AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RESPONSE TO DELAYS - A SYSTEM STUDY

OF NEWARK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Antony D. Evans, John-Paul Clarke, MIT International Centerfor Air Transportation,
Cambridge, MA

key strategic ATC responses to delays. Particularly

Abstract the New York airspace redesign has great potential
to reduce delays at the airport.
Airport delays are a significant problem in the
United States air transportation system. Between Because delays at Newark are caused by
1999 and 2000 the number of flights delayed downstream flow constraints, the responses at the
increased by 20 percent despite only a 0.4% airport can be applied to other airports as delays
increase in total operations. Newark International from downstream constraints increase. Such an
Airport (EWR), one of New York City's primary increase in delays system wide from downstream
airports, is one of the airports in the United States constraints is inevitable as the system becomes
most impacted by delays. Newark had the highest more congested.
percentage of operations delayed in 1999,and was
second only to LaGuardia Airport in [Link]
85% of delays at Newark are caused by adverse Problem Definition
weather impacting an airport that may be
characterized as having limited capacity and a very Introduction
full schedule. Although Newark is heavily impacted The demand for air travel continues to increase at
by weather, delays have not increased significantly between 3 and 5% each year, but system capacity
since [Link] indicates that the airlines, air has become difficult to increase accordingly.
traffic control (ATC), and the Port Authority of Consequently airport delays have progressively
New York and New Jersey have successfully become a very significant problem in the U.S. air
adapted. transportation system, increasing by between 20%
On June 29,2000,a research team from MIT and 25% per year [1][2][3].
visited Newark airport to assess the effectiveness of One of the most delayed airports in the United
any adaptations made, and to collect data on airline States is Newark International Airport (airport code
and ATC departure operations, and of the national EWR). Newark is one of the three primary airports
and local weather affecting the airport. Airline and in the New York Metropolitan area, the others
ATC personnel were also interviewed. Results of being John F Kennedy International Airport (JFK)
this study indicate that airspace capacity limitations and LaGuardia Airport (LGA). In 1999 Newark had
downstream of the airport are a primary flow the highest percentage of delayed operations of all
constraint at the airport, and that these constraints airports in the United States, at 7.9%, and the
are the source of most surface delays. A number of highest average Air Traffic Control (ATC)
tactical ATC responses to delays were examined, departure delay of any airport in the United States,
including the application of restrictions, re-routing at 19.5minutes [4].However, comparing the delay
with the help of the National Playbook, and the use history at Newark to that of the entire system, in
of decision-aiding tools such as the Dynamic Figure 1, it is clear that since 1997 delays have
Spacing Program (DSP) and the Integrated increased at a slower rate at Newark than system
Terminal Weather System (ITWS). Improved inter- wide. From 1999 to 2000,delays increased by only
facility communications and further utilization of 1.6%, compared to the 20% increase system wide.
runway 11-29were identified as other tactical It thus appears that the Federal Aviation
responses to delays, whilst the formation of the Air Administration (FAA), the airlines and the Port
Traffic Control System Command Center and the Authority of New York and New Jersey ( P A " J )
New York Airspace redesign were identified as the

1
have been able to adapt their operations to reduce significant degree. However, combining these two
delays. This study thus examines the operations at factors, Newark is the 5th most weather-impacted
Newark, and responses to delays, to determine the airport of the 3 1 busiest airports in the US. The
responses that were most effective in reducing impact of weather, however, affects delays
delays. according to the schedule operated at the airport. In
Percentage Pnnual Increase in Delap 2000 Newark was scheduled beyond IFR
120% (Instrument Flight Rules) capacity, and in some
100%
cases beyond VFR (Visual Flight Rules) capacity.
Because of the flat un-banked schedule operated at
Eo?/.
the airport there are also few recovery periods, and
60% consequently delays propagate throughout the day.
4G%
Airspace congestion fiuther increases delays.
Because of the close proximity of Newark to three
20% other significant airports, operations and delays at
0% each airport impact the others. There are also
constraints on the airspace that can be used by each
-20%
1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 19942ooO airport, limiting the ATC response capabilities.
Year

