elvan | 3 | | ee ti fe weir ie! S.P. NANDA3. Ancient Rome en march of civilisation. The Latin language, the concept of one world, one citizenship and one law, the military system and the works of engineering are precious contributions of the Romans to the world civilisation. A world state with a universal religion was perhaps the chief contribution of Rome to the world. As the Greeks tried to Hellenise their conquests, the Romans wanted to Romanise their empire. In the words of Swain, “while the Romans were not creators of civilisation and culture, they did establish order and unity, that made possible an assimilation of ancient cultures into an imperial civilisation of Italy.” EARLY HISTORY T= world is indebted to the Romans for their share in the The cradle of the Roman State was the Apennine Peninsula in the central Mediterranean, which together with the nearby Island of Sicily forms as it were a natural bridge between Europe and Africa. The seacoast of Italy made Roman empire a great naval force as well as prominent in trade and commerce through sea. The Western coastal fertile plains were the centres of ancient Roman civilisation. The valley of the Po in the northern part is one of the most fertile regions in the world, The mountains in the North (Alps) and the sides have given Italy its natural protection. The Apennine mountains (run north and south along the eastern coast and hence made it possible for Rome (lying at the centre of the west coast) to dorhinate over the entire Peninsula eventually. River Tiberis the most important river of Italy— Greeks called Italy as RO Ui the word Bitalia of ; rew up the y « of time the cove nis in fact the e . Is) am jvilisatio’ an civil a as a city-state but an civilisation. In the Italian e capital of Italy. was shabvd by aH i sul cies eh ived Celtic (Gallic) tribes. Somewhat je who played an important p of Indo-Europeans h Alpine passes: One of their tribes cegchipprie in Latium (the central plains of Italy lying ke Latin. Rome situated on the i tal of Latium. f the river Tiber became the capiti af a most mysterious of these tribes inhabiting Italy were the Europeans and their origin remains an unsolved riddle to this day. At one time they had been a powerful tribe and had extended their 6th century B.C.) hegemony to almost the whole of the Peninsula (7th- wee Tt y of Etruscan kings ruled In the 7th and 6th century B.C: 4 dynast e Rome and the Etruscan customs and rites held sway in Roman social life for many years afterwards. It is believed that seven Etruscan kings ruled over Rome. It was by 509 B.<. that the Romans were in a position to get rid of them and instead they could set up a Republic. The period of Roman Republic lasted from 509 B.c. to 31 B.C. Rise of Rome ; How and when Rome was founded? No satisfactory answer can be given to this question and the scholars have been forced to look into the legends. There are interesting legends on the origin of Rome. Two brothers Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome over the pale af me s.c. At the time of founding the city the two pete a bitter quarrel and Romulus killed Remus. Thus, the “ee : of the founding of Rome, the city named after Romulus, and of * c he became the first king. There were six kings after Romulus p celia the Gi pone became a sizeable city and succeeded in ing the whole of Latium. The city flourished i i y as the cay mi enpite for several centuries. Rome became immortal in Fiero ao ; co that modern Europe grew out of the ruins a - It left behind the legaci i s e legacies of great cultural antiquities. RomeAncient Rome 73 also became the centre of the Christi r tical ae of Hie Chere world, Rome was more a land At the end of the 6th century a.c. the political pattern of life in Rome changed. The last king known as Tarquin the proud because of his arrogance and tyrannical inclinations was banished and monarch} was abolished. This event is assumed to have coincided with the victorious uprising against Etruscan rule. Finally a Republic was established in Rome. Thus, monarchy was the earliest form of overnment, which gave place to tyranny and a Republic finally superseded the latter. Government of the Roman Republic During the early part of the Republican rule, relics of the clan system were still fairly strong political power was in the hands of representatives of the hereditary aristocracy known as patricians. On the other hand, the mass of the peoples were known as plebeians, these included the middle and poorer peasants and also the traders living in the city. The expulsion of Republic. The state structure of the the following lines. the kings was followed by the foundation of the Roman Republic was arranged on Senate The legislative organ of the persons of Rome called senate. The tenure of office for a senator was the whole life. The senate was the real government of Rome. Its main function was to advise on the matters of administration and to give necessary orders to the army commanders. The senate exercised various powers, it-controlled finance and it posted magistrates, received foreign embassies, settled matters of war and peace etc. It could pass decrees or ordinances on all matters relating to state religion. The senate