toxic substances and the remaining water form urine.

FACTORS THAT CAUSE VARYING COMPOSITIONS OF URINE

 The composition of urine may differ depending on several factors.

 If one eats protein-rich diets, there will be a lot of urea present in urine.
 Eating too much salty foods leads to a lot of salts being released in urine.
 If one eats too much sugary foods, this may cause sugar to be present in urine.
 If one eats too much sugary foods and too much liquid, a large volume of urine is
produced.
OSMOREGULATION

 The water potential of blood depends on the amount of water and salts present in plasma.
The amount of water present in plasma/blood is controlled by a hormone produced by
pituitary gland called antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Therefore, osmoregulation is the
control of water and salute levels in blood to maintain water potential in the blood within
narrow limits.

HOW KIDNEYS WORK AS OSMOREGULATORS

 The part of the brain that controls the amount of water in blood is the hypothalamus.
When the blood is concentrated (low water potential), the hypothalamus detects the
change and send nerve impulses (electrical messages) to the pituitary gland which
releases more ADH. ADH makes the kidney tubules more permeable to water; i.e. the
kidney tubules reabsorb more water resulting in less and more concentrated urine
produced.

When the blood is dilute (high water potential), still the hypothalamus detects the change
and sends nerve impulses to the pituitary gland. Less or no ADH is produced, making the
kidney tubules less permeable to water. Less water is reabsorbed resulting in production
of large amount of less concentrated urine.

DIALYSIS

 Involves filtering a patient’s blood in a similar way to a kidney. This is usually done
when there is a kidney failure. Kidney failure could be due to; a kidney infection or an
accident. If kidney failure is temporary, patients are put on a dialysis machine until they
recover. If one kidney fails, one can still live a normal life with just one kidney. If both
kidneys fail, the best option is a kidney transplant. Failure to get a donor, one is put on a
dialysis machine.

HOW A DIALYSIS/KIDNEY MACHINE WORKS

 Blood is drawn from a vein in a patient’s arm and is pumped through the tubing in the
dialysis machine. The tubing is bathed in a specially controlled fluid called dialysis fluid.
The walls of the tubing are partially permeable. The dialysis fluid has a similar
concentration of useful substances e.g. glucose as the patient’s blood/plasma. This helps
to stop the substances from diffusing out of the patient’s blood. Small molecules, e.g.
 urea and other waste products diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Blood cells
and other large molecules remain in the tubing. The filtered blood is returned to a vein in
the patient’s arm. The tubing is usually coiled to allow sufficient time for diffusion to
occur. The patient’s blood and dialysis fluid flow in opposite directions to maintain
diffusion gradient. The dialysis fluid is constantly changed to maintain diffusion gradient
of waste substances; i.e. there must be high concentration of waste substances in the
tubing than in the dialysis fluid. The blood of the Patient is usually drawn from a vein
because it has more waste products than an artery.

THE STRUCTURE OF A DIALYSIS MACHINE

ADVANTAGES OF A DIALYSIS MACHINE OVER A KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

 One does not have to use immune-suppressant drugs for the rest of their life.
 It is compatible with everyone. Getting a donor is very rare.
 Few complications with treatment.
 Cheaper than kidney transplant.

DISADVANTAGES

 It is time consuming.
 Dietary restrictions.

ADVANTAGES OF A KIDNEY TRANSPALNT

 After getting a donor, one leads a normal life again.

 Patients are not attached to a machine.
 Few dietary restrictions.
DISADVANTAGES

 Surgery is required.
 It is expensive.
 There has to be tissue match with the donor.
 Donors are scarce.
 Lifelong medication.
11. HOMEOSTASIS

 Is the maintenance of the internal environment within narrow limits.

Homeostatic organs

 Skin
 Lungs
 Kidneys
 Liver

Lungs

 Through gaseous exchange, they help to maintain the concentration of carbon dioxide
and oxygen with narrow limits.

Liver

 Regulates blood glucose concentration/level. When there is excess glucose, the liver cells
convert it into glycogen in the presence of insulin. When there is shortage of glucose, the
liver cells convert stored glycogen back to glucose in the presence of glucagon. This
helps to restore the level of glucose in bood.
 Due to metabolic reactions that take place in the liver, heat is produced which helps to
maintain the body temperature within narrow limits.
 It detoxifies substances thus maintainjng the level /amount of poisonous substances
relatively low in the body.
 It regulates the amount of amino acids in blood by converting excess amino acids into
glycogen and urea; this process is called deamination.

Kidneys

 Through osmoregulation which helps to maintain the water potential and salt
concentration in blood within narrow limits.
THE SKIN

Functions

 Helps to maintain body temperature within narrow limits.

 Acts as protective layer
 Responsible for sensitivity

THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

EPIDERMIS

- Consists of specialised pigment cells which produce a black pigment called melanin.
Melanin gives the skin its colour and also protects the skin against harmful ultraviolet
rays of the sun. The more melanin, the darker the skin. It also consists of three layers; the
outer layer which is called the cornified layer, the middle layer which is called the
granular layer and the inner layer which is called the Malpighian layer. Cells in the outer
layer are dead, dry and flat because of keratin deposits. The outer layer is waterproof
which prevents uncontrolled water loss by evaporation. It forms a protective covering
over the body surface thereby preventing mechanical injury and entry of disease-causing
microorganisms in the body unless the skin is cut. The cells of the cornified layer are
continually being rubbed off but they are replaced by new cells from the granular layer.
The granular layer consists of living cells that move upwards due to cell division in the
innermost Malpighian layer. The cells become, dead, dry and flat as the move upwards,
giving rise to the cornified layer. The living cells of the Malpighian layer produce
melanin.
DERMIS

- Inner, thicker layer of the skin beneath the epidermis composed of connective tissue,
blood and lymph vessels, sweat glands, hair follicles, sebaceous glands and nerve
endings. The primary role of the dermis to support the epidermis and enable the skin to
thrive. It also plays other roles due to presence of the above mentioned structures. Nerve
endings are able to detect touch, pressure, pain and temperature stimuli. Hair follicles
produce hair around the body. Although hair is found in the dermis, it is produced by the
epidermis. The inner layer of the epidermis sinks into the dermis, forming a hollow tube
called the hair follicle. Each hair grows inside the follicle. At the base of the hair follicle
is a mass of tissue containing blood capillaries and nerves, the hair papilla. It is covered
with epidermal cells that consistently divide, pushing new cells upwards. The cells that
are being pushed upwards soon die and harden, forming hair.
- Hair helps in temperature regulation and many other functions in different animals.
- Sebaceous glands – secrete an oily substance called sebum which helps to keep the skin
moist. It helps to prevent entry of foreign substances and also keeps hair supple/flexible.
- Sweat glands – each sweat gland is a coiled tube formed by the downward growth of the
epidermis. It forms a tight knot/coil in the dermis and is richly supplied with blood
capillaries. Sweat glands secrete sweat. The secreted sweat flows through a sweat duct
and a sweat pore to the skin surface. Sweat is produced in response to certain conditions
such as heat and stress. Sweat is a watery solution of salts (mainly sodium chloride) and
traces of urea.
- Blood vessels – carry nutrients to the skin and discard waste products created by
metabolism within the skin. In addition, they help to regulate the body temperature.
- Hypodermis or subcutaneous layer – found below the dermis. It is made up of adipose
cells (adipose tissue) where fat is stored. The fat in the cells serves an insulation
preventing heat loss.

TEMPERATURE REGULATION

- The hypothalamus in the brain controls body temperature. Any slight changes in body
temperature are detected by the hypothalamus.

HEAT GAIN MECHANISMS

- When the body temperatures fall below 37 oC, the hypothalamus detects the change and
sends nerve impulses to the different parts of the body. The following processes occur:
1. Vasoconstriction – narrowing of the arterioles of the skin. When the arterioles of the skin
narrow or constrict, less blood flows through the blood capillaries, hence less heat is lost
 either by radiation, conduction or convection.
NB the skin becomes pale due to vasoconstriction.
2. Sweat production is inhibited – sweat glands become inactive therefore no sweat is
produced hence heat loss through sweating is prevented.
3. Rate of metabolism increases in the liver which produces heat.
4. The erector muscles contract causing the hairs on the skin to erect or stand upright thus
trapping a thick layer or blanket of air. Air is a good insulator, thus prevents heat loss
from the body.*it is not effective in human because we have few hairs on our skin.
5. Shivering: this is the rapid uncontrollable contractions of the muscles. The muscles
generate a lot of heat, which restores the temperatures to normal.

Ways of gaining heat

 Exercising
 Put on warm clothes
 Taking in hot beverages
 Warming rooms with heater

Heat loss mechanisms

When the body temperature rises above C, the hypothalamus detects the change and sends
nerve impulses to the skin and the following changes occur:

 Sweating: sweat glands produce more sweat. As sweat evaporates from the surface of the
skin, more latent heat of vaporization is lost from the body. This is a very effective
means of losing heat. * Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to
change a substance from a liquid state to a gas state.
 Vasodilation: the widening of the arterioles of the skin. When they widen more blood
flows through the blood capillaries, hence more heat is lost through the skin by radiation,
convection and conduction.
 The metabolic rate decreases hence less heat is produced from metabolic reactions.
 The erector muscles relax, and then hairs lie flat trapping less or no air at all. More heat
is lost from the skin.
 Rapid breathing: the breathing rate increases thus removing a lot of heat through
exhaling.

Ways losing heat

 Put on light clothes

 Fan on
 Take cold beverages
 Swim
  Sit in the shade

Negative feedback

 It is an opposite effect due to an original stimulus. If a system is disturbed, the

disturbance sets in motion a sequence of events in order to restore the system to its
original state.
12. COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

Coordination is the way in which organs and systems of the body are made to work together
efficiently. In mammals, coordination is achieved through two systems; the nervous system and
endocrine system.

Need for coordination

- It helps organisms to respond to stimuli, either internal or external.