Newark ATC and Airline Operation

Figure 1. Number of operations delayed at
Newark airport, and system wide [2]. Newark airport operates within the New York
TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach CONtrol)
and New York ARTCC (Air Route Traffic Control
Cause of Delays Center). A simplified map of the New York
According to the FAA [4][5], 68.7 % of ATC airspace is shown in Figure 2. The map shows the
delays in the National Airspace System (NAS) were primary departure fixes used at Newark. These are:
caused by weather, both in 1999 and 2000. At 0 GAYEL and COATE are generally used for
Newark 84% of arrival delays were identified to be
northwest bound traffic.
related in some way to weather, in 1999, according
ELIOT, PARKE, LANNA and BIGGY are
to a study by Allan, Gaddy and Evans, at Lincoln
generally used for traffic to the west, the
Laboratories [6]. Comparing the delay history at
southwest, and the south.
Newark to annual precipitation [7] there is a clear
correspondence between the high delays in 1996,
0 WHITE is generally used for traffic to the
which breaks away from the trend of the rest of the South, to Florida, and to Central and South
data, and particularly high precipitation that year, America.
further suggesting that weather has a particularly 0 GREKI and MERIT are generally used for
significant impact on the airport. traffic to the north, and to Europe.
The traffic flow through the fixes is regulated
Weather delays are caused by airport through the application of restrictions, which may
sensitivity to adverse weather, the frequency of include Mile in Trail (MIT) restrictions, approval
adverse weather at the airport, the schedule requests (APREQs), fix closures and ground delay
operated by airlines relative to the capacity of the programs (GDPs). If a specific route has severe
airport, and airspace congestion in the terminal restrictions or is closed, aircraft are re-routed.
area. The decrease in airport capacity induced by However, dynamic re-routing is difficult because of
adverse weather is only slightly higher at Newark the extensive inter-facility communication and
than the average of the 3 1 busiest airports in the cooperation required. Consequently the National
United States [8]. The source of this sensitivity is Playbook, a set of preplanned reroutes for specific
related primarily to runway limitations, and to fix and jet-route closures, has been developed.
limitations in gate space. The frequency of adverse While useful in many scenarios, the playbook has
weather at Newark is also higher than the average limitations, the foremost being that the plays in the
for the 31 busiest airports in the US, but not to a

2
playbook are often not enough to solve the Traffic Control Tower), and the Continental
problems alone. Newark ramp tower.
Weather and Restrictions
On June 29,2000, Newark was impacted by
two fronts. The first extended f’rom Maine to
Mississippi, and moved east, impacting west and
south departures throughout the day. The second,
initially over Lake Eerie, also moved east,
impacting primarily northeast and west departures
through the afternoon and evening. After the
application of historically validated restrictions
(HVRs) in the morning, some restrictions were
lifted, until the afternoon when heavy restrictions
and eventually a number of fix closures were
implemented. By 16:OO EDT all west and south
fixes, and one of the two north departure fixes, were
Figure 2. Primary departure fixes for Newark closed. No re-routes were implemented until after
International Airport. I8:OO EDT. Except for a few exceptions the
restrictions correlated closely to the local weather.
Newark airport has three terminals, Terminal A simplified Gantt chart of the restrictions is
A, B and C. Terminal A is used for operations for presented in Figure 3.
most domestic airlines, except Continental, which
uses Terminal C. Terminal B is used for
international arrivals. Continental operates a hub at
the airport, and including Continental Express,
operates approximately 55% of operations at
Newark, making it the dominant airline. Continental
operates a ramp tower at the airport, and during
adverse weather is given control of an extended Wmncns w
Inpac~ngJet-routeorFIX
e
d b At-mule or FIX
Jeemm or FIXclosed
-
-
-
ramp area according to a letter of agreement with
the FAA. This enables Continental to perform pre-
sequencing of its aircraft before they are Figure 3. Simplified EWR departure restrictions
transitioned to FAA control. and local weather - June 29,2000.
Impact of Restrictions
System Dynamics in Adverse Weather - Site The impact of the restrictions on the departure
&it, June 29,2000 rate was examined by comparing the departure
schedules as filed by the airlines, the modifications
In order to identify the causes of delays at made by ATC, and the actual departure rate. Data
Newark, the weather, air traffic control, and airline indicated that a number of flights were rescheduled
performance was studied in detail during a period by ATC from the period when all the primary west
when operations at Newark were severely and south fixes were closed, to later in the evening.
restricted, i.e. June 29,2000. This was a day The long-term shape of the actual departure rate
severely impacted by summer thunderstorms, and coincides closely with the ATC modified rate,
just before the “Fourth of July” weekend, when although short-term differences are significant.
demand for air travel was high. The summer of
2000 has also become known as the “worst summer The impact on delays can be determined by
ever”, being the worst period of airport delays in examining a running plot of the total departure
history. Data was collected and operations observed delay for all aircraft waiting to depart from Newark
at the New York TRACON, the Newark ATCT (Air with the restrictions applied. The total departure
delay running through the day, calculated by

3
summing the difference between actual wheels off Transportation and Infrastructure, Subcommittee on
time and scheduled wheels off time for every Aviation [9]. Correspondingly, ATC has responded
aircraft waiting to depart the airport, corresponds to the delays at Newark in a number of ways. These
closely to the restrictions applied, as seen in Figure are discussed in detail below.
[Link] is precisely when the fix closures are applied
that the total delay climbs most steeply, and only
Tactical A TC Responses to Delays
when the fixes are reopened that that total delay
begin to decrease again. Even when the west fixes Tactical responses by ATC include:
are closed briefly later in the evening, the total The application of restrictions to fixes or jet-
delay shows a second peak, before again decreasing