appointed the chief Judicial officers. Its members were above the age of 28 and nominated for the whole life. As such the senate was a permanent body. Comitia Tributa or Assembly It was the legislature of the common men of Rome (the Plebeians) The important functions of this body were to approve all legislative matters passed by the senate and to elect consuls. At timesHistory of The World 74 ——————————_ offenders who caused harm against the it acted as a court to try interest of common men. Comitia Centuriata It was an aristocratic body. The members clected the consuls i isi uls. and heard appeal against the decision of the cons Consul The consuls were the chief executive officers of Roman republic. There was provision for two consuls in the constitution, who served for one year at a time as head of the state. They were given veto power on each other. They were also eligible for re-election. In case of differences between the two consuls issues were referred to the senate. In the war field their authority was unlimited. Praetor He was the chief Justice of the Republic. Tribune Every year two officers called tribunes were elected to see the interest of the common men. The Aediles These magistrates were in charge of police work and maintenance of public building in Rome, The Quaestors The duty of such officers was to superintendent the treasury. The Censors ; Two censors were elected in every five years for a period of eighteen month. They controlled the public land and had power to Start any public work, Pontifex Maxim us ; Religion constituted a branch of Roman government. It was directed by a college of priests headed by the Pontifex Maximus. Though, Rome was a republic in theory, yet the real power Continued to remain in the hands of Patticians. The plebeians had toAncient Rome 5 jaunch an effective struggle for decades before they could get the laws enacted in their favour. Society and Religion of Ancient Rome Family was the smallest social unit of ancient Rome. The Romans had a patriarchal family where the father was the head of the family. He had absolute control over the life and property of his family members. The Roman women were always in a position of ward. Women had a high respect in Roman society. A group formed a large social unit called genes. The early Roman schools used to impart instructions in grammar, literature etc. Later on, Latin became the medium of instruction. The Struggle Between the Plebeians and the Patricians | During the Republican period, Rome comprised of two classes the Patricians (privileged) and the Plebeians (non- privileged). This class distinction grew on account of the socio-economic influence of the early period. The history of Rome from the 5th to the 3rd century B.c. was marked by the struggle between the Patricians and the Plebeians for land and political rights. The patricians proud of their birth and wealth generally looked down upon the plebeians. The laws being unwritten, were unknown to the plebeians and the patricians always used the law to their advantage. The economic distinctions further hurt the feeling of the plebeians. The Patricians possessed the landed property but paid no revenue to the state. The Plebeians cultivated the land but had no right of ownership. The struggle between the two orders was a revolution of unusual kind. It was spread over for more than 200 years. One of the earliest and the most dramatic episodes in this struggle was the so-called Plebeian secession, when they all left Rome and set up their camp on the holy mountain. The departure of the plebeians drastically weakened Rome and the Patricians were obliged to make various concessions. An important new post was created that of people’s tribune whose rule was to champion the rights of the plebeians. In the course of this struggle the plebeians gradually forced the Patricians to make new concessions. As there was no written laws, the Patrician Judges passed harsh judgement against the Plebeians. So theHistory of The World 16 Plebeians demanded that laws should be codified. Loe was conceded, Now laws codified and they were — ” 2 bronze tablets and placed in the ei market place and these laws nacarta of the Plebeians. ; at Sea plebeian assembly called Comitia Tributa Was recognised as a legislative body. In 445 B.c. the Canuleian law Was passed which legalised the marriage between plebeians and patricians, In 421 nc. the plebeians became eligible for the office of quaestor. In 366 a.c, the first Plebeian consul was appointed. All this amounted toa virtual levelling out of the rights of the Plebeians and the richer Plebeians and a merger of the two groups. With the end of civil strife in Rome unity among the Romans could be established. The struggle exhibked the political wisdom of the Romans. The government of Rome became more democratic. Now Rome was able to begin her career of expansion in Italy and abroad. The senate had now come to be more powerful. Religion Roman religion was of primitive character. They were ancestor worshippers. Father was the chief Priest of the household. The Principal Gods were Jupiter, who was tegarded as father of all Gods and Mars, the God of war. The religious institutions of the Romans were named as the