Components of a coordinated behaviour

1. Stimulus: it is any change, either internal or external that causes the body to react. E.g.
sound, pain, temperature, touch, taste.
2. Receptors: these are the structures that detect the stimuli and convert them into nerve
impulses. E.g. chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors,
baroreceptors.
3. Coordinators: organs that receive the information from receptors and use it to bring
about response. E.g. brain, spinal cord
4. Effectors: parts of the body that are controlled by the coordinators to actually give out
response. E. g. muscles, glands
5. Response: an actual action towards the stimulus, or behaviour provoked by actual stimuli.
E.g.
- Blinking when something enters the eye
- Screaming to a needle prick
- Moving your hand away from a hot substance

Coordination in humans is achieved through two systems, namely: nervous system, endocrine
system

NERVOUS SYSTEM:

 Central nervous system (CNS)

 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – consists of nerves (cranial nerves and spinal nerves).
  Cranial nerves originate from the brain.
 Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord.

NERVE CELLS (NEURONES)

- Are animal cells. They have a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm, enclosed in a cell
membrane. The region of the neurone where the nucleus is located is called a cell body.
Neurons differ from other animal cells by having a cytoplasm that extends outwards from
the cell body, forming long fine threads. These threads are called nerve fibres. These
threads are the ones along which nerve impulses travel to and from all parts of the body.
Nerve impulses travel along nerve fibres in only one direction. They pass into CNS along
the fibres of the sensory neurons abs out of the CNS along fibres of the motor neurons.

TYPES OF NEURONS

1. Sensory neurons
2. Relay neurons
3. Motor neurons

SENSORY NEURONS (RECEPTOR NEURONS)

- They transit nerve impulses from the receptors to the CNS. They have two long fibres, a
dendron which conducts impulses from the receptors to the cell body and an axon which
conducts impulses from the cell body to the CNS.
RELAY NEURONS (CONNECTOR, MULTIPOLAR NEURON)

- They link the sensory neurons to the motor neurons. They transmit nerve impulses
between sensory neurons and motor neurons. They are located in the CNS.

MOTOR NEURONS (EFFECTOR NEURONS)

- They transmit nerve impulses from CNS to the effectors.

THE BRAIN

Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain

FOREBRAIN

- Consists mainly of the cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into
the left and right cerebral hemispheres, which are separated by a deep furrow called
median fissure. It is responsible for decision-making, memory, emotions, intelligence,
reasoning ability, will-power, imagination and voluntary actions.
- Hypothalamus: controls body temperature, water balance in blood, sleepiness, appetite
etc.
 - Pituitary gland: found at the base of the cerebrum just below the hypothalamus. It id part
of the endocrine system. It secretes many different hormones such as ADH, growth
hormone, FSH, LH, etc.

MIDBRAIN

- Is a small stalk, about 2 cm long and composed mainly of nerve fibres to link the
cerebrum to the rest of the CNS.

HINDBRAIN

- Consists of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata.

- The cerebellum maintains balance of body; coordinates voluntary movements such as
running, dancing, walking.
- Medulla oblongata: responsible for involuntary actions such as blinking, sneezing,
breathing rate, vomiting. It controls dilation and constrictions of blood vessels,
peristalsis.

SPINAL CORD

- Continuation of the hindbrain. It runs down the middle of the back, surrounded by a
vertebral column or backbone. The transverse section shows two regions; white matter
and grey matter. The white matter is the outer region which consists of nerve fibres while
the grey matter is the inner, which is darker due to cell bodies of neurons.
REFLEX ACTIONS

- Rapid/sudden automatic/spontaneous response to a specific stimulus without conscious

control/thought. For example, blinking when something is about to enter the eye, knee
jerk, withdrawal of a hand from a hot object or needle prick.
- Reflex actions are part of the defence mechanisms of the body; they protect the body
against harm/danger.

Reaction time is the time taken between receiving a stimulus by the receptors and responding to
it by the effectors.

Reflex arc is the shortest path along which a nerve impulse travels in a reflex action. It consists
of the following;

Receptor

Sensory neuron

Relay neuron (reflex centre)

Motor neuron

Effector

REFLEX ARC AND REFLEX ACTION

Reflex actions can be classified as cranial or spinal reflexes.

- Cranial reflexes are controlled by the brain (not the conscious will of the brain) because
their reflex arc lies within the brain. Examples are reflexes around the head region such
as blinking, sneezing, and pupil’s reflex.
- Spinal reflexes; their arc lies within the spinal cord. Examples are reflexes below the
head region such as knee jerk reflex, removal of a hand from a hot object/ needle prick.

SYNAPSES

- A synapse is a microscopic gap between neurons. A neurotransmitter substance (chemical

substance) is secreted by a synoptic knob to enable nerve impulses to cross or pass from
one neuron to another.

VOLUNTARY ACTIONS (DELIBERATE ACTIONS)

- Actions that are done with conscious control, such as kicking a ball, dancing, running etc.

NERVE TISSUE

- A bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue. It can contain either
sensory nerve fibres only or motor nerve fibres only or it can have mixed fibres (both
sensory and motor nerve fibres in one nerve tissue).
THE HUMAN EYE

- Humans have two eyes which are spherical in shape. They are located within the sockets
in the skull called eye orbits. They are held in position by three pairs of muscles which
also allow them to move in all directions.
- The eye orbit is protects almost all parts of the eye except the front.
- Eyelids also protect the eye. The blinking mechanism of the eyelids stops foreign bodies
from entering the eye.
- Eyebrows prevent sweat, water and other debris from entering the eye.
- Eyelashes protect the eye from debris.
- Tear glands (lacrimal glands) secrete tear fluid which is wiped across the surface of the
eye each time one blinks. Tear fluid keeps the eye moist and stops it from drying. It also
prevents growth of bacteria. Excess tear fluid drains through the tear ducts into the nose.
Tear glands are located above each eyeball, under the eyelids.
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE

 Sclera/sclerotic layer – the outer, whitish, tough, fibrous and non-elastic layer of the eye.
It protects the delicate inner parts if the eye. It also maintains the shape of the eyeball. It
is continuous with cornea.
 Conjunctiva – a thin, clear mucous membrane covering the sclera which lubricates the
eye.
 Cornea –a transparent dome shaped layer continuous the sclera. It refracts light into the
eye.
 Pupil –a hole on the centre of the iris through which light enters the eye.
 Iris –a disc of muscle tissue in front of the lens. It is pigmented or coloured due to
presence of melanin which gives the eye its colour. It regulates the amount of light
entering the eye. It has two sets of antagonistic muscles called the circular and radial
muscles.
 Choroid layer (middle layer) –a pigmented layer which consists of numerous blood
vessels. It absorbs light and prevents internal reflection of light. Presence of blood vessels
brings oxygen and nutrients to the eye.
 Ciliary body – the thickened region or ring of tissue at the front of the choroid layer,
consisting of ciliary muscles. Ciliary muscles control the shape of the lens.
 Suspensory ligaments – connect the ciliary body to the lens, holding it in place. NB:
suspensory ligaments are not muscles, therefore, they do not contract of relax. They
either tighten or loosen to adjust the shape of the lens.
 Aqueous humour –a transparent watery fluid found between the cornea and the lens. It
maintains the front of the eyeball firm. It also provides oxygen and nutrients to the
cornea, iris and lens.
 Lens – a transparent disc-shaped, biconvex elastic structure made up of elastic tissue. It
refracts and focuses light onto the retina.
 Vitreous humour –a transparent jelly-like (gelatinous) fluid found behind the lens. It
maintains the shape of the eyeball.
 Retina (inner layer) –the light sensitive layer on which an image is formed. It consists of
light sensitive cells (photoreceptors); the rods and the cones. Cones are sensitive to bright
light and enable us to see colours. Rods are more sensitive to light because they operate
even in the smallest amount of light (dim light). Photoreceptors are connected to the optic
nerve. On the retina, there is a spot (small depression) called the fovea (yellow spot). The
cones are mostly concentrated on the fovea. This is the area where a clear image is
formed.
 Optic nerve – connects the eyeball to the brain.
 Blind spot – is a region where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball. It has no photoreceptors,
so no imagine forms on it.
THE PUPIL’S REFLEX

- A reflex that controls the diameter of the pupil in response to changes in light intensity.
The iris consists of the circular and the radial muscles which work antagonistically. In
bright light (high light intensity), the circular muscles contract while the radial muscles
relax making the size of the pupil small (making the pupil to constrict) so that less light
enters the eye. In dim light (low light intensity), the circular muscles relax while the
radial muscles contract, dilating the pupil so that more light enters the eye.

ACCOMMODATION OR FOCUSING

FOCUSING OF NEAR AND FAR OBJECTS

DISTANCE CILIARY MUSCLES SUSPENSORY LENS

LIGAMENTS
Near or close Contract Slacken or loosen Shorter and thicker or
more convex
Distant or far Relax Tighten or become Longer and thinner or
taut less convex

ACCOMODATION

- The adjustment of the lens of the eye so that clear imagines of objects at different
distances are formed on the fovea of the retina. The cornea does most refraction of light
while the lens does the fine adjustments. The parts of the eye involved in accommodation
are ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments and the lens.
- Near vision – when looking at near objects, the light rays from the objects spread out or
diverge. They must be refracted sharply to bring a focus on the retina. Therefore, the
ciliary muscles contract causing the suspensory ligaments to slacken, which in turn,
causes the lens to become shorter and thicker so that it can focus light onto the retina.
- Distant vision – when looking at far objects, the light rays are almost pararrel to one
another. They do not need to be refracted much so the ciliary muscles relax causing
suspensory ligaments to tighten, pulling the lens, making it longer and thinner which
focuses light onto the retina.
FORMATION OF AN IMAGE

- When light falls onto an object, light rays are reflected in all directions, but some fall
onto the eye. The light rays that fall onto the eye are refracted through the cornea and the
different parts of the eye and become focused on the retina where an image is formed.
The image formed is smaller than the actual object and is inverted. The image stimulates
the photoreceptors depending on the amount of light. Nerve impulses are produced when
light falls onto the photoreceptors. These impulses are transmitted to the brain through
the optic nerve. The brain interprets these impulses so that a clear, upright imagine of the
object with the correct size and distance is seen.