:I,-
routes.
as the fixes are reopened. Re-routing of aircraft, and the utilization of
the National Playbook for formulation of re-
routes.
[Link]"
DYY , Utilization of decision aiding software such
Iwmu*q
2ooo as the Departure Spacing Program (DSP)
1wO
and the Integrated Terminal Weather System
0
1 1 0 0 1200 1300 1400 1500 I600 1700 1800 Is00 2000 2100 2200 2.300 000 (ITWS), for improved ATC decision-
m e (~m)
making.
Furthermore, the following responses have
Figure 4. Running plot of total departure delay been questioned as to their potential to reduce
of aircraft waiting to depart from EWR. delays:
Inter-facility communication.
Key Problem Definition The utilization of runway 1 1/29.
The key conclusion drawn from the site visit These are presented in the sections below.
on June 29,2000 is that downstream airspace
capacity limitations were a primary flow constraint Fix Restrictions
and the primary cause of surface delays. Weather The application of restrictions to fixes and jet-
was clearly the primary cause of the restrictions, routes is the primary ATC response to adverse
seen by the correspondence between the local weather. Limiting the number of aircraft using a
weather on the respective fixes and the restrictions specific fix or jet-route when that fix or jet-route is
applied to those fixes. The propagation of these impacted by weather is essential to ensuring the
external constraints to the airport surface was seen safety of the NAS. These restrictions result in
in how the decreases in departure rate appeared to delays at airports as demand for capacity exceeds
correlate closely to those periods when restrictions supply. Detailed observations were consequently
were most severe. Departure delays also clearly made of the restrictions applied to the primary
correlated very closely with the periods of severe departure fixes for Newark airport, on June 29,
restriction. 2000.
Figure 5 shows a Gantt chart of the restrictions
on the departure fixes, and a local Doppler radar
Air Traffic Control Responses to map at 11:00 EDT. The Doppler radar map shows
Delays the weather moving east, off the coast. At this time
Pressure from both the public and from it was no longer having a direct impact on the
congress has forced the FAA to respond to the southern west fixes, but continued to impact
severe delays in the NAS. FAA Administrator Jane WHITE in the south. WHITE was correspondingly
Garvey has spoken about ATC delays and capacity restricted to 20 MIT. The HVRs were complete,
before congress a number of times, including a leaving the north and northern west fixes
statement specifically dedicated to air traffic unrestricted. However a 20 MIT restriction had
congestion in the New York Metroplex on July 16, been applied to PARKE and a 40 MIT restriction
2001 when testifying before the Committee on applied to BIGGY. According to the Gantt chart

4
this fix was also closed briefly, at 9:20am. weather to the south of the airport had continued to
However, it is clear that BIGGY was not impacted move off the coast, now no longer impacting
by local weather, so these restrictions must have WHITE locally. However, the front originally over
been the result of capacity constraints fiuther away Lake Eerie had started to impact the north and
from the airport. Figure 6 thus shows the national northern west fixes locally. The weather to the
weather over the destination cities with preferred northwest of the airport, although somewhat sparse,
routings from Newark through BIGGY. These cities was severe in places. Consequently GAYEL and
were clearly severely impacted by the front COATE had been restricted to 10 MIT. ELIOT and
extending from off the coast of New England down PARKE, the two northern west fixes, were however
to the Gulf of Mexico. It is thus downstream unrestricted, despite local weather, and instead
weather that is the cause of the restrictions, and not LANNA and BIGGY were restricted, to 40 MIT.
local weather. This was also the case for PARKE WHITE was also closed at this time, despite no
and LANNA, although LANNA remained local weather. As can be seen in Figure 8 these
unrestricted because the level of traffic through this restrictions were again caused by downstream
fix was light.
" weather severely impacting the majority of
EWR Departure Fix Restnctiom Local Doppler Radar Map destination cities for flights from Newark with
preferred routings through these fixes. ELIOT and
PARKE, although impacted by local weather, were
unrestricted because of light traffic (at 13:OO
ELIOT was 5 aircraft per hour, and PARKE, 0
aircraft per hour). This suggests that it is not only
the weather that affects restrictions, but also the
amount of traffic through the fixes. By 15:OO EDT
the flow rate on ELIOT had increased to 25 aircraft
per hour, whilst PARKE remained low at 2 aircraft
per hour. Correspondingly ELIOT was restricted to
20 MIT, whilst PARKE remained unrestricted.
58-4s W 1 1 1 6 S 8 d S Z ~ )
No~duastfncr unramctcd throughout day Source hncoln laboratones ITWS

Figure 5. Restrictions and local Doppler radar

.-=-.--
ource Lincoln Labratones

Figure 7. Restrictions and local Doppler radar

map - 13:OO EDT (17:OO Zulu).