college of Pontiff. s, the college of Augurs and the college of Heralds. There was no Separate class of professional priests at Rome. Priests were chosen from the general body of citizens, The head of the religi Roman Republic became an Empire During the three centuries (Sth to 3rd century 8.c.) Rome was almost continually at war. Roman foreign policy was extremely aggressive. As a result of war the city of Rome expanded into a mightyi e Ancient Rom ” these campaigns gave the Romans complete sway over the right bank of the lower reaches of the Tiber. These were the Roman's first military successes. The Romans also humbled the Etruscans by capturing their principal cities. Thus, by the end of the Sth century 8.c. Rome was the mistress of all the plain areas on both sides of the Tiber. During the 4th century s.c. the Gauls (as the Romans called the Celts) marched on Rome by way of Northern Italy. The Roman troops euffered a crushing defeat and the Gauls were able to take Rome without difficulty. The Romans being defeated had to buy peace on payment of a large ransom. In the second half of the 4th century, s.c. the Romans waged a grim battle to gain control of central Italy. They were obliged to fight against their former allies, The Latins were defeated, their towns were reduced and the victory over Latium was complete. The next stage in the mastery over Italy was the Samnite Wars. The Samnites were like mountaineers. Three wars were fought against the Samnites. Finally they were subjugated and Roman supremacy over central Italy was established. During the last quarter of the 3rd century s.c. the Roman had to face formidable Greeks of the south who sought help from Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Initially suffering setbacks in the war with the Greeks, the Romans succeeded conquering south also. Thus, Rome became the mistress of Italy. Rome’s Struggle for Domination of the Mediterranean (Punic Wars—War with Carthage) In the words of Swain “A war between Rome and Carthage was inevitable. They represented two civilisations, each ambitious to accomplish the same thing, the domination of the western Mediterranean.” In the process of expansion the Romans had to fight three wars with the state of Carthage which were called the Punic wars, These wars took one hundred years to establish Roman authority over Carthage which was a city-state situated on the coast of Mediterranean sea in the northern part of African continent. According to legend Carthage was founded as far back as the 9th century a.c. It had became an important Mediterranean power long before Rome. The economic power of Carthage was based on her role as a trading centre. Because of her favourable geographical8 History of The World position, Carthage had become the distribution centre of raw materials and finished products throughout the Mediterranean world. The growth of trade and the increasing importance of agriculture had led to political power in carthage being in the hands of the landowners and merchants. The Carthage had a strong army and navy. The Carthaginians were active colonisers. They controlled almost the whole of Sicily with the exception of Messana. It was their attempt to subjugate the city of Messana that led to the conflict with Rome. The First Punic War 264-241 B.c. An opportunity was offered to Rome to wage a war against Carthage, when an appeal for help was received in Rome from the Messinian pirates. These pirates were oppressed by Carthage as their activities hindered the Carthaginian sea trade. Rome sent a military expedition under Claudius in order to help these pirates. Thus began in 264 s.c. the first phase of that series of wars between Rome and Carthage which popularly are called the Punic wars. Initially the Romans achieved a number of victories over the Carthaginians. One of the famous Carthaginian general named Hamilear Barca, the father of the famous Hannibal created a panic among the Romans. However, Carthage suffered a defeat and concluded peace with Rome. According to the peace terms, Sicily was surrendered to the Romans and Carthage agreed to pay 3200 talents to Rome in the form of compensation. The peace lasted for twenty-two years only. Second Punic War 218-201 B.c. After the loss of Corsica and Sicily in the Mediterranean sea, Carthage headed in Spain for expansion. Hamilear Barca crossed into Spain and by skilful generalship captured several Spanish tribes. In 229 a,c. Hamilear died and was replaced by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. He too carried on the task of rebuilding Carthage as a big power. When Hasdrubal died, Hannibal, the son of Hamilear took over the command of Spain. Hannibal was a military genius and talented leader of men. The activities of Hannibal provoked the Romans. Rome launched on offensive war. But the military calibre of Hannibal, his ambition and daring courage took war into Italy. He crossed the mountains of Pyrenees and Alps and thundered at the gate of Italy.Ancient Rome _ a Rome was surprised and taken aback. He defeated the Roman generals and remained triumphant. But the strategy of Scipio (An Italian general) in sending a detachment of Roman army to Spain in order to cut off Hannibal's army in