MUSCLES, BONES AND MOVEMENT

- Muscles can be classified as voluntary and involuntary muscles.

Involuntary muscles control involuntary actions. Examples of involuntary muscles are;

 Ciliary muscles of the eye

 Muscles (circular and radial) of the iris
 Pyloric sphincter muscle
 Cardiac muscles

Voluntary muscles control voluntary actions. Examples of voluntary muscles are;

 Biceps and triceps muscles which allow movement of the arm. They are attached to
bones and therefore are called skeletal muscles.
MUSCLES OF THE ARM

- Biceps muscles are attached to the scapula and the humerus at one end and to the radius
at the other end.
- Triceps muscles are attached to the scapula and humerus at one end and ulna at the other
end.

NB: humerus, radius and ulna are the bones of the arm.

Scapula is the shoulder bone

- Biceps and triceps muscles work antagonistically.

- Muscles are attached to bones by tough bands of connective tissue called tendons.
Tendons are similar to ligaments, except that ligaments join bones to each other.

JOINTS

- Areas where two or more bones meet. Movement occurs at the joints.
- There are two types of joints; movable and immovable joints.

Movable joints – ball and socket at the shoulder and hip

Hinge joint at the elbow and knee

BALL AND SOCKET JOINT

- Allows movement in all directions. Bones of the arm that make up the ball and socket
joint are the scapula and the humerus. The humerus is round headed at one end and it fits
into the socket of the scapula, allowing movement.

HINGE JOINT

- Allows movement in one plane (back and forth). Bones of the arm that make up the hinge
joint are the radius, ulna and humerus.
WHAT CAUSES THE ARM TO BEND?

- When the biceps muscles contract, at the same time, the triceps muscles relax. The biceps
muscles pull the radius and the arm bends. Bending of the hinge joint is called flexion.
The biceps muscles are therefore called the flexor muscles.

STRAIGHTENING OF THE ARM

- Straightening of the hinge joint is called extension. When the triceps muscles contract, at
the same time, the biceps muscles relax. The triceps muscles pull the ulna which causes
the arm to extend or straighten. Thus the triceps muscles are called the extensor muscles.

DIAGRAMS OF EXTENSION AND FLEXION OF THE ARM

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- A collection of ductless glands that produce hormones and secrete them directly into the
blood so that they can travel to tissues and organs all over the body. The hormones
released control many important functions in the body, including growth and
development, metabolism, reproduction and many more.

There are two types of glands; endocrine glands and exocrine glands.

- Exocrine glands release their secretions through ducts. E.g. sweat glands, salivary
glands, and mammary glands, liver.
- Endocrine glands are ductless and release their sections directly into the blood. These
glands produce chemical substances called hormones.

A hormone is a chemical substance produced by an endocrine gland, carried by blood, which

alters or modifies the activity of one or more specific target tissues or organs. Organs affected by
hormones are called target organs. Hormones are destroyed in the liver after doing their work.

Examples of endocrine glands are; pituitary glands, adrenal glands, gonads (testes and ovaries),
thyroid gland, pancreas.

Pituitary gland – situated at the base of the forebrain just below the hypothalamus. It is the
endocrine system’s master gland. It instructs other glands to produce their hormones. It
produces many important hormones, such as growth hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH),
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and others.

Thyroid gland - is situated on either side of the larynx (top of the trachea). It produces
thyroxine, which controls metabolism. It also controls growth and development of the body.

Pancreas – (has specialised cells called islets of Langerhans), secretes insulin and glucagon
which help in the regulation of blood glucose level. NB: pancreas is both an endocrine exocrine
gland. It has cells that secrete a digestive juice called pancreatic juice. It is poured into the
digestive tract through a pancreatic duct. It also has cells that produce insulin and glucagon and
secrete them directly into blood.

Gonads – testes (in males) produce testosterone which helps in the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics.

Ovaries (in females) produce progesterone and oestrogen which help in the
development of female secondary sexual characteristics.
Adrenal glands – are situated on top of each kidney. They produce a hormone called adrenaline
which has a wide range of effects on the body.

ADRENALINE

- Is sometimes called an emergency hormone or fight or flight hormone. It is usually

secreted when an immediate action has to be taken, such as when we become scared or
frightened, or faced with physical or emotional threat. It prepares the body for ‘fight or
flight’ response.

EFFECTS OF ADRENALINE ON ITS TARGET ORGANS

It causes the muscles to tense or shiver. This makes them ready for any action.

All these effects make the animal to be more able to react quickly and vigorously in a dangerous
situation.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS

There are chemical substances that control growth and development in plants. They are auxins.
Auxins are produced by the tips of roots and shoots. They are transported to other parts of the
plant by diffusion, from cell to cell or through the phloem. Cell division occurs at the tips of
roots and shoots as they grow. As cell division occurs, new cells are produced and are pushed
back down the shoot or up the root. The older cells do not divide, but grow by becoming longer
and larger. Auxin stimulates them to become longer and larger.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF AUXINS

- They promote apical dominance

- Auxins promote the development of fruit
- Auxins can be used as weed killers.
- Auxins prevent the premature fall of fruits form the tree
- They promote rooting
- They can be used to produce seedless fruit. (synthetic auxins)

TROPISMS

- The growth/response of a plant towards or away from a stimulus.

Types of tropism

- Phototropism
- Geotropism

Phototropism: the response of plants to light, either towards or away from light

Geotropism: the response of plants to gravity.

If a plant grows towards the stimulus, it is a positive response, but if it grows away from the
stimulus it is a negative response.

THE STEM/SHOOTS – shoots grow towards light and it’s called positive phototropism. Roots
grow away from light and it is negative phototropism.
Geotropism – Roots grow towards gravity which is positive geotropism. Shoots grow away from
gravity which is negative geotropism.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE NERVOUS AND ENDCRINE SYSTEMS

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- Information is in the form of nerve - Information is in a form of hormones
impulses
- Impulses travel through nerve fibres - Messages travel through blood
- Made up of neurons - Made up of secretary glands
- The effect of nerve impulses is short - The effect of hormones may last long
lived.
- Nerve impulses travel at a very high - Travel at a relatively low speed
speed

DIABETES MELLITUS

A metabolic disorder (condition) in which the body is unable to maintain its blood glucose
concentration within narrow limits.

Types of diabetes

Type one / Juvenile or early on-set (insulin dependent)

Type two/Insulin independent/ late on-set / Adult

Type 1

- Caused by failure or insufficient production of insulin by the pancreas to convert excess

glucose into glycogen. Develops from an early stage.

Type 2

Failure of body cells to respond to insulin (makes cells permeable to glucose). It develops mainly
in adults and obese people.

Signs and symptoms of diabetes

- Frequent urination
- Excessive weight loss
- High concentrations of glucose in urine
- Insatiable thirst
- Fatigue
 - Slow healing of wounds
- Blurred vision which could lead to total blindness
- Dental problems
- Foot ulcers
- In men it leads to impotence- failure to erect

Treatment of type 1

- Insulin injection
- Use of diabetic diet
- Exercise regularly
- Carry sugary food e.g. Sweets with them because their blood glucose level could drop too
low.

Treatment of type 2

- Non- insulin medication (Metformin tablets)

- Obese people should shed weight off
- They may be given insulin injection to increase permeability of cells to insulin

THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

A drug

- An externally administered substance which can affect / modify chemical reactions in the
body.
- Some drugs occur naturally while others are synthetic. Drugs can be medicinal or non-
medicinal.
- Medicinal drugs (medicines) are used to treat infections, injuries or pain.
- Non-medicinal drugs are used for various personal reasons

Medicinal drugs can be classified into the following categories:

1. Painkillers: used to relieve pain(Paracetamol and aspirin)

2. Antibiotics: cure bacterial infections (penicillin)
3. Antiseptics: to teat bacterial infection (used in soaps and detergents) (Dettol, lifebuoy,
savlon)
4. Fungicides: treat fungul infections. The most common fungul disease is athlete’s foot.
5. Anti- depressants: they are given to people who are suicidal to make them feel better
about themselves.
6. Antiacids: they treat heartbun and indigestion. ( Eno, Gaviscon, Rennies)
Some medicinal drugs can only be prescribed by the doctor or obtained over the counter.

NON- MEDICINAL DRUGS

They are found from the goods that we get from supermarkets while others are only obtained
illegally from the streets (dagga, cocaine, heroin, tik).

Dependants on drugs

One becomes dependent on a particular drug because they take it all the time therefore they
become emotionally and physically addicted to it. When one is emotionally addicted to a drug,
they rely on it for a feeling of wellness. When one is physically addicted, they bodies require
regular doses of that particular drug; failure to acquire it leads to them experiencing withdrawal
symptoms.

Withdrawal symptoms: Physical or mental symptoms that may occur when one tries to suddenly
stop using a drug they were addicted to and dependant on.

E.g. headache, shivering, nausea, sleepless nights, extreme irritability, hallucinations, sweating,
depression.

How to treat addicts

- They can be rehabilitated; this involves a detox or rehabilitation Programme which

gradually helps patients to break their dependence on a particular drug.

TOLERANCE OF DRUGS

When one’s body requires larger doses of the particular drug they are dependent on to have the
same effect.

ANTIBIOTICS

- Substances that kill bacteria without harming the cells of the body.

USES

- To treat and prevent some types of bacterial infections. E.g. TB, pneumonia, meningitis
- They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
- They are used in soaps and disinfectants.
- They are used as medicines.

Effects for over-dose of antibiotics

- Respiratory effects i.e. Nausea, abdominal pain, stomach cramps

 - Skin effects i.e. Pale skin, skin rash, Bluish lips
- They may kill the good bacteria that keep the body healthy.