Figure 6. National Doppler radar map -

10:30:00 EDT (14:30:00 Zulu).
Figure 7 shows the Gantt chart and local
Doppler radar map at 13:OO EDT. At this time the

5
 locally, and returned to their original route after the
local constraint. Similarly if one route had local
constraints and the other had downstream
constraints, flow on the route with downstream
constraints could be lightly restricted, and traffic
from the route with local constraints re-routed onto
it, before being re-routed back, after the local
constraints. If correctly planned, this could leave
the level of traffic on the fix with downstream
constraints low enough to meet the restrictions

*
required downstream.
Route 1
t *
Figure 8. National Doppler radar map - Downstream Downstream
12:30:00 EDT (16:30:00 Zulu). Fix or Jet-
Fix or Jet-
route 7 route
The severe weather avoidance plan, and FAA
delay program which blocks off large chunks of
airspace in regions where thunderstorms are Local Fix
or Jet-
& Local Fix
or Jet-
reported, also went active at 13:OO EDT. This was
because of the severe restrictions to the west, and
route 7 I$ route

the closure of WHITE, the primary southbound fix.

At 15:OO EDT the hotline, a direct and continuous
telephone communication between all the facilities
in the area, was activated.
It is clear from the above discussion that it is Figure 9. Advantages of rerouting.
not simply local weather that affects restrictions, Despite its benefits, re-routing is, however,
but rather a coupling of local weather, downstream difficult to implement, as all facilities affected need
weather, and traffic demand. Each of these factors to agree on a re-route, which is coordinated through
should thus be addressed in the development of the ATCSCC. This may often involve a number of
tools designed to aid decision making in the facilities with conflicting interests. Because of these
implementation of restrictions. difficulties the National Playbook was developed,
Reroutes which provides suggestions for re-routes. On
Re-routing aircraft from their original flight November 15,16 and 17,2000, the Newark ATCT,
plan onto a new less restricted route is a preferred Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, New
method for dealing with severe fix or jet-route York TRACON, and New York ARTCC, were
restrictions. The reason for this is that re-routes visited and controllers interviewed. According to
around sections of the flight path that are severely these interviews the National Playbook is well
restricted can reduce delays on routes that would respected and the re-routes implemented are
otherwise be severely delayed. Figure 9 shows an generally taken directly from the Playbook. During
example of two routes, with two components each - the June 29,2000 site visit to Newark Airport,
a fix or jet-route local to the origin airport, and a however, controllers did not use the Playbook
downstream fix or jet-route. If the two routes were extensively. This was because plays did not exist
separate a local or downstream constraint would for the weather scenarios that impacted the airport.
stop the flow on that route. However, if re-routes The Playbook can only be used for the specific
between routes were allowed, shown by the dashed weather scenarios in the book. A detailed
lines, the local weather on one route would not examination of those re-routes implemented,
impact the flow to the destinations on that route, as however, follows.
aircraft could be re-routed onto the other route

6
 Figure 7, which shows the restrictions and
local Doppler radar map for 13:OO EDT, clearly
shows a gap between the two fronts, through which
WHITE and 5209 pass. This gap grows as the day
progresses. It appears initially that this gap could
allow traffic to fly west by departing through
WHITE and flying west around the south of the
front coming through from the north west.
However, this would require that the aircraft change
their flight plans from flying from New York
Center to Cleveland Center, to flying from New
York Center to Washington Center, and then to Source. Lincoln Laboralorics ITWS
Cleveland Center from the south. Because this re-
route crosses center boundaries it would have Figure 10. Restrictions and local Doppler radar
required extensive coordination between the three map - 16:15 EDT (21:15 Zulu).
Centers, through the System Command Center
(ATCSCC). New York arrivals from the south also One of the plays in the National Playbook,
pass through this corridor, and Washington amvals called NO-WESTGATESRBV-1 is designed for
and departures use the airspace just south of the use when all west departure fixes are closed. This
front from the northwest. The flights would be play however re-routes aircraft through COATE
interacting with traffic to and from Washington and WHITE, both of which were closed on June 29
Dulles (IAD),Washington National (DCA), when the west fixes were closed. This re-route was
Baltimore (BWI) and Philadelphia (PHL). With thus not available. The only open fixes were those
improved inter-facility coordination however, this to the northeast. There is a play in the National
gap in the weather may have been able to be Playbook called TOP-THE-WX-1, which is a
utilized, allowing much traffic out to the west. special request routing for “topping the weather”,
where if all the west fixes are closed west
Figure 10 shows the Gantt chart and local departures fly through MERIT, to the northeast, in
Doppler radar map at 16:15 EDT. The weather from order to cut back to the north of the weather.
the northwest continued to move towards New However, when the west fixes were closed on June
York City, and can be seen to impact the north and 29, there was heavy traffic flying to Europe so these
west departure fixes. Because of the local weather fixes were also not available.
COATE and all the west fixes were closed, which
are the departure fixes with the highest traffic. Figure 11 shows the Gantt chart and local
WHITE remained closed because of downstream Doppler radar map at 19:OO EDT. Although ELIOT
weather, although some re-routes were allowed and PARKE were closed by 7 pm, BIGGY was re-
though the gap between the two fronts to Norfolk opened, and all westbound traffic was re-routed
(OW) and Charlotte (CLT). The traffic to these onto that fix. This re-route is not however specified
destinations was however light in comparison to in the National Playbook. No play is described for
that scheduled through the west fixes, and the the closure of three of the four west fixes, although
original flights plans also took the flights through some plays for other closures do re-route traffic
the same ARTCCs. onto BIGGY, such as the play for the closure ofjet-
route 56 (NO-J6_3). The re-route of traffic onto
BIGGY is not likely to have required difficult
coordination because the traffic continued to be
westbound.