Italy from his base in Spain was extremely successful. Meanwhile, Quintus Fabius Maximus betterly known as Cunctator (the Delayer) was chosen as the dictator to save Rome. However, Hannibal annihilated latge number of Roman soldiers. Hannibal occupied Northern Italy, which remained in the regime of Carthage for 15 years. On the other hand Spain fell into the hands of Scipio after which he prepared for an Invasion of Africa. Hannibal and his army were recalled from Italy. Ultimately Roman commander Scipio was in a position to give crushing blow to Hannibal in 202 s.c. at Zama and Carthage was forced to sue for peace. According to the conditions of peace, Carthage lost her colonies, handed over her fleet and all her elephants to the Romans and finally paid out tremendous tribute. These conditions undermined the military and political might of Carthage once and for all Scipio returned to Rome as the victor of Africa and was entitled Africanus. Rome emerged as a great political force and she became the mistress of the sea. The effect of the Second Punic War upon Carthage was devastating. Hannibal Third Punic War 149-146 B.c. During the Second Punic War Greek king Phillip V of Macedonian had established friendship with Carthage. This led the Romans to invade Greece and Rome occupied the whole of Greece. In spite of its defeat Carthage economically prospered which was not tolerated by the Romans who instigated Numidians to attack Carthage. Cato a Roman general suggested that “Carthage must be destroyed.” When Carthaginians raised their arms in self-defence, the Romans accused them of the violation of the treaty concluded to end80 History of The Worig Second Punic War. Ultimately the Romans invaded Carthage in 149 8c. The siege lasted for three years It was finally taken by storm in a manoeuvre directed by Scipio's grandson Scipio Aemilianus. On instruction from Rome the city of Carthage was totally destroyed, it was set fire to and burned for sixteen days. Then all the land where ruins were still smouldering was ploughed over and an external curse was laid on it. The territory of Carthage became a province of Rome. The wars, which Rome waged in the Mediterranean basin for over a century, transformed a small and insignificant city-state into a world power. Decadence of the Republic In the words of M. R. Roy, “The wonderful career of conquests of Republican Rome and the resultant prosperity gave rise to many problems in the state. The failure to solve these problems led to civil wars and ultimately to the downfall of the Republic itself.” 1. The expansion of the territorial limits of Rome proved disastrous for its republican form of government people form distant provinces failed to attend the popular assemblies ' held in Rome and no successful from of representative government was devised. 2. As the Romans were getting wealth from the conquered territories, they began to lead a comfortable, corrupt and luxurious life. 3. The senate being the repository of all powers of the government failed to provide leadership and had to face the tragic consequences. 4. The Roman form of government was the city-state, having a Republican constitution. It was no longer adequate to meet the needs of a vast empire. 5. There were no pre-planned administrative organisation in the conquered territories. The Roman Governors in the distant provinces acted in the most arbitrary manner. if 6. A professional army under competent generals proved to be t dangerous to the republic. 7. The spread of Greek intellectual thought and philosophy created an intellectual ferment in Rome very much comparable with that of France on the eve of the French revolution.‘Ancient Rome / 81 8. The slaves were brought from the conquered territories at a very cheap rate. This encouraged slavery system in Rome. The condition of the slaves became deplorable. The economic disparity between the rich and the poor affected the political institutions. The dissatisfaction among the common men and ambition of the administrators led to civil wars, which became the cause of the decay of the Republic. The form of government of Roman Empire gradually degraded from the democratic republic to the oligarchy, dictatorship and finally to the monarchy. Rise of Military Generals to Power In 133 Bc. a revolution (struggle between the orders) broke out in Rome which witnessed brutal massacres, assassinations street fights and civil wars and it went on for about a century. At this juncture of Roman history there appeared the Gracchi brothers who introduced the first radical reforms to deal with the national crisis. Gracchus Brothers and the Civil War Tiberius Gracchus, who was chosen as the tribune in 133 B.c. proposed some reforms in order to remove the political and economic disabilities of the people. His aim was to put a limit to the maximum amount of land one could possess, so that the rest of the lands could be distributed among the land less. But the senate vehemently opposed it. Finally, he was killed in a rising instigated by the senate. Similarly Caius, the brother of Tiberius had to bear the brunt of the Senate (whose supporters murdered him in 12] s.c.) when he proposed that the right of citizenship be extended to all the