How antibiotics kill bacteria

- They destroy the cell wall of the bacteria

- They prevent replication of DNA, which stops them from dividing.
- Some antibiotics delay synthesis of certain proteins that make bacteria to grow

*Viruses are different from bacteria in structure therefore antibiotics do not treat viral infections.

Misuse of antibiotics

- You must finish your prescription; certain bacteria may escape the antibiotics and
develop resistance (mutation) towards that antibiotic. Signs and symptoms of the same
infection reappear and will not be treated by the same antibiotic.

Non-medicinal drugs can be classified as:

1. Depressants or sedatives: They slow down the activity of the brain, cause drowsiness and
relax people. They slow down the heart rate and breathing rate. Cause lack of
coordination (unsteadiness). Slurred speech.
- Alcohol
- Heroin
2. Stimulants: they increase alertness and keep people awake. They promote a feeling of
euphoria. They reduce appetite. They increase the heart rate.
- Caffeine (mild stimulation)
- Nicotine
- Cocaine
3. Narcotics: They reduce pain and induce sleep. They cause drowsiness. Reduce anxiety
and aggression. Promote a feeling of euphoria.
- Cocaine (used in anaesthetics)
- Heroin
4. Hallucinogens: trembling and itching. They promote a feeling of euphoria. They cause
hallucinations. They increase the heart rate and blood pressure. Alters the state of
consciousness.
- Dagga- cause dilation of the pupil

5. Inhalants: They are inhaled drugs. They cause relaxation. Dizziness. Hallucinations.
Slurred speech. Lack of coordination
Long term effects

- They damage the brain, which may lead to memory loss.

- Slow and clumsy movement
- Damage of the liver and the kidneys.
 Glue
 Benzene
 Methylated spirit
 Nail polish remover

ALCOHOL

- A commonly used drug found in alcoholic drinks such as beers, spirits, wines. It is a
depressant drug.
- It is formed in the process of alcoholic fermentation.
- Alcohol is absorbed form the gut walls into the blood and is transported to the liver.
Some of the alcohol is broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the liver, in a
process called detoxification. The breakdown of alcohol releases a lot of energy.

Effects of small amounts of alcohol

- It relaxes
- Decreases inhibitions (feeling of self-consciousness)
- Causes poor coordination
- Slows down reflexes.

Effects of large amounts

- When a person takes large of amounts of alcohol, it takes the liver much longer time to
detoxify it, therefore the amount of alcohol in blood increases, making a person
intoxicated or drunk.
- Alcohol is a very addictive drug.
- Continuous use of large amounts of alcohol leads to alcohol dependence(addiction)
therefore one is said to be an alcoholic.

Effects of large consumptions

- Extreme emotions or aggression

- Slurred speech
- Unsteadiness
- Drowsiness
- Vomiting
- Unconsciousness
 - It affects the brain (nervous system) depressant
- It affects the liver and causes a condition called cirrhosis (a permanent damage of the
liver cells, they become tough and fibrous) which could lead to death.

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS

- Drinking and driving may cause road accidents. This is because the judgement is blurred,
reaction time is slowed down. Coordination is poor, lack of concentration.
- Abuse in families (fighting their spouses or children)
- Financial problems because they use a lot of money on alcohol. Alcoholics are also
likely to lose their jobs.
- Alcoholics refuse that they have problems, so it makes it difficult for family members to
help them
- Some alcoholics may engage in unprotected sex, leading to unplanned pregnancies and
STIS.
- Theft
- Selling of belongings
- Alcoholics can get help from associations such as Alcoholics Anonymous(AA)

Withdrawal symptoms

- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Shivering
- Restlessness

HEROIN

- A very powerful depressant drug and it is very addictive. It is made from morphine (a
substance extracted from opium poppy plant).
- It can be snorted / sniffed.
- It can be injected into blood
- It can be smoked

Effects of Heroin

- It gives a sense of euphoria

- It reduces mental alertness
- It slows down the heart and breathing rate.
- It reduces pain.

Long term effects

 - It causes damage to the liver, kidneys, brain and heart
- It can lead to death if over-dosed
- Chronic constipation
- Blood borne infections (e.g. HIV by sharing of unsterilized hypodermic needles)
- Causes painful eyes when they are exposed to light
- In females it interferes with their menstrual cycle
- Its high cost leads addicts to crime and violence.

Withdrawal symptoms

- Runny nose
- Hot and cold flashes
- Diarrhoea
- Goose flesh
- Stomach cramps
- Nervousness

TOBACCO SMOKE

Components of tobacco smoke: Tar, Nicotine, carbon-monoxide, smoke particles

NICOTINE

Nicotine is a stimulant

- Increases alertness
- Increases the heartbeat as well as blood pressure
- Induces euphoria
- It is poisonous and can kill if taken in a large dose
*symptoms of nicotine poisoning: Vomiting and convulsions

Long term effects of Nicotine

- It causes heart diseases (Coronary heart disease) due to formation of blood clots.
- Leads to development of stomach ulcers

CARBON MONOXIDE

It is produced from incomplete combustion

Effects

- It reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells by reacting with haemoglobin
to form a stable molecule known as carboxyhaemoglobin.
- It may cause heart diseases/ problems.

TAR

- A brown sticky substance which stains the teeth and fingers of smokers.
- It contains many different chemicals; some of these chemicals paralyse the cilia lining the
airways. Some of them cause cancer (they increase chances of one developing cancer).

SMOKE PARTICLES

- They are sometimes referred to as particulates. They irritate the airways and the alveoli).
- The irritation may lead to excessive production of mucus and promote swelling of the
walls. It intensifies asthma and promotes emphysema, bronchitis and could lead to
cancer.
- Smoking cigarettes increases chances of one developing respiratory diseases.

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS

- In certain countries, smoking in public is prohibited. Public smoking is not acceptable

because it affects non- smokers who can still inhale the tobacco smoke and it is known as
passive.
- In adults, it could cause the same respiratory diseases as the smokers.
- In children it may cause bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia.
- Pregnant women are advised not to smoke at all because some chemicals from the
cigarette smoke can penetrate through the placenta and affect the developing foetus. This
may lead to mental or physical retardations of the baby or stillborn ( born dead)

DAGGA

- A drug from dried leaves of a plant known as cannabis.

- It can be eaten in the form of cakes
- It can be smoked
- It can be drunk
- It is very addictive

Effects of dagga

- Memory loss( short term)

- Blood shot eyes
 - Bring about a feeling of euphoria
- Dry lips ( it inhibits secretion of the salivary glands)
- Hallucinations
- It increases appetite
- It increases the heart rate

Long term effects

- Increased risk of mental disorders like schizophrenia

- One may develop respiratory diseases.

Withdrawal symptoms

- Insomnia
- Anxiety
- Fever
- Rapid weight loss
- Diarrhoea

COCAINE

- It is made from the leaves of cocoa plant and originates from South America
- It’s a very addictive stimulant drug.
- It increases alertness
- It produces extra- brain activity
- It promotes a sense of well- being
- It can be inhaled
- It can be dissolved in water and injected.
- It can be smoked

Long term effects

- Blood borne disease e.g. HIV when needles are shared

- One can get hepatitis C
- Heart attack/ stroke.
- Permanent damage to the nasal septum caused by inhaling cocaine.
- Permanent damage to the blood vessels.
- May lead to malnutrition and weight loss
- May lead to respiratory failure.

Short term effects

 - High blood pressure
- Nose bleeding
- Contracted blood vessels
- Anxiety and depression
- Euphoria

Withdrawal symptoms

- Fatigue
- Irritability
- Sleepiness
- Paranoia
- Vomiting
- Shaking

Social implications of using cocaine

- Child abuse and negligence because parents use all their money to buy cocaine
- People who live with cocaine users are at risk of health problems due to inhaling
chemical fumes and gases produced when smoking or heating.
- Cocaine user may lose their jobs
- They may steal in order to acquire money to buy cocaine.
- They may sell their possessions.
14. NUCLEAR DIVISION

 A nucleus consists of chromosomes. Chromosomes are very long thin strands of DNA.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a hereditary material of a cell.
 A gene – is a section of DNA, which consists of hereditary material or information and
codes for specific proteins.

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES is a pair of identical (similar in size and shape)

chromosomes. In a nucleus, chromosomes appear in pairs.

Alleles (Allelomorphs) is any two or more forms different forms of a gene that occupy the same
relative position on homologous chromosomes.

Each species of organisms has a unique set of chromosomes.

Diploid cell/nucleus – is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. One set from the mother,
and the other set from the father. In humans, a diploid cell or nucleus contains 46 chromosomes
(23 pairs), with the exception of the gametes.

Haploid cell/nucleus – is a cell or nucleus that contains one set of chromosomes. E.g. gametes
contain 23 chromosomes.
 TYPES OF NUCLEAR DIVISION

MITOSIS

- A nuclear division resulting in genetically identical daughter cells in which the

chromosome number is maintained by exact duplication (replication).

NB: Chromosomes are not easily visible inside the nucleus because they are very thin. They can
only be seen when a cell is about to divide because they become fat and short.

IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS

 It brings about growth of an organism.

 Helps in repair of damaged or worn out tissues
 It brings about asexual reproduction in plants and microorganisms.
MEIOSIS

- A reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid.

IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS

 It brings about sexual reproduction.

 It brings about genetic variation.
15. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

REPRODUCTION – is formation of young ones of the same type/kind.

Reproduction is necessary to prevent extinction of species.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – is the production of genetically identical offspring from one

parent without the involvement of gametes. It is common in plants and unicellular organisms.

Advantages

 Only one parent is involved, so there is no effort made in search of a mate.

 Offspring mature more rapidly than plants that grow from seeds, making them have a
better chance to survive.
 Desirable characteristics are retained as the offspring are identical to the parents.
 Young plants use food resources from the parent plant.