7
 EWI? Departue RX RestrchOm L& Doppler Radar Map
schedule flights though common departure fixes.
This tool provides controllers and Traffic
Management Coordinators (TMCs) with the ability
to space departing aircraft. However the tool also
improves efficiency by reducing voice coordination
between the ATCT, the TRACON and ARTCCs,
and providing a dynamic flight plan, ATC
information, and reports. DSP also provides
departure controllers and TMCs with the aircraft
ground lineup status for aircraft departing from
each airport runway in the system [lo]. In April,
2000 DSP was installed at Newark, LaGuardia,
JFK,and Philadelphia ATCTs; New York and
Philadelphia TRACONs; and New York ARTCC.
Figure 11. Restrictions and local Doppler radar
map - 19:OO EDT (23:OO Zulu). According to interviews carried out on
November 17,2000, DSP is a great benefit to the
Because the National Playbook can only be New York Departure Pit Complex (NYDP) at the
utilized for weather situations for which plays are New York ARTCC, which issues departure
developed, it can only be utilized for a severe clearances to each departing aircraft. This is
weather situation if a play is developed for that because DSP is able to check flight plans
situation. It is thus essential that plays continue to automatically according to preferential departure
be developed and the Playbook updated. However, routings, and thus enables NYDP controllers to
even the Playbook re-routes can be rendered un- issue clearances electronically, doing away with
usable by constraints on the destination fixes. flight strips in the NYDP. The tool was also
It is not clear to what degree inter-facility described as useful for ensuring the efficient
coordination would have had to be improved to utilization of open fixes and for coordination of
have allowed the re-route through the gap between aircraft departure times for better system efficiency.
the fronts, from 3pm to 5pm on June 29, to be However, it does not provide any assistance in
applied. It does appear however that re-route optimizing routes or assignment of re-routes. In
opportunities would be greatly improved by more contrast to its use at the ARTCC, according to
efficient inter-facility coordination. interviews on November 16,2000 DSP is not used
extensively at the New York TRACON. The tool
Decision-Aiding Tools was described as powerful but requiring more
A number of decision aiding tools have been airports to be truly useful to the TRACON.
developed to improve communication and
information flow in ATC. These include the ITWS is a system that is designed to provide
Enhanced Traffic Management System (ETMS), safety and planning tools to all terminal aviation
General Information (GI) Message System and system users, by providing improved weather
Flight Data Information Operation (FDIO), information. The system was developed initially by
Information Display System4 (IDW), the System MITs Lincoln Laboratories, and fiu-ther by
Command Center Operations Information System Raytheon and TRW. It is designed to characterize
(01s) Website, Doppler weather radar displays, current terminal weather situations and forecast 30
Departure Spacing Program (DSP), and Integrated minutes into the future, presenting the data on a
Terminal Weather System (ITWS). DSP and ITWS Doppler radar map. ITWS includes wind shear and
particularly are two recently introduced decision- microburst predictions, storm cell and lightning
aiding tools designed specifically as delay problems information, terminal area winds aloft, runway
within the NAS have become a primary focus of the winds, and short-term ceiling and visibility
FAA. predictions. The ITWS demonstration system was
introduced in New York in the fall of 1998, and its
DSP is a tool that uses dynamic air traffic capability extended to include 30 minute .
information from specially adapted airports to