Italian allies of Rome. Efforts made by Gracchus brothers thus having failed. Rome was now again the jaws of civil war. Both the Senators and the supporters of Gracchus brothers sought the help of military commander. But by now the character of the Roman army had changed. Roman soldiers and commanders began to live a luxurious life. At this critical moment the German tribes began to throw the Romans out of Gaul and Spain and threatened Italy. The Gracchus brothers sacrificed their lives in a vain attempt to reform the Roman State and society. During this period of unrest82 History of The World many military leaders tried to capture power at the cost of the Republic. Notable among them were Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Caesar etc. Marius It was at this critical time, Marius came to prominence. He enlisted unemployed soldiers in his army and paid them and thus for the first time created a professional army which was faithful to him. He trained and reorganised the forces to resist the incursions of barbaric tribes from Germany. Rome was so much obliged to him that he was elected as consul for seven times. He became so powerful that he began to control the government and the senate was pushed to the background. But his hostile attitude towards the senate made him very unpopular. Sulla While the Gracchus brothers and Marius took up arms against senatorial authority, Sulla (a supporter of the Senate) tried to restore the authority of the Senate. Sulla belonged to the Patrician order and had distinguished himself as a military genius during the social war (90-89 8.c.) Sulla seized power with the help of senate and took tevenge on the followers of Marius by massacring them. The Senate declared him as dictator for life. Thus, the rule of one man in Roman history began. Sulla was a man of uncommon talents. Sulla was a believer in the rule of the Senate and he proposed new constitutional safeguards to restore the authority of the Senate. He destroyed all the rivals of the Senate. He also testricted the power of the popular assemblies, He made significant administrative changes to suit the expanded em) pire of Rome. His proverbial good luck never failed him and that is why he had assumed the name of “Felix” After the resignation of Sulla from Consulship, now power lay in the hands of other military commanders and the senate remained as a silent Spectator. Finally, the Roman Republic degenerated into autocracy. Pompey After Sulla’s death, Pom; pey (a general) became the leadii figure in Roman politics, Pompey hen Sul had made a name for himself when Sullaspr ient Rome Anci 83 was still in power and consolidated his reputation during the civil war. He was elected consul in 70 a.c. The revolt of the slaves led by Spartacus was the most dramatic and large scale slave uprising in the whole history of the ancient world. It started in 73 s.c. and lasted until 71 8.c. However, it was brutally suppressed. He cleared the Mediterranean of pirates and defeated Mithridates (king of Pontus) in the east. The Roman legion under Pompey achieved remarkable conquests in the East and the boundary of Rome was carried'up to the river Euphrates. Later on, Pompey entered into a secret negotiation with two other person named Caesar and Crassus (A dishonest financier) to form the first Triumvirate at the cost of the Republic. It paved the ways for Julius Caesar to become a dictator. JULIUS CAESAR Early Life of Julius Caesar Julius Caesar was an unforgettable character in history that in spite of his political ambition and lapses in character was a superb to general. a brilliant statesman and a fascinating personality. He combined in one the quality of a great warrior, leader of the people and had the heart of a literary person. Caesar’s : military exploits, his acquisition of territories, extension of Roman power, his economic and social legislation, his creation of a new political order justified that he was a world class leader. Julius Caesar was born in an aristocratic family called Gens Julia, on 12th July 100 8.c. Gaius Caesar and Aurelia were his father and mother respectively. Caesar married to Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, a Champion of the common men and successor of Marius. He was also the nephew of Marius and this relationship entitled Caesar to claim the leadership of the popular party. As the dictator of Rome a renowned general and a man of letters he has become important in history. Caesar had a commanding appearance. He was unusually tall for average Roman, having a fair Julius Caesar84 History of The World complexion with shining black eyes. He was a brilliant orator, an experienced military officer, a prolific writer and a man of culture. Caesar was an ambitious man and his public career began in 84 B.c. Due to the support of Marius he was appointed as a priest of Jupiter, but he lost the same during Sulla’s time. After Sulla’s death he sought popularity through captivating oratory. With the help of Crassus he was elected as the Aedile. Then he had a steady rise, first as pontifex maximus, than praetor. He served in Spain where he had some military adventures. In 60 z.c. he returned to Rome to contest for consulship. Meanwhile, Pompey