Disadvantages

- No genetic variation production, which leads to less resistance to diseases and climate
changes.
- Undesirable characteristics are passed onto the offspring.
- Both the parent plant and offspring are completing for food and light.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION – is the production which involves the fusion of the haploid
nuclei to form a diploid zygote which results in genetically dissimilar offspring.

It is common in both plants and animals.

Advantages

- It brings about new varieties being produced because characteristics from two parents are
combined.
- Resistance to diseases and climate change is increased.
- No competition for food and light.
Disadvantages

- It is slow means reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction in fungus, Bacteria and Tubers

In Bacteria:

Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission. This occurs when a cell (bacterium divides into
two identical cells).

When the cell is about to divide, the DNA replicates. The cell now divides into two identical
cells.

At desirable conditions, bacteria replicates rapidly.

In Fungi:

E.g. Mould fungus

Multicellular

- It produces asexually by means of spores. These spores are very small and light such
that they can easily be blown away by the slightest breeze. When they land on a suitable
organic matter, they grow into new (germinate) fungus. Meaning they start to develop
into thread like structures called hyphae.
- Some hyphae grow down into the organic matter and secrete digestive enzymes which
digest the matter into soluble substances that they can absorb. While other hyphae grow
upwards and form sporangia (structures that contain spores). When the sporangium
ripens, it bursts open, releasing spores.
Tubers

E.g. Potatoes

Asexual reproduction in potatoes

- Many flowering plants can reproduce asexually (vegetative propagation). The new plants
are formed from parts of the parent plant.
- Tubers are stems modified to store food. As the potato plant grows, some stems grow
downwards instead of upwards. The food made in the leaves of the plant is transported to
these stems underground. These stems grow swellings called tubers in which food is
stored as starch. These tubers grow buds and those buds grow into new plants if
transplanted.
Commercial applications of asexual reproduction in plants

- Plants of good quality can be made to produce asexually and will produce new plants
which are genetically identical.
- Plants produced by asexual reproduction mature rapidly which increases the yields.
- Different varieties of fruits or flowers from one tree. Due to little or no variation we
know what kind of offspring to expect for the parent plant.

Examples of methods of vegetative propagation

- Cutting
- Grafting
- Budding
- Layering
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

- Flowers are reproductive structures in flowering plants thus they contain reproductive
organs of a plant.
- Flowers may be terminal or axillary or born directly on the stem depending on the
position of a flower bud.
- Flowers can be solitary or in clusters. A flower stalk is called a pedicel, some flowers
don’t have a flower stalk and are said to be sessile.
- Inflorescence- a cluster of flowers with a common stalk. The stalk of an inflorescence is
called a peduncle.

PARTS OF FLOWER/WHORLS OF A FLOWER

There are four main parts (whorls) of the flower;

Calyx - a collective term for sepals. In most flowers, the sepals are usually small and green in
colour. They can be free or fused. They protect the flower at the bud stage.

Corolla - a collective name for the petals. Petals are usually large, brightly coloured and scented.
They attract animal pollinators. Some petals may have nectar guides (they guide the
insects/animal pollinators to the nectaries at the base of the flower).

Nectaries - glands that produce nectar (a sugary fluid)

Androecium – a collective term for stamens. It is the male reproductive structure of a flower.
Each stamen consists of an anther and a filament.

Anther- produces pollen grains which contain the male nucleus/ gamete.
Filament - a thin stalk that holds/supports the anther.

Gynaecium - a collective term for carpels/pistils. It is the female reproductive structure of a

flower. Each carpel consists of style, stigma and ovary.

Ovary - the swollen base which consists of one or more ovules, containing the female
gamete/nucleus.

Style: a stalk which ends at the stigma (top end).

Stigma: a stigma can either be sticky or hairy.

Receptacle: all floral whorls are supported on a receptacle. An enlarged end of the flower stalk
(pedicel) which bears all other floral whorls.

TYPES OF FLOWERS

 Unisexual flower - a flower that either contains stamens or carpels only but not both. A
flower with stamens only is called a male flower and one with carpels is a female flower.
 Bisexual/Hermaphrodite- a flower that consists of both stamens and carpels.
 A flower that can be cut into half along one plane is said to have a bilateral symmetry
while one that can be cut into halves along many planes is said to have a radial symmetry.

POLLINATION

- Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Types of pollination

1. Self-pollination
2. Cross-pollination

Self-pollination - transfer of pollen grains form the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
stigma of another flower on the same plant.

Monoecious plant - consists of both male and female unisexual flowers, hence favours self-
pollination.

Dioecious plant - consists of either male or female unisexual flowers, hence favours cross-
pollination.

Cross-pollination - transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on a different plant of the same species.

Factors responsible for pollination are called agents of pollination. Examples are insects and
wind.
Structural adaptations of pollination

WIND POLLINATED FLOWER e.g. MAIZE INSECT POLLINATED FLOWER [Link]

 Have small, dull petals (inconspicuous)  Large, brightly coloured petals
(conspicuous)
 Have no scent  Have a scent(usually sweet)
 Anthers and stigmas hang outside the  Both anther and stigma are inside the
petals flower(within the corolla)
 Do not produce nectar  Produce nectar ( a sugary fluid)
 Produce small, light and smooth pollen  Usually produce large, heavy and
grains rough or sticky pollen grains
 Produce pollen grains in large amounts  Usually produce small amounts of
to increase chances of pollen reaching pollen grains because there is assurance
its destination of the insect vising another plant

Advantages of self-pollination

 Only one parent plant is required.

 Chances of pollination occurrence are high.
 Less pollen grains are wasted
 Good characteristics are maintained
 Self-pollination does not depend on agents of pollination where the anthers and stigmas
mature at the same time.

Disadvantages of self-pollination

 Continued self-pollination lead to the offspring becoming weaker, smaller and less
resistant to diseases.
 No genetic variation hence the offspring becomes less adapted to environmental changes.

Advantages of cross-pollination

 There is genetic variation which increases species chances of survival of environmental

changes.
 The offspring acquire beneficial features from both parents.
 Viable seeds are produced hence the offspring becomes stronger (can be kept longer
before germination)

Disadvantages of cross-pollination

 Low chances of pollination occurring because it happens between two different plants.
 More pollen grains wasted
  Two plants are required
 It is dependent on agents of pollination

FERTILIZATION LEADING TO FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION

Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus
(zygote).

Pollination is the first and most important step in sexual reproduction in plants. It precedes
fertilization. In flowering plants, fertilization takes place inside the ovules found inside the
ovary.

When a mature pollen grain lands on a mature stigma begins to grow or germinate in response to
a sugary fluid secreted by the stigma. A pollen tube grows out of each pollen grain and grows
down the style towards an ovule in the ovary.

Enzymes are secreted from the tip of the pollen tube which digests part of the style tissue.
The pollen tube carries the male gamete or haploid nucleus, the pollen tube enters the ovule
through the microscopic opening called the MICROPYLE. It then releases the male gamete
which fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote and then fertilization has occurred.

Immediately the zygote undergoes mitosis (cell division) producing an embryo. Soon after
fertilization most floral parts are no longer needed such as petals, anthers, sepals wither and fall
off.

Embryo - consists of embryonic shoot which grows into a plumule and an embryonic root which
grows into a radicle. The ovule develops into a seed, the seed encloses the embryo. Some
changes occur on the walls of the ovary and it develops into a fruit.

Fruit: a fertilized ovary that protects the seeds. It also helps in dispersal of seeds.

Structure of a non-endospermic seed e.g. Dicot seed (bean seed)

Seed coat/Testa - a hard outer covering of a seed. It protects the seed from damage.

Cotyledons: stores food in a seed (mainly starch)

Embryo: consists of plumule which develops into a shoot system of a plant during germination
and a radicle which grows into the root system during germination.

Micropyle: an opening on the testa opposite to the tip of the radicle. It permits mostly water to
enter during germination.

Hilum: a scar on the seed left by the stalk which attached the ovule to the ovary wall.

DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

- Dispersal - scattering or spreading of seeds and fruits away from a parent plant over a
wide area.

Advantages of dispersal

 Reduces competition for nutrients and sunlight between the parent plant and the newly
developing area.
 Allows plants to colonise new areas
 It enhances chances for survival
 Minimizes epidemic diseases among seedlings.
 It reduces over crowding

Methods of dispersal

 Water dispersal
 Wind dispersal
  Self-dispersal
 Animal dispersal

SELF-DISPERSAL (explosive method)

E.g. Peas, beans, datura

- The seeds are usually enclosed in pods. When the pods dry up, they split along both edges and
scatter /spread the seeds out.

WIND DISPERSAL

E.g. Dandelion
- They are (seeds/fruits) small and light.

- Some have wing like structures and or parachute like structures.

- They can easily be carried by wind.