8
predictions of convective storms in the summer of Francisco, and it was expended to all airports in
1999. The system is currently operational at September 1998. This initiative has lead to traffic
Newark, Teterboro, LaGuardia and JFK ATCTs; management tools that aim to increase information
the New York TRACON; New York, Boston and sharing between parties whilst reducing the
Washington ARTCCs; and the ARTCSCC in requirements for coordination. The traffic
Herndon, VA. American, Continental, Delta, management tools developed through this initiate
Federal Express, Northwest, Southwest, United, have been effective at improving communication
U P S and US Airways also either have access to the between ATC and the airlines, but according to
situation display or Internet access to ITWS. Davison and Hansman [ 111 the effectiveness of the
CDM initiatives can be further enhanced by their
According to interviews on the June 29,2000
site visit, a visit to the Newark ATCT, New York application to the ATC system internally,
particularly to inter-facility communications.
TRACON and New York ARTCC on November
Davison and Hansman identify a number of
15-17, 2000, and a visit to Continental at Newark
June 14 and 15,2001, ITWS has been well received emergent themes, including an ambiguous
and is used routinely. However, as ITWS only organizational structure, information flow issues,
characterizes the terminal area, controllers awkward and unorganized communications and
expressed a desire to also see ITWS applied further coordination, and organizational cultural issues. A
afield than the Terminal Area. National weather number of recommendations are made including
further centralization of authority to the ATCSCC;
maps from the Internet are thus generally used in
proceduralization of the communication of new or
conjunction with ITWS. Despite this, according to a
revised restrictions; proceduralization of commonly
study by Lincoln Laboratories [6] ITWS provides
used re-routes; and restructuring teleconferences
an annual delay reduction of over 49,000 hours,
and hotlines.
which has a monetary value of over $150,000,000
per year. The study also shows that delays could be Utilization of Runway 11-29
further reduced if ITWS were extended to provide Runway 11-29 is the third runway at Newark
prediction of thunderstorm decay, and the onset and airport, after the parallel runways. This runway has
ending of capacity limiting events such as low limited utilization and more use would definitely
ceiling or high surface winds. add capacity. However there are significant
limitations to its use. Firstly, there are
Both DSP and ITWS appear to have been
complications resulting from operations on the
successful in improving decision aiding within ATC
runway interacting with arrivals and departures to
operations. Both can however be further developed,
and from the other airports in the area, particularly
including the inclusion of more airports in the DSP
LaGuardia and Teterboro airports. Secondly, there
system, and the extension of ITWS to include
weather further afield. It is also recommended that
are also limitations on the types of aircraft able to
depart on the runway, because of its length. The
the integration of both tools with other decision
runway is only 6,800 ft long. Assuming sea level
aiding tools be considered, so as to maximize their
performance, standard conditions, maximum take
effectiveness and benefit to the system.
off weight, and a dry runway surface, the only
Communication aircraft operated by Continental able to depart from
Another way in which delays can be reduced is the runway are the Boeing 737-700, the Embraer
by increasing the efficiency of strategic RJ135, the Embraer EMB-120 and the Aerospatiale
communication and coordination within the air ATR 42-320. This means that the majority of
traffic control system. Strategic communication and aircraft operated at the airport cannot use the
coordination has been recognized as a critical area runway, and must instead operate from the parallel
in which system efficiency can be improved, runways. Continental airlines are also converting
leading to the development of the Collaborative from using turboprop aircraft such as the ATR 42-
Decision Making (CDM) initiative, developed to 320, to using regional jets, such as the ERJ135 and
improve communication between ATC facilities ERJ145 (which cannot depart from runway 11-29).
and the airlines. The initial prototype operation was The result is further reduced utilization of runway
implemented in January 1998, at Newark and San

9
11-29, and increased use of the already congested still functions autonomously, without being under
parallel runways. the authority of the ATCSCC, revealing a more
decentralized structure at the local level. This
Operations are also limited by interactions
creates ambiguity in the organizational structure,
with the two parallel runways at Newark,
which affects coordination at the local level. [ 1I].
introduced with the extension of the parallel
As identified by Davison and Hansman [ 111, further
runways to cross runway 11-29. Simultaneous
centralization of authority to the ATCSCC would
operations of runway 11-29 and runway 22R have
reduce the ambiguity of the organizational
subsequently been restricted through a number of
structure. However it would also relinquish
procedures [12]. Arrivals on the runway are also
flexibility at the local level.
affected by the requirement to use LAHSO (Land
and Hold Operations) in order to hold short of New York Airspace Redesign
runway 4L-22R. At the time of the runway The New York airspace redesign is part of the
extension pilot unions contended that the FAA had FAA’s National Airspace System Operational
not done enough to ensure that LAHSO was safe Evolution Plan, which intends to identify solutions
and had recommended that their members refuse to to increase terminal throughput; to reduce en-route
use the procedure. Consequently LAHSO had congestion by increasing flexibility; to keep
received bad press and added to the reduced terminal throughput closer to visual levels in all
utilization of the runway 11-29. weather conditions; and to increase flexibility to
cope with en route severe weather [ 131. The
It is also recommended that steps be taken to
objective to increase terminal throughput includes
improve coordination with Teterboro and
redesigns of a number of terminal areas in the
LaGuardia, so as to allow increased utilization of
United States, including that of New York and
the runway. Particularly also, the New York
Philadelphia.
airspace redesign should take this factor into
account. The New York airspace redesign is still in its
development stages. However according to
Chairman of the House Subcommittee on Aviation
Strategic ATC Responses to Delays Rep. John Mica, speaking after a congressional
Strategic responses by ATC include the hearing looking at ways to alleviate congestion at
development of the Air Traffic Control System New York City airports on July 16,2001, the FAA’s
Command Center (ATCSCC) in Herndon, VA, and airspace redesign program is a top priority to cut
the redesign of the New York airspace. down on delays, particularly at LaGuardia.
ATCSCC According to FAA Administrator Jane Garvey, who
The role of the Air Traffic Control System spoke at the same hearing, it will not however be
Command Center (ATCSCC) is to manage the flow completed until late 2005 or early 2006. [ 141
of approximately 50,000 aircraft operations per day The purpose of the New York airspace
within the continental United States. The facility redesign is to identify ways to increase the
strives to balance air traffic demand with system efficiency of air traffic flows into and out of the
capacity and safety, and has been operational since metropolitan area, including Philadelphia, whilst
1994. The formation of the ATCSCC, and the CDM still maintaining or improving the level of safety
initiative, which began in 1998, lead to a change in and air traffic services that are currently in place.
the organizational structure of the ATC system. The This is necessary to respond to the increased
primary change was from a decentralized structure demand for air travel, which requires increased
to a more centralized structure, with authority system reliability, and thus a reduction in delays.
centralized to the ATCSCC. As identified by Some of the direct results of the redesign are
Davison and Hansman [ 111, the ATC system has reduced delays at major airports, reduced pilot and
aspects of a centralized hierarchical structure at the controller workload, enhanced safety, and reduced
national level, in that the ATCSCC’s responsibility adverse environmental impacts such as noise and
is to maintain efficiency throughout the other ATC air emissions. [15]
facilities. However, each ATC facility ultimately