also returned from the East. The relationship between Pompey and the Senate was not cordial. The situation paved the way for a friendship between Pompey and Caesar, as the ‘Senate was hostile to both. Their alliance became stronger with the joining of Crassus. Thus in 60 s.c., Caesar with his popularity, Pompey with his military success and Crassus with his wealth together formed a formidable alliance to control Roman politics. This alliance is known as the “First Triumvirate.” He was elected as one of the consul in 59 s.c. Achievements & Conquest of Gaul After the formation of the first triumvirate, Caesar marched towards north with a large army into Gaul (Modern France). His career in Gaul presented the most surprising of the many surprises of his career. During these 9 years he conquered a vast country by repulsing the barbarians of the North, and at the same time directed the course of political events in Rome. Caesar himself had admirably related the story of his campaigns in his famous commentaries (memoirs). Caesar’s rapid movements upset all his enemies plans and tribe after tribe submitted on the mere appearan¢ of his troops. He defeated the Helvetia, the Germans and Rhine became the boundary of the Roman Empire. He directed his second campaign against a tribe known as Belgae (Belgians) who were defeated and subdued. The next campaign of Caesar was directed against two German tribes who were driven back into Germany. In 54 3.c. he crossed the English Channel and landed near river Themes where he defeated the chief of the Briton’s and exacted tribute from him. Caesar's military exploits extended the territories of Rome as far as Britain and prevented the invasion of barbarian tribes. Caesar's fame aeAncient Rome aa gs an outstanding military genius reached its zenith. With the help of his invincible army, Caesar now aspired after the imperial crown. The Civil War In 53 8.c. Crassus died while fighting the Parthians in the East death of Crassus opened the rivalry between Pompey i caesar. In 54 .c. the death of Julia (Daughter of Caesar, and pompey’s wife) weakend the bond of friendship between Caesar and Pompey: Pompey did not want Caesar to return to Rome with his army. During 54-52 n.c. there was a large-scale civil strife in Rome and the Senate appointed Pompey as sole consul, to restore order. Pompey Was jealous of Caesar. Caesar was asked by the Senate to disband his armies and come back to Rome. Caesar did not want to return to Rome alone, unprotected and without his army. With a werful army Caesar crossed the river Rubicon. Pompey got no time for adequate preparation. Overnight Italy was occupied and Pompey fled towards Greece. Caesar left Rome in 48 B.c. to pursue Pompey. In 48 B.c. a great battle was fought on the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey was ‘defeated there and subsequently killed in Egypt. Caesar arrived in Al The lexandria in 48 s.c. and came in contact with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. The tale of Caesar and Cleopatra has passed into romance. Egypt was not annexed and Cleopatra was again put on the throne. In 47 pc. Caesar defeated Pharnaces (son of the great Mithridates). He was delighted with the speedy disposal of his campaign against Pharnaces and upon the conclusion of the battle sent his famous dispatch to a friend. Vini, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). Caesar crushed the supporters of Pompey at Thapsus in 46 B.c. Meanwhile, Cato a great champion of Republic committed suicide. Caesar became the unrivalled master of the Roman Empire. He was the real founder of the Roman Empire. The power of the Senate was reduced considerably. He originated a stable d at avoiding the horror and system of government, which aime confusion of the last fifty years and established a government. of course, he did not accept the title of king, and preserved the Republic only in name. The government was now a monarchy in all but name. a | = LL f86 History of The World Caesar’s Reform Caesar introduced a series of reforms. 1. The senate declared him as the “Imperator” which stood as the symbol of absolute power. The old method of selecting various officers through popular votes continued, but in fact it was a system of nomination by Caesar, which was known as “commendation.” . The people of Roman colonies were granted Roman citizenship and made them the members of the Senate. . To satisfy his allies he adopted the Agrarian laws to rehabilitate 20,000 persons. To provide employment to the unemployed Caesar provided a great building programme in Rome and the provinces. Lands were distributed among the landless and the poor. He restored the stability in the value of the Currency. Gold coins bearing the effigy of Caesar were issued. - He developed the road system of Italy and laid the foundation of a great theatre and of a temple dedicated to Mars. He designed to free Rome of Malaria by draining the marshes and then constructing dykes to control the flood in river Tiber. . To prevent irresponsible behaviour of the senate in administration, Caesar introduced the system of recording and publishing the proceedings. . The extravagances of the provincial governors were checked, . To meet