ANIMAL DISPERSAL
- Some fruits are large, fleshy and brightly coloured and edible.
- They are eaten by animals and the seed coat cannot be digested by the digestive system.
- The seeds are released through faeces, away from the parent plant.
- People eat fruits and throw away the seed.
- Some fruits are barbed or hooked and they cling on the fur or clothing of humans. E.g.
black jack.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- It consists of two testes/testicles which are oval-shaped, hanging outside the body, one
on either side of the penis. They hang outside the body because the body temperature is
too high for efficient sperm production.
- Testes are enclosed in a scrotum or scrotal sac. Each testis is attached to a spermatic cord
which contains the spermatic artery and vein. A testis is made up of highly coiled
seminiferous tubules. Lining the inner side of the tubules are cells that divide actively in
mature males to produce sperm cells. The function of testes is to produce sperm cells and
the male sex hormone (testosterone), which is responsible for development of the male
secondary sexual characteristics.
- The testicles lead to a highly coiled tubule outside each testis called the epididymis
whose function is to temporarily store sperms.
- A tube called a sperm duct (van deferens) emerges from each epididymis. The two sperm
ducts join up just below the urinary bladder and open into the urethra. Urethra is a long
tube which runs through the centre of the penis.
- Sperm ducts carry the sperms from the testes/epididymis to the urethra/penis. Urethra
carries both sperm cells and urine to the outside of the body. When the sperms pass
through the urethra, a valve closes to stop urine passing through at the same time. Close
to where the sperm ducts meet the urethra, there are glands namely; prostate gland,
seminal vesicle and Cowper’s gland. They make fluids in which sperms can swim and
get nourishment (nutrients e.g. sugars for energy). These secretions together with sperms
form semen (seminal fluid) which is a creamy-white gelatinous fluid.
THE PENIS

- It is made up of a spongy tissue and muscles which are highly supplied with blood
vessels. The spongy tissue contains spaces which become filled with blood during sexual
excitement- this makes the penis to erect so that it may be placed inside the vagina. The
head of the penis is called the glans, it is highly sensitive (most sensitive) and it’s
covered and protected by a loose retractable skin called foreskin. However, the foreskin
is sometimes removed in an operation known as circumcision- mainly to reduce
transmission of STIs.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- It is made up of two whitish oval shaped ovaries attached to the body wall in the lower
regions of the abdomen, one below each kidney. They produce egg cells or ova (sing
ovum). They also produce female sex hormones whose function is to initiate the
thickening of the walls of the uterus in readiness for implantation of the fertilized egg or
embryo, and to control the development of the female secondary sexual hormones.
Oestrogen and Progesterone
- The oviducts/fallopian tubes: leading from the ovaries are fallopian funnels which lie
close to each ovary into which the ovary may release an egg. Each fallopian funnel leads
into a fallopian tube which continues downwards and inwards to the mid-section and
joins the uterus.
- The uterus has thick muscular and elastic walls. The lining of the uterus is soft and
spongy, and is called the endometrium. The muscular neck of the uterus projects into the
vagina and is known as the cervix.
 - Fertilization occurs inside the fallopian tube/oviduct. Implantation and development of
an embryo takes place in the uterus.

VAGINA/BIRTH CANAL

- Remains separate from the urethra. The mouth of the vagina is surrounded by inner and
outer lips called the vulva. Lying in front of the vulva is a small sensitive structure
known as the clitoris- which contains an erectile tissue.

THE GAMETES

The sperm and ovum

 OVUM SPERM
SIZE Larger than a sperm (it stores It is smaller than an ovum (to
food to supply an embryo ease mobility)
through the first few days).
MOBILITY Cannot move on its own- it Able to move due the presence
can move by the help of the of a tail.
cilia lining the fallopian tube
and peristalsis of the oviduct.
QUANTITY One or two eggs produced per More sperms are produced to
month increase chances of
fertilization(anytime)
LIFE-SPAN 12-24 hours About 3 days

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

- A 28 day reproductive cycle that starts when a girl reaches puberty (10-15 years) and
ends at menopause (50-55 years).
- The average menstrual cycle for a woman is 28 days or four weeks.
- A number of factors alter or stop the menstrual cycle or change intervals between periods
(menstruation), such as stress, malnutrition, tiredness, illness etc.
Changes during the menstrual cycle

The ovaries contain many developing follicles, young follicles are called primary follicles- a
primary follicle contains potential egg cell surrounded by follicle cell.

Stage 1- Menstrual period/flow

Day 1-5

The first day of menstrual cycle is the first day of menstruation. The uterine lining /endometrium
breaks down and flows from the uterus together with some blood, out of the body through the
vagina.

Stage 2- Follicle stage

Day 6-13

The uterine lining begins to form and an egg develops and ripens in the follicle in one of the
ovaries.

State 3- Ovulation

Day 14
 On day 14 (approximately) the ripe egg is released from the follicle and bursts out of the wall of
the ovary by a process called ovulation.

Stage 4- corpus luteum stage

Day 15-28

The uterine lining becomes thicker and is filled with blood vessels in readiness for implantation
of a fertilized egg. The remains of the follicle in the ovary develop into a yellow body called
corpus luteum.

If fertilization does not occur, the endometrium starts to break and flow away from the uterus.
The corpus luteum also degenerates and disappears. The whole cycle starts again.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones namely:

1. FSH- Follicle stimulating hormones

2. LH- Luteinising hormone
3. Oestrogen
4. Progesterone

These hormones control the changes in the ovaries and to the uterine lining.

FSH

The pituitary gland secretes more FSH at the beginning of the menstrual cycle. It causes the
follicle and egg to ripen in one of the ovaries. As the egg starts to develop, an ovary secretes
oestrogen.

Oestrogen- causes the endometrium to develop (repair) on the uterine wall. An increased amount
of oestrogen in blood causes the pituitary gland to secrete LH

LH

Luteinising Hormone causes ovulation. The corpus luteum produces progesterone.

Progesterone maintains and causes the uterine to become thicker in readiness for implantation of
the fertilized egg.

If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone and ovaries produce
oestrogen. This means the release of progesterone and oestrogen stop the menstrual cycle during
pregnancy.
If the egg is not fertilised, the woman does not become pregnant, therefore the corpus luteum
degenerates and the amount of oestrogen and progesterone decreases in blood. This causes the
endometrium to breakdown and menstruation begins. The cycle repeats all over again.

Hormones and emotions

Women have mood swings related to the changes in hormone levels in their blood during the
menstrual cycle. These mood swings usually occur at the end of their menstrual cycle, just before
their period starts. This is called pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). It is caused by the decrease of
progesterone in the blood.

How to overcome PMS

- Regular exercise reduces the symptoms

- Healthy diet with lots of fruit and vegetables, plenty of water and proper sleep

MATING AND FERTILIZATION

Humans have sexual intercourse for various reasons at any time, e.g. for reproduction. During
sexual intercourse, a man inserts his erect penis into the female’s vagina. During ejaculation,
sperms are deposited into the vagina near the cervix.

They swim up the cervix, into and beyond the uterus into the fallopian tubes. Most of the sperms
die along the way and never reach the oviducts. If an egg is present, a number of sperms cluster
around it, each of it trying to force its way along the lining of the egg into the egg cell. The
sperm secretes enzymes from the acrosome which digest part of the egg membrane to allow it to
pass through. Once the sperm has penetrated through, a sudden change occurs around the egg
producing a fertilization membrane which stops other sperms from entering. The successful
sperm enters the egg and releases its nucleus which fuses with the egg’s nucleus to form a zygote
and this is called FERTILISATION.

The fertilized egg (zygote) starts to divide by mitosis to produce a ball of cells called an embryo.
The embryo moves towards the uterus by the rhythmic beating of the cilia lining the oviducts.
The embryo takes about 5 days to reach the uterus while still dividing. It sinks and embeds o the
uterine lining and this is called IMPLANTATION.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLACENTA

Soon after implantation, villi begin to grow from the embryo into the uterine lining; they contain
blood capillaries of the embryo. The villi and uterine lining are embedded into each other,
forming a placenta. The placenta consists of the embryonic tissue and part of the uterine lining.
The embryo separates from the placenta by an umbilical cord which keeps the embryo attached
to the placenta.

DEVELOPMENT OF AMNIOTIC SAC/AMNION

The amniotic sac is a membrane that develops simultaneously with the placenta. It encloses the
embryo in a fluid filled cavity known as amniotic cavity. The amniotic cavity contains amniotic
fluid.

FUNTIONS OF THE PLACENTA

- Allows excretory products e.g. urea, CO2 – to diffuse out of the foetus blood into the
mother’s blood.
- Allows oxygen and dissolved minerals ions and nutrients e.g. glucose, amino acids to
diffuse for the mother’s blood into the foetus’ blood.
- Allows protective antibodies to diffuse out of the mother’s blood into the foetus to
protect it from certain diseases.
- Produces progesterone which maintains the uterine lining in a healthy state during
pregnancy and stimulates growth of milk producing glands.

NB. Substances such as alcohol, nicotine and other drugs can cross the placenta from the
mother’s blood into the foetus blood. These substances can harm the foetus by affecting its
growth and development.

FUNTIONS OF THE UMBILICAL CORD

An umbilical cord attaches the foetus to the placenta and consists of two umbilical arteries and
one umbilical vein. Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the placenta.

Umbilical vein: carries oxygenated blood with dissolved food substances from the mother’s
blood to the foetus.

FUNCTIONS OF AMNIOTIC SAC AND FLUID

- Amniotic fluid lubricates the vagina during birth

- The fluid supports and cushions the foetus before birth
- The fluid allows the foetus to move freely during birth
- The fluid absorbs shock and external forces.
- The fluid cannot be compressed hence prevents injury to the foetus.

ANTENATAL CARE

Care during pregnancy

 - Engage in mild exercise e.g. walking
- Healthy diet (balanced) which includes good supply carbohydrates for sufficient energy
to move around, proteins to supply amino acids for making new cells for the baby
muscles for the mother. Plenty calcium for formation of strong bones for the mother and
formation of strong bones for the mother and formation of bones for the baby. Iron for
formation of extra red blood cells to carry oxygen to foetus and formation of
haemoglobin.
- Avoid drugs e.g. smoking, alcohol, medication without prescription.

BIRTH

The period from fertilization/ conception to birth is called gestation, which lasts 9 months
(38weeks). A few weeks before birth, a foetus begins to turn over in the uterus so that the head
faces downwards.

Birth begins with the uterus muscles contracting slowly and rhythmically (1st sign). These
contractions sometimes cause amniotic sac to break, releasing amniotic fluid- however the sac
doesn’t break until the contractions are stronger or going on for a long time. At the beginning
contractions are gentle and there is a great time interval but as time goes on they become
stronger and closer to each other. The muscular contractions slowly cause the cervix to become
wider. After several hours when the cervix is wide enough to allow the baby’s head to pass
through the baby passes down the vagina (the mother can help to actively push the baby down).

Once the head has been pushed out of the cervix and vagina the rest of the body slides easily out.
The baby is born as it passes out of the vagina and takes its first breath. The baby is still attached
to the placenta by the umbilical cord which is cut and plugged/tied to avoid infections from
entering the baby’s body.