10
 The redesign is to incorporate a number of Other Strategic Solutions
strategies developed to reduce congestion and Newark is constrained by the limited number
environmental effects. These include increasing the of runways it operates. The addition of a new
altitude of arrivals, keeping them higher for longer, runway, however, is not a feasible solution at this
and faster climb to altitude for departures. Flights time. Any new runway would need to be built
are also to be dispersed or concentrated over alongside the parallel runways, but sufficiently far
highways, industrial areas, and other less noise from them as to allow for simultaneous operations.
sensitive areas, in order to reduce the noise This would however require the new runway to be
influences on the community. Advanced navigation built where Interstate 1-95 is currently located, and
tools are also to be implemented to reduce it is not considered feasible to move this interstate
conversations between the pilot and controller. because of the presence of the Newark harbor to its
east. Newark is thus not likely to receive a new
Four alternative concepts that utilize these
runway in the foreseeable future.
strategies have been proposed for the redesign, as
follows: Demand management has also been proposed
as a solution to reduce congestion at the airport.
1. Modify the current system, without redesigning
Currently Newark operates slot control at Terminal
it from the ground up. This would incorporate
B only. According to interviews with Susan Baer,
the above strategies but little more.
General Manager at Newark International and
2. White paper approach - complete redesign,
Teterboro Airports for the Port Authority of New
keeping only the runways. The new structure
York and New Jersey, on November 15,2000,
would be similar to the four corner concepts at
further slot control is being considered, as is peak
Chicago O’Hare (ORD), Atlanta (ATL),
hour pricing.
Denver (DEN), and Dallasmort Worth (DEW).
The New York and Philadelphia airports would
all be treated as a single airport until defined Conclusions and Policy Implications
points within the airspace at which point the
In 2000 Newark airport had the highest ATC
aircraft would be separated to their respective
delays in the country, and was second only to
airports. This would mean that if one arrival LaGuardia in percentage of operations delayed. The
route was busy aircraft could be offloaded onto
cause of delays at Newark was primarily weather,
other arrival routes, regardless of their
with 84% of arrival delays related in some way to
destination airport.
weather. The weather’s impact on the airport is
3. A hybrid between the white paper approach and
related to the sensitivity of the airport to adverse
the current system.
weather and the frequency of adverse weather.
4. All departure operations out over the ocean. Newark then operates a very full, flat schedule, with
This alternative, although relatively simple in few recovery periods. The airspace is also highly
design, is complicated politically. It is strongly
congested, Newark being one of four primary
supported by the communities of New Jersey,
airports in the New York Metroplex. According to a
but not others.
site visit to the airport on June 29,2000, the
primary flow constraint, which leads to the high
The New York airspace redesign is likely to be
surface delays at the airport, is downstream airspace
the most significant change to the air traffic control
capacity limitations.
system structure, and is also thought to be the most
likely response to achieve significant reductions in ATC Responses to the delays at Newark have
delays. This is however very dependent on the been both tactical and strategic. Tactical responses
solution chosen, and the ability of the redesign include application of restrictions and reroutes, and
process to avoid bureaucratic inertia, such as would the use of decisions aiding tools. Other suggested
occur by attempting to completely satisfy all of the responses include improved inter-facility
stakeholders, many of whom have contradicting communication and increased utilization of runway
interests. 11-29. Strategic responses to delays in the system
include the formation of the ATCSCC, and a
redesign of the NAS. A number of conclusions

