Learning goals Case 4: Too much or too little?
1. What is pH?
The abbreviation pH stands for "potential of hydrogen ion." The "p" is defined as an
instruction to take the negative of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration,
written [H+]. pH is the negative logarithm of the molarity of H, which is a measure of total
ions per unit volume rather than mass per unit volume.
A 1-molar (1M) solution of pure hydrogen ions has a pH of 0. This is not seen in nature and is
used as a reference point for measuring pH using an electrode that is part of a pH meter.
These are calibrated to translate voltage differences between the reference solution and a
solution of interest into a pH value for the latter.
1 mole of ions per litre means about 6.02 × 1023 individual molecules or atoms per litre of
solution.
Common values of pH include about 1.5 for stomach acid, about 2 for lime juice, 3.5 for
wine, 7 for pure water, about 7.4 for healthy human blood, 9 for bleach and 12 for
household ammonia. The latter two compounds are strongly basic, and can exert physical
damage just like acid can, albeit by a different mechanism.
2. What are buffer solutions and how do they work? (+ examples in the body)
A buffer solution is a solution which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or
an alkali are added to it.
An acidic buffer solution is simply one which has a pH less than 7. Acidic buffer solutions are
commonly made from a weak acid and one of its salts - often a sodium salt.
An alkaline buffer solution had a pH greater than 7. Alkaline buffer solutions are commonly
made from a weak base and one of its salts.
A buffer solution must contain things which will remove any hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions
that you might add to it, otherwise the pH will change. Acidic and alkaline buffer solutions
achieve this in different ways.
If a strong base is added to a buffer, the weak acid will give up its H+ to transform the base
(OH-) into water (H2O) and the conjugate base: HA + OH- → A- + H2O. Since the added OH- is
consumed by this reaction, the pH will change only slightly.
If a strong acid is added to a buffer, the weak base will react with the H + from the strong acid
to form the weak acid HA: H+ + A- → HA. The H+ gets absorbed by the A- instead of reacting
with water to form H3O+(H+), so the pH changes only slightly.
Examples in the body:
Cell and plasma proteins, haemoglobin, phosphates, bicarbonate ions, and carbonic acid
Look a bit more into this
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pH maintenance in the body
Buffer Systems
Proteins form a part of the buffer system to regulate the pH levels. These proteins can act as
H+ acceptors or donors because of the presence of basic or acidic groups. Similarly,
phosphate buffers also help in moderating the levels of pH. Buffers may help in regulating pH
during minor physiological changes, such as during breath holding (which increases the CO2
in the blood), exercise (which increases lactic acid in the blood), or when gastric acid is
secreted.
Respiratory Control
The pH of blood during normal conditions is 7.4. However, CO2 dissociates into carbonic acid
in the tissues. Thus, presence of more CO2 makes the blood more acidic. That is the reason
when we hold the breath for long durations, the CO2 levels increase in the blood lowering
our pH leading to fainting. On the other hand, during alkalosis or increased pH, the breathing
may get slow to increase the CO2 levels and reduce the alkalinity. However, low breathing
rate could also lead to low oxygen levels which could be detrimental. Thus, respiration
provides an important control to regulate the pH levels.
Renal Control
The renal system regulates the pH of extracellular fluid. The changes in pH induced by the
respiratory system are in minutes, while the changes induced by the renal system are in the
order of days. If the acidity of the fluids is high, kidney secretes H+ ions, while if the
carbonate ion levels are high it retains H+ ions and secretes HCO3 ions. Although this
process is slow, it can prove an effective mode to regulate pH. One limitation of renal
regulation is that the pH of urine cannot be below 4.4. Thus, strong acids can be removed by
reacting with basic salts of phosphoric acid or by addition of base (NH3) to urine.
Capacity of the buffer
Buffer capacity (β) is defined as the moles of an acid or base necessary to change the pH of a
solution by 1, divided by the pH change and the volume of buffer in liters; it is a unitless
number. A buffer resists changes in pH due to the addition of an acid or base though
consumption of the buffer.
pH of blood -> 7,35 – 7,40
pH of the body cells -> 7,00 – 7,40
pH of stomach -> upper part: 4,00 – 6,50
lower part: 1,50 – 4,00
3. What is osmolarity? (And why is it important?)
Osmolarity is the total solute concentration within a specific volume of a solvent expressed
in osmoles per liter (Osm/L) or milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L). These solute (dissolved
particle) concentrations must be osmotically active. That means, they cause the movement
of water across a selectively permeable membrane via osmosis. Osmoles are measured
concentrations of dissociated ions in a solution that contribute to osmotic pressure.
An isotonic solution is the goal of both osmosis and diffusion. This term describes the same
concentration of solutes across two areas and is called a homogenous mixture. Cell
membranes continuously allow water and solute molecules to pass from the inside of the
cell to the outside and vice versa. This occurs in response to changing solute concentration
levels. The transport methods that do not use energy are the most efficient. Osmosis and
diffusion are forms of passive transport.
A hypotonic solution describes a lower concentration of a solution outside the cell than
inside. Imagine that water molecules move from the extracellular space into the cell via
osmosis. Adding water to the inside of the cell affects the concentration level inside, but
outside as well. Eventually this osmotic action creates an isotonic solution on either side of
the cell membrane. However, this is not always ideal. Too much water inside the cell can
cause it to become turgid; it could burst and die.
In an extracellular hypertonic solution, water will exit the cell to lower the high
concentrations outside the membrane. The aim is to produce an isotonic solution on both
sides. In a hypertonic solution, the concentration of solutes in a solution is higher outside the
cell. The opposite effect to a hypotonic solution occurs within the cell. It becomes
dehydrated through water loss and can lose its ability to function and perhaps die.
Cytolysis, or osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance that has
caused excess water to diffuse into the cell.
Crenation is a process resulting from osmosis in which cells, in a hypertonic solution,
undergo shrinkage and acquire a notched or scalloped surface.
Osmolarity matters because cells cannot survive if the osmolarity if their surroundings are
much different from their own. Water moves across a membrane from a lower osmolarity to
a higher osmolarity. In other words, it moves from the dilute side to the concentrated side.
The dilute side loses water and becomes more concentrated. The concentrated side gains
water to become more dilute. Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake and loss.
Cells can burst if they take on too much water, or collapse if they lose too much. Cell
membranes in general are permeable to water. Thus, the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid
(ECF) is approximately equal to that of the intracellular fluid (ICF). This is important, because
it shows that changes in ECF osmolarity have a great effect on ICF osmolarity.
If the osmolarity of the ECF becomes too low (hypotonic), water will fill the cells. This
increases their volume and may lead to their rupture (cytolysis). If the osmolarity of the ECF
becomes too high (hypertonic), water will leave the cells. This decreases volume and may
lead to their shrinking (crenation).
Mole vs molarity
Mole is a measurement of the number of substances, whereas molarity is a measurement of
the concentration. Molarity gives an idea of the amount of substances present in a mixture.
Molarity is given as moles of a substance in one volume of a solvent. A mole is a unit
whereas molarity is not.
Osmole vs osmolarity
One osmole is equal to 1 mole (6.02 × 1023) of solute particles. Whereas osmolarity is
dependent upon the number of impermeant molecules in a solution, not on the identity of
the molecules. For example, a 1M solution of a nonionizing substance such as glucose is a 1
Osmolar solution; a 1M solution of NaCl = 2 Osm; and a 1M solution of Na2SO4 =3 Osm.
4. Henderson-Hasselbach equation
pH = pKa + log ([A-] / [HA])
[Link]
bases/x2eef969c74e0d802:buffers/v/hendersonhasselbalch-equation