Part of the umbilical cord on the baby eventually dries up and falls and the scar that remains is
called the navel/belly button. After a short while, the rest of the umbilical cord, together with the
placenta passes out as afterbirths.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Syphilis

- It is caused by bacteria. It is transmitted by; sexual activities (primarily) anal sex, oral
sex, touching syphilis sores.
- Symptoms usually show after 2-5 weeks.
- Diagnosis- by blood tests.

First signs

- Painless sores around the genitals (in males penis, females vaginal cervix)
 - These sores disappear on their own after a while. However, it means the infection is still
in the body.

Secondary symptoms – Some weeks after the first signs have disappeared

- White patches in the mouth and tongue

- Itchiness rash on the body
- Headache and sore throat
- Loss of appetite and nausea

Treatment

- Use of antibiotics

Early diagnosis is usually treated with a single dose of antibiotics, however if the disease is not
treated in time, it causes major harm to internal organs e.g. brain, heart which may lead to
blindness, paralysis, dementia etc.

Gonorrhoea

- Caused by bacteria
- Transmitted through sexual intercourse. Signs are more obvious in men than woman
therefore it is not easy for women to diagnose it.

In men

- Yellowish discharge from the tip of the penis.

- Burning sensation during urination
- Painful or swollen scrotum
- Swollen lymph nodes

In women

- Yellowish discharge form the vagina

- Burning sensation when urinating
- Frequent urination (likely)
- Pain in the lower part of the abdomen

These symptoms do not always show, therefore women can carry the disease without knowing it.

Treatment

- Use of antibiotics
Failure to treat infection may lead to sterility in both men and women.
HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus

- It attacks and weakens the body’s immune system making it difficult to fight infections
and leads to AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). HIV can lasts for about 10
years before it becomes AIDS if the infected person does not take treatment.
- It is transmitted through –
 Body fluids eg semen and vaginal fluid during sexual intercourse.
 Blood during blood transfusion; however, chances are low because during
transfusion, HIV test is run.
 Mother to child during breastfeeding or birth.
 Unplanned sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Sharing of hypodermic equipment or need with an infected person.

Signs and symptoms

 Loss of appetite
 Rapid loss of body mass
 Chronic cough
 Continuous diarrhoea
 Sores and rash on the skin

When left untreated, it leads to AIDS, a condition whereby the body cannot fight against any
infection. A simple flu can be fatal. An AIDS patient normally has TB, pneumonia to mention
but a few which lead to death. They may have memory loss.

Prevention and treatment

Prevention

 Wear gloves when handling injuries

 Abstinence
 Practice safe sex (use condom)
 Do not share hypodermic equipment

Treatment

 Use of ARVs

Social consequences

- HIV positive people are usually neglected or rejected in the society.

- Families of the infected people incur expenses when taking care of them.
- Time wasted on caring for infected people, which may lead to the caretaker losing their
job or quitting school.
 - Families lose their loved ones
- Families and communities cannot function as they did before because it is often the
youth and middle-aged adults who die from AIDS.

Economic consequences

- The country’s health facilities are put under pressure as free ARVs are supplied, and
money is insufficient.
- People fail to get education due to taking care of their infected family members.
- Families lose their breadwinners which leads to financial hardships.
- Local economies suffer as there aren’t enough skilled labourers to run businesses,
schools or hospitals.

POST-NATAL CARE (CARE AFTER BIRTH)

- It involves breastfeeding and bottle-feeding (using formula milk)

- When a woman about to give birth, hormones that start birth process act on the milk-
secreting cells (mammary glands), stimulating them to produce milk when suckling.

ADVANTAGES OF BREAST MILK COMPARED TO FORMULA MILK

BREAST MILK FORMULA MILK

Cheap Expensive
Readily available Must be prepared
Sterile and clean Bottles may have pathogen unless sterilized
first
Temperature always correct for the baby Needs to be cooled first to a certain
temperature
Nutrients are in right proportions for the baby’s Contains lots of vitamins (A&D and some
body minerals (sodium and phosphorus)
Easily digested by the baby’s body Not easily digested by the baby’s body
Contains antibodies to help the baby fight No antibodies
diseases
An emotional bond is formed between the No emotional bond formed between mother
mother and child during breastfeeding and child
BIRTH CONTROL (CONTRANCEPTION)

- Prevention of pregnancy

There are four methods of birth control

1. Natural methods
a) Abstinence – total avoidance of sex (not having sex at all)
b) Rhythm method/calendar method/muco-thermic method – having sex during safe
period only. That is, couples avoid having sex during the fertile phase. One has to
know their menstrual cycle very well.
c) Withdrawal method – removal of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation.
d) Douching – water or other fluids are entered in the vagina to wash out sperms.
2. Mechanical methods
a) Condom or sheath – made up rubber (the type of rubber mostly used is latex). It
prevents sperms from reaching the egg. It prevents both pregnancy and STIs.
There are female and male condoms. Female condom is placed inside the vagina
before sex. The male condom is fitted onto an erect penis.
b) Cervical cap or diaphragm – a domed shaped rubber cap that is designed to fit the
cervix. It prevents sperms from reaching the egg.
c) Intrauterine device (IUD) or loop – is a T-shaped plastic or metallic device
inserted into the uterus by a medical practitioner. It prevention implantation of the
embryo or fertilised egg.
3. Surgical method
Involves the cutting or tying of the sperm ducts in males and the process is called
vasectomy.
In females it involves the tying of the fallopian tubes and the process is called tubal
ligation.
4. Hormonal Method- Contain synthetic hormones similar to oestrogen and progesterone
(a) The contraceptive pill: contains oestrogen and progesterone which prevent ovulation
(b) Contraceptive injection: one is injected every three months and it contains
progesterone which prevents production of eggs.
(c) Contraceptive patch: a sticky sheet which contains oestrogen and progesterone. It can
be placed on the buttocks or the abdomen or upper arm. It also prevents ovulation.
(d) Contraceptive implant: a flexible tube that contains progesterone. It is put in the upper
arm for three years and it prevents ovulation.
5. Chemical method
(a) Spermicides: they can be in the form of a cream or tablets or a gel. They kill sperm
cells. A cream is placed in the vagina around the cervix. A tablet is inserted in the
vagina and it forms foam. They are used together with other contraceptives e.g.
condom
Infertility

- the inability to conceive

In men-

- Failure to produce sufficient sperms

- Abnormal sperm e.g. without tails
- Accidents/injury
- Impotence

In Women-

- Blocked oviducts
- Failure to ovulate
- Problems with the uterus

Treatment of infertility

- Artificial insemination: if a man cannot produce viable sperms, the semen of an

anonymous donor or close relative is inserted into the woman’s vagina or the fallopian
tube. Done around the ovulation time of a woman.
- If a woman is unable to produce viable eggs, they usually get them from an anonymous
donor or close relative. They are fertilised with the sperm of the woman’s husband,
outside the body. The process is called in vitro fertilisation (IVF). The fertilized eggs are
implanted into the woman’s body. Such women have multiple twins.
- Before IVF is done, a woman is normally given fertility drugs. These drugs help the
fertilised egg.
TWINS

- Two babies born from the same pregnancy, di-zygotic (non-identical) or monozygotic
(identical) twins.
- Dizygotic twins are produced from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperms,
which produce two zygotes. These zygotes are genetically dissimilar. Babies are just like
normal siblings who may be of the same sex or different sexes.
- Identical twins - they are produced form one fertilized egg/zygote. The zygote splits
completely into two and forms new cells. Each cell develops into an embryo. The two
embryos are genetically similar. They are always of the same sex.
- Identical twins have individual amniotic sacs but the share the placenta.
- Non identical twins have separate placentas and different amniotic sacs.

Conjoined twins/ Siamese twins

- Identical twins that form when an embryo divides into two embryos but the separation is
not complete.
17. INHERITANCE

- The transmission of genetic traits or characteristics from parents to off-spring/progeny.

- Genetics is the study of heredity and variation.

These characteristics that can be inherited are called hereditary/genetic traits

- Hair colour
- Eye colour
- Height
- Skin colour
- Shape of the nose
- Shape of lips

Terms used in genetics

Alleles: two or more different forms of a gene which occupy the same relative position on the
homologous chromosomes, and produce contrasting traits.

Homozygote/Homozygous cell: a cell or organism that contains two identical alleles. E.g. BB or
bb

Heterozygous cell: a cell /organism that contains two different alleles. E.g. Bb

Dominant allele: a member of a pair of alleles that is always expressed in a homozygous and
heterozygous condition. It is always visible in the physical appearance.

Recessive allele: a member of a pair of alleles which does not express itself in the presence of a
dominant allele. It can only express itself in a homozygous condition.

Genotype: the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of alleles it possesses.

Phenotype: the physical appearance of an organism due to genotype and the environment.

First filial generation: the off-spring produced by matting/crossing the parental generation.

Second filial generation: the off-spring produced by the first filial generation.

Monohybrid inheritance: a cross involving two individuals that differ in only one
characteristic.

Hybrid: an offspring produced from two different species or varieties.

Symbols used in genetics

P – Parental generation

X – Mating

G – Gametes

F1 – First filial generation

F2 – Second filial generation

Capital letters - Dominant alleles e.g. T- tallness

Small letters - Recessive alleles e.g. t – shortness

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

True /Pure breeding organisms are organisms that produce off-spring with the same
characteristics generation after generation. Such individuals are always homozygous for a
particular trait. E.g. tall plant produces only tall plants, red flowered plant produces only red
flowered plants.