11
 related to these responses were identified, as controllers is likely to overload them and increase
, described below. their tasks instead of decreasing them. Instead the
systems developed needs to be highly integrated,
Restrictions are implemented not only because
operating together with a minimum of interfaces to
of local weather, but are also affected by
controllers. This may require certain information
downstream weather and traffic levels through the
about system design to be made available to other
departure fixes. It is recommended that ATC
contractors, when this information would normally
decision aiding tools be developed that account for
be withheld for competitive reasons.
all of these factors. Integration with current systems
such as ITWS and DSP is also essential. According- to the study - by- Davison and
Hansman on communication and coordination
Dynamic re-routing is difficult because of the
issues in the NAS [ 111 the organizational structure
need for all the facilities to be in agreement for a re-
is ambiguous. The formation of the ATCSCC has
route to be approved. With improved inter-facility
led to a centralized control structure, with authority
communication re-routing could thus be utilized to
centralized to the ATCSCC. However, each ATC
a greater extent, and thus delays reduced. It is thus
facility ultimately still functions autonomously,
recommended that steps be taken particularly to
revealing a more decentralized structure at the local
improve inter-facility communication, which may
level. As identified by Davison and Hansman,
include the further development of decision aiding
further centralization of authority to the ATCSCC
and communication tools. The National Playbook,
would reduce the ambiguity of the organizational
developed to suggest re-routes and improve their
structure. A number of other themes are visible,
utilization, although useful, needs to be further
such as information flow issues, awkward and
developed to include more plays. These would
unorganized communications and coordination, and
address combinations of fix closures not addressed
organizational cultural issues.
in the current edition of the playbook.
Increased utilization of runway 11-29 would
Two decision-aiding tools, DSP and ITWS,
add capacity, but it is significantly limited by
have recently been implemented at Newark and its
operational interaction issues with particularly
associated ATC facilities. DSP is a great benefit to
Teterboro and LaGuardia; its length, with many
the NYDP at the New York ARTCC and is useful
aircraft types not able to operate on the runway; and
for ensuring efficient use of fixes, but was not used
operational issues related to crossing the parallel
much by the New York TRACON as it did not
runways. It is particularly recommended that efforts
include enough airports to be truly useful. It is thus
be taken within the system to improve coordination
recommended that DSP be further developed to
with Teterboro and LaGuardia to allow increased
include more airports. ITWS has been well received
utilization of the runway. However, this should also
and is used routinely. According to a study by
be addressed in detail in the redesign of the New
Lincoln Laboratories [ 113 it is responsible for an
York airspace. This may require the introduction of
annual delay reduction of over 49,000 hours.
new FAA procedures between the three airports.
However controllers expressed a desire to see the
system applied further afield as well as within the The New York airspace redesign, part of the
Terminal Area. It is thus recommended that the FAAs National Airspace System Operational
system be extended to include weather further Evolution Plan, is a top priority to alleviate
afield. It is also recommended that the integration congestion at the New York airports. It is thus
of both DSP and ITWS with other decision aiding thought to be the response to delays likely to have
tools be considered in detail. the greatest impact on reducing delays in the New
York Metroplex, and at Newark airport. The careful
Because of the competitive nature of the
development of the New York airspace redesign is
industry in which decisions aiding tools are
thus essential.
developed it may be necessary for some
government intervention to allow efficient Extension to Other Airports
integration of the decision aiding tools developed. It Despite the continued increase in delays
is essential that the tools developed integrate well as system wide, responses at Newark and within the
simply increasing the number of tools available to facilities in New York have led to a significant

12
reduction in the growth of delays at the airport, Swierenga D., 2001, Air Transportation
compared to the growth system wide. System wide report on delays - 2000, Washington DC, Air
delays in the United States increased from 1998 to Transportation Association, [Link]
1999 by 22%, with only a 3.4% increase in [Link]/public/industry/bin/Delays5-
capacity. From 1999 to 2000 the increase was 20%, [Link].
with only a 0.4% increase in capacity. At Newark
Allan S.S., Gaddy S.G., and Evans J.E., 2001,
airport however after delays increased by 14.1%
Delay Causality and Reduction ut the New
from 1998 to 1999 with a 0.2 % increase in
York City Airports Using Terminal Weather
operations, from 1999 to 2000 delays only
Information Systems, Project Report ATC-
increased by 1.6% with a 1.3% decrease in
29 1, Lexington, MA, Lincoln Laboratory,
operations. The responses to delays have reduced
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
the growth of delays at the airport, and may thus be
beneficial to reduce the growth of delays at other N O M , 2002, National Climate Center,
airports. However, the only response expected to National Oceanic and Atmospheric
further reduce delays significantly, at Newark, is Administration,
the New York airspace redesign. [Link]
[Link].
Because delays at Newark are caused by
downstream flow constraints, the responses at the FAA, 2001, MITWCAASD, Airport
airport can be applied to all other airports generally Capacity Benchmarks 2001, Washington DC
as delays from downstream constraints increase. Federal Aviation Authority.
The responses at Newark will not address local Garvey, J., 200 1, Statement by Jane F
problems at other airports, but an increase in delays Garvey, FAA Administrator, Before the
system wide from downstream constraints is Committee on Transportation &
inevitable as the system becomes more congested.
Infrastructure, Subcommittee on Aviation, on
Air Trafic Congestion in the NY City Area,
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13
 New York Congestion; Could Cut Capacity,
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