Doping is the process of adding a small amount of impurity (either pentavalent or trivalent) to a pure semiconductor in order to improve its conductivity. This process transforms an intrinsic semiconductor, which has poor conductivity, into an extrinsic semiconductor with significantly enhanced conductivity. The impurity atoms provide additional charge carriers: pentavalent impurities (such as arsenic) add extra electrons, creating n-type semiconductors; trivalent impurities (like indium) create holes by accepting electrons from the semiconductor, forming p-type semiconductors. This transformation is significant for practical applications of semiconductors in electronics .

In intrinsic semiconductors, thermal energy is the sole factor that facilitates the movement of electrons across the small band gap, creating electron-hole pairs that allow electrical conductivity. At room temperature, some electrons acquire enough energy to overcome the gap (~1 eV). In extrinsic semiconductors, while thermal energy still aids in exciting electrons, the effect of doping is far more significant. The introduced donor or acceptor levels reduce the amount of energy required for charge transition, making it easier for carriers to populate conduction or valence bands. Thus, doped semiconductors show much higher conductivity than intrinsic semiconductors under the same temperature due to the reduced barrier for carrier movement .

Holes, or vacancies formed in the crystal lattice of semiconductors, act as positive charge carriers and significantly influence electronic conductivity. When an electron vacates a covalent bond, it leaves behind a hole, which can be filled by another electron from a neighboring bond. This movement of electrons to fill holes creates the appearance that holes themselves are moving in the opposite direction to electron flow. In both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, holes facilitate the movement of charge, contributing to overall conductivity. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers, playing a dominant role in charge transport .

In n-type semiconductors, the majority carriers are electrons, introduced by doping with pentavalent atoms, while the minority carriers are holes. Electrons provide most of the conductivity in n-type semiconductors. Conversely, in p-type semiconductors, the majority carriers are holes, created by trivalent doping, while the minority carriers are electrons. The presence of majority carriers enables significant charge transport, enhancing the material's conductivity. The distinction between majority and minority carriers is crucial for designing semiconductor devices, as it influences the current flow and the electrical properties of materials in electronic circuits .

The conductivity of semiconductors increases with temperature. At 0K, semiconductors are insulators because the valence band is fully occupied and there are no electrons in the conduction band. As temperature rises, thermal energy allows electrons to overcome the small energy gap (~1 eV) between the valence band and the conduction band, leading to increased electron flow and thus conductivity. In intrinsic semiconductors, this thermal energy allows some electrons to break free from covalent bonds, creating electron-hole pairs that facilitate conductivity .

The energy level positioning for donor and acceptor states in doped semiconductors is determined by the type of impurity and its interaction with the host semiconductor's lattice. Donor energy levels typically lie just below the conduction band, facilitating the easy excitation of electrons, whereas acceptor levels lie just above the valence band, allowing electrons to fill these states from the valence band and create holes. The exact positioning of these energy levels is critical for optimizing the semiconductor's efficiency and performance in devices as they dictate how easily charge carriers can transition between bands, directly impacting the device's threshold voltages, charge carrier mobilities, and overall electrical performance .

In n-type semiconductors, doping with pentavalent atoms introduces extra electrons that occupy energy levels slightly below the conduction band, called donor energy levels. These electrons can easily be excited to the conduction band at room temperature, enhancing conductivity by increasing the number of free electrons. For p-type semiconductors, trivalent impurities create holes that establish acceptor energy levels just above the valence band. Electrons from the valence band can jump to these acceptor levels, making it easy for holes to form and contribute to conductivity. Thus, donor and acceptor levels create pathways for charge carriers that significantly alter the conductivity of the semiconductor .

The band gap in semiconductors, defined as the energy difference between the valence band and the conduction band, significantly influences the movement of electrons and holes. In intrinsic semiconductors, the band gap is small enough (~1 eV) that thermal energy at room temperature can excite some electrons across this gap, creating electron-hole pairs essential for current conduction. In extrinsic semiconductors, doping introduces additional energy levels, either donor or acceptor, that reduce the effective gap through which carriers must transition. This further facilitates movement, as less energy is required for carriers to populate the conduction or valence bands compared with intrinsic semiconductors, improving their conductivity under the same conditions .

Intrinsic carriers, which are electrons and holes generated due to thermal agitation at temperatures above absolute zero, play a crucial role in the electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors. At room temperature, intrinsic carriers result from electron-hole pairs created when some electrons gain enough energy to break free from covalent bonds. Since the material is neutral, the number of electrons equals the number of holes, allowing charge transport across the semiconductor. Although the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is generally lower compared to extrinsic, intrinsic carriers are fundamental for the basic understanding of semiconductor behavior, especially for purity-based applications .

Metals, insulators, and semiconductors are distinguished by their electrical conductivities. Metals have a high number of free electrons, which makes them good conductors, while insulators have practically no free electrons, which makes it difficult for electric current to flow through them. Semiconductors have an intermediate electrical conductivity between metals and insulators. At absolute zero, semiconductors become ideal insulators as no electron has enough energy to jump the forbidden energy gap to reach the conduction band, thus preventing any electron flow .