Parents red flowered plant x white flowered plant offspring

Offspring F1 all red flowered plants (selfed or crossed)

Offspring F2 red flowered plant : white flowered plant

3 : 1
GENETICAL DIAGRAM

 Give a key: Let R- red

r- white

P. phenotypes red flowered plant x white flowered plant

P. genotypes RR rr

Gametes (via meiosis) R R r r

Random fertilisation

F1 genotypes Rr Rr Rr Rr

F1 phenotypes all red flowered plants

F1 phenotypes red flowered plant x red flowered plant

F1 genotypes Rr Rr

Gametes R r R r

F2 genotypes RR Rr Rr rr

F2 phenotypes three red flowered plants and one white flowered plant

Phenotypic ratio 3:1

Genotypic ratio 1:2:1

Determining the genotype

- We cannot tell the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait by looking at its
phenotype because it can either be homozygous or heterozygous. However it is very easy
to tell the genotype of an organism with a recessive trait because it can only appear in the
homozygous condition.

Test cross/ black cross

 It is done to determine the genotype of an organism showing a recessive trait. It is done

by crossing an organism showing a dominant trait with an organism that is homozygous
recessive. If the organism is homozygous dominant, all the off spring should show the
dominant trait; but if it is heterozygous dominant, half of the number of off spring should
show the dominant trait and the remaining half should show the recessive trait. E.g.

P. phenotypes red flowered plant x white flowered plant

P. genotypes RR rr

Gametes R R r r

F1 genotypes RR Rr Rr Rr

F1 phenotypes all red flowered plants

This means the individual with the dominant trait is homozygous.

P. phenotypes red flowered plant x white flowered plant

P. genotypes Rr rr

Gametes R r r r

F1 genotypes Rr Rr rr rr

F1 phenotypes two red flowered plants and two white flowered plants

1 : 1
NB. When two heterozygous individuals are crossed, the ratio obtained is 3:1 in the phenotype
of the offspring (this is genetic ratio or excepted ratio).

Why genetic ratios differ from observed ratios?

1. Fertilisation is a matter of chance so it may not occur at all.

2. Some zygotes or embryos may fail to develop to reach maturity.
3. If small number of offspring is produced, we are unlikely to get the genetic ratios but it
would occur if a large number is produced. Simply, genetic ratios are highly unreliable
with small number of offspring.

SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS

There are twenty three pairs of chromosomes in every body cell except gametes. In 22 pairs the
two chromosomes are exactly alike and are called autosomes. They do not control sex of an
individual. The twenty third pair is the sex chromosomes. These sex chromosomes are alike in
females and are called X-chromosomes, females are therefore XX. Females produce only type of
gamete they are homogametic. In males one sex chromosome is exactly the same as the X
chromosome in females and it is called an X- chromosome. The other sex chromosome is
slightly shorter than the X-chromosome and is called the Y-chromosome. Males are therefore
XY. They produce two different types of gametes, either X gamete or Y gamete they are set to be
heterogametic. During formation of gametes, each ovum produced contains an X chromosome
while when sperm cells are produced half contains the X chromosomes and the other half
contains Y chromosomes.
CODOMINANCE

- It is a condition in a heterozygous where both alleles have equal dominance and the
phenotype exhibits a mixture of the opposing characteristics. In the blood group system,
there are four blood groups; A, B, AB & O. The blood groups are controlled by three
alleles namely; IA,IB and IO.

Allele for blood group O can be represented as either IO or i. There an individual with blood
group O must be IOIO or ii.

MUTATIONS

- A sudden random change which occurs in the genetic structure of an organism.

Mutations are rare and mostly occur spontaneously or naturally. However there are
certain factors that can increase mutations occurring. These factors are called mutagenic
agents or mutagens e.g. radiation (gamma rays, UV rays, radioactive materials),
Chemicals. If a mutation occurs during formation of gametes, the resulting genetic
change can be inherited by the offspring. But if a mutation occurs in somatic (body) cells
such a mutation cannot be passed on from parents to the offspring. An example of
somatic mutation can occur on the skin resulting into skin cancer some mutations are
harmful and are likely not to be passed on from generation to generation because the
organism may die even before reaching the reproductive stage. Other mutations are
highly beneficial and may improve survival of the organism. These types of mutations
bring about increased variation in the population of an organism.

Gene mutation
Albinism it is characterised by absence of the body pigments of the skin, hair, and eyes of
animals and humans. It is the result of inheritance of the recessive alleles in the homozygous
state. For example the normal allele for production of melanin is A, and recessive allele is a.

Phenotype Genotype
Normal skin colour AA
Normal ( Carrier) Aa
Albino Aa

SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

- A genetic disorder which causes red blood cells to become sickle-shaped due to defective
haemoglobin.
- The gene which controls normal haemoglobin production is dominant and is given the
symbol, HN or HbA.
- The defective gene which produces defective haemoglobin is recessive and is given the
symbol, HS or HbS.
- HbAHbA – normal red blood cells that transport oxygen efficiently.
HbAHbS – heterozygotes are said to have sickle trait. They produce large number of
normal red blood cells and fewer sickle-shaped red blood cells. They may experience
mild symptoms of anaemia.
- HbSHbS – have sickle cell anaemia. They produce only sickle-shaped red blood cells.
They experience severe symptoms of anaemia.
- The sickle shaped red blood cells have a tendency to get stuck in capillaries and block
the flow of blood, causing painful joints, strokes, blindness and damage to internal
organs. Sickle cell anaemia is fatal and individuals die at a very young age before
reproductive stage.

Sickle cell anaemia and malaria

- People with sickle cell trait and sickle cell anaemia have less chance of contracting
malaria than normal people because when the malarial parasites enter sickle-shaped red
blood cells, the red blood cells die, killing the parasite inside them and reducing the
infection.
- Normal people are susceptible to malaria and may die.
- People with sickle cell anaemia also usually die from the disease. However, people with
sickle cell trait survive and hand on both normal and sickle cell alleles to the next
generation.
- In the parts of Africa where malaria prevails, the HbS allele helps people to survive, and
that is why it is handed on to the next generation
 - CHROMOSOME MUTATION

E.g. Down’s syndrome /Mongolism

It is caused by an extra chromosome in the cells of an individual thus the affected person has 47
chromosomes instead of 46. This results into mental and physical retardation as well as reduced
resistance to infections. Examples of distinctive characteristics are; flat face, slanted eyes, small
ears, protruding tongue.

VARIATION

It is the differences in traits between individuals of the same species. Types of variation are;
continuous variation and discontinuous variation

Continuous variation- is the type of variation brought about by combined effects of many gynes.
There is a range of small differences between organisms it is influenced by genes as well as the
environment e.g. height, skin colour, body size, intelligence etc.

Discontinuous variation – controlled by few genes or one gene, there are distinct differences
between organisms. It is not influenced by the environment. E.g. blood groups, sex, eye colour,
hair colour.

SELECTION

- There is natural and artificial selection.

Natural selection

- A process that occurs when an organism with favourable characteristics survives and
reproduces, passing the favourable characteristics to the next generation. An example is
the development of resistance to antibiotics (drugs used to kill pathogenic bacteria) in
bacteria. If a mutation occurs and causes bacteria resistant to an antibiotic, the antibiotic
will not be effective any more. The antibiotic will kill any other bacteria that are not
resistant to it, but the mutated bacteria will survive and reproduce. Eventually, all the
non-resistant bacteria will be killed and the bacteria that are left will be resistant to the
antibiotic.
- Sexual reproduction and mutation ensure that there is variation between organisms of the
same species.
EVOLUTION

It is a process of change in the characteristics or traits of an organism over time and can lead to
formation of new species of organisms. Natural selection is one of the mechanisms that drive
evolution.

- Living organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support.
- There are variations in the characteristics of these new organisms thus some organisms
will have more useful characteristics than others.
- Then there is competition between organisms in the population.
- Organisms with the useful characteristics will survive. Other organisms will
unfavourable characteristics do not survive.
- The surviving organisms reproduce and pass the useful character traits to the offspring.
- Overtime more and more members of the population have the useful characteristics and
fewer and fewer have unfavourable characteristics. The characteristics of organisms in
the population will have then changed. This happens over a million of years. If the
characteristics have changed a lot, the new generation may differ from the old
generation. This process is called evolution.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION/ SELECTIVE BREEDING

- It is a process that involves selecting organisms with desirable characteristics and

breeding them with one other.
- It is done by farmers and breeders. they take a group of organisms of the same species
and test them for certain traits e.g. growth rate. They take the ones with the best traits
and breed them together. As time goes, the traits improve. They can breed either plants
or animals. Pure breeding animals of different breeds produce cross breeds and plants
produce hybrids. An example, if a farmer wants to produce a cow which produces lots of
milk, he can choose a large bull, and a cow producing lots of milk and breed them
together. Repeat the process until they produce desirable male and female calves.
Breeding very closely related individuals is called in-breeding. Continuing this type of
breeding may lead to recessive alleles or illnesses being passed on to the next generation.

Advantages

- It enables production of better varieties of organism with desirable traits.

- It enhances quality of plants and animals
- It leads to high yields in production
Disadvantages

- It can create new mutations

- It is expensive and takes a lot of time
- It can cause harm to the animals that being bred, such as a short lifespan.
- Organisms which are dangerous to human may be created, eg African ice bees produce a
lot of honey but they are very aggressive.

GENETIC ENGINEERING

- It is a branch in biotechnology that involves removing a gene from a cell of one

organism (donor) and transferring it into a cell of another organism (recipient). Or
- It is the transfer of a gene from one organism to another, within the same species or
different species.
- For this technique to occur, a vector is required. Vector is the DNA molecule used to
carry genes of one organism into another, e.g. plasmids of bacteria, viruses, liposomes.

Production of human insulin using genetic engineering

- A gene for insulin is removed from the DNA of a human cell. Restriction enzymes are
used to cut a gene from the DNA.
- A plasmid is removed from a bacterial cell and cut open.
- Insulin gene from human cell is attached to the cut plasmid using the same restriction
enzymes.
- The transformed plasmid, now called recombinant DNA is put back into a bacterial cell.
- The bacterial cell which now contains the insulin gene is given the right conditions
inside a fermenter for growth and reproduction.
- Eventually, insulin is extracted and purified using special techniques.