the growing demands of an extending empire, he increased the number of Praetors and Quaestors and these officers were filled up by his nominees, . For the development of the town community he introduced the Lex Julia Municipalis. The law ensured freedom of action to the Municipalities in the welfare of their respective inhabitants. Rome ceased to be the mistress and she bec: I ‘ame one of the many Cities in the empire. - Roman laws were systematised and codified for the first 10. time. Caesar reformed the calendar of Rome. The old calendar had no Correspondence with the seasons of the year. The Roman calendar consisted of 355 days on the basis of lunar calculation. He introduced solar cale ndar with 365% days a year. TheAncient Rome aa new calendar was named after him as. the Julian Calendar. The Senate accepted the reform and gave the dictator's family name Quly) to one of the months. For this reform Caesar took the help of Sosigenes, a Greek mathematician, Murder of Caesar Caesar was made dictator for life. Monarchist leanings in Caesar behaviour gradually came more and more to the fore. When Caesar began to prepare for an expedition against the Parthians to avenge Crassus’s death rumours started to spread in Rome that only a king could conquer Parthia. All this led to dissatisfaction faction among the people but also among a number of senators who regarded Caesar as a tyrant. Even close friends like Brutus could not forget the loss of senatorial prestige. Brutus became the rallying point of a dangerous conspiracy and planned to murder Caesar on 15th March 44 s.c. (Idea of March):Caesar was murdered in the senate, stabbed to death by a group of conspirators led by Brutus and Cassius. Brutus stabbed him at which Caesar remarked, “you, too Brutus.” Caesar's murder was not only a crime, it was as the latter events proved was a colossal blunder. The death of Caesar was an irreparable loss for the Roman world. Caesar’s murder was followed by a civil war. Mark Antony, a trusted general of Caesar destroyed the enemies. Octavius Caesar, Caesar's adopted son became the new ruler of Rome. An Estimate Caesar was a versatile genius a great conqueror, a creative administrator and an imaginative writer. He was responsible for consolidating a disintegrating empire and bringing that back to unity and integrity. Caesar came forward to save the Roman world. From the dying agonies of a degenerated republic he was the first European statesman who saw beyond the city’s state of Rome and wanted to bring the whole of Europe with in the orbit of the Roman civilisation. Caesar was both an able orator and a writer. The two famous book of Caesar entitled De-Bello-Gallico and De-Bellow-Civili are the two outstanding work on military history He was also the founder of the first news paper of the world. In the realm of local government Caesar was equally the pioneer without becoming king. He could manage to enjoy the power of an emperor. It was for this reason thatHistory of The Wortg 88 : ¢ combined in tt emperor. Caesal one the d Caesar then meant the werd » ereat warrior, leader of the people and had heart of « ite wy meson He was a genius in the true sense of the term, jiterar’ 1. ns Contribution of Ancient Rome to Human Civilisation bted to the Romans for their share in the march The world is indel L of human civilisation. While the Romans were not creators of civilisation and culture, they did establish order and unity, which made possible an assimilation of ancient cu tures into an imperial civilisation of Italy. In the words of Swain “Roman civilisation, which had filled a very important place in the development of world culture, passed on to the middle ages practical fundamentals in politics, law, religion and economic life.” Most of her cultural contributions lived and were fused with other ideas, which formell the basis for new civilisation, The Romans acted as agents to spread and preserve much of what the ancient Greeks had left behind as their legacy. But it is untrue to say that the Romans copied every thing from the Greeks, The Romans made the first attempt at establishing systematic written laws. It is said that they were the first to give the idea of world- state. The Roinans were a practical people. Their political institutions lasted for centuries. In the opinion of J. M. Roberts “The Greek contribution to civilisation was essentially mental and spiritual, that of Rome was structural and practical.” As the pioneers in diffusing the light of the western civilisation to the rest of the world, the Romans, after the Greeks, have rendered a notable service to the civilised society. They enriched the world culture with their art, architecture and literature. It was in the Roman Empire that Christianity grew into a great religion. Administration In the opinion of Majumdar and Srivastav, “The Romans made very useful contributions in the field of administration. Cicero made einai ee ideology of government. The Romans le system of dividing th tna fect 4 istri i fe empil inces ani districts for the first time on scie 8 pire into provin ntific lines. As we know this model legislature. The practice of lecting offici selecting officials through selection was at first introduced by