intro

standard are important

main standardization categories:

ITU-T alphanumeric categories refer to standard groups:

V-serie
data communication over switched phone lines
X-serie
data communication over dedicated phone lines
I-serie
digital telephone series

Communication mode:

Synchronous
Asynchronous
Connection mode:
Point-to-point
Multipoint
Communication option:
Simplex (unidirezionale)
Half-duplex (bidirezionale a turni)
Full-duplex (bidirezionale simultanea)
Interface types:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
Data Communication Equipment (DCE)

Services can be:

connection-oriented
connectionless (si trasmette senza creare una connessione (tipo radio))

Communication option:

unicast
multicast
broadcast
anycast
geocast
Services can be:

Reliable
Not reliable

MODELLO OSI

layer layer description

name
7 Application human computer interaction
6 Presentation ensure data is in usable format
(data encryption)
5 Session maintains connection
controll ports and sessions
4 Transport transmit data using protocols like
TCP and UDP
3 Network decide the physical path
2 Data Link defines the format of the data on the network
1 Physical transmits raw bit stream over the physical
medium

each level add information about the nature of the data

HOST A HOST B
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 header 4 data 4
3 header 3 ... ... 3
2 header 2 ... ... ... 2
1 ... ... ... ... 1
Protocols:
define the methodology of interaction
LAYER 1
fisico
cablaggi in rame

10 base 5 (500m without refresh)

10 base 2 (200m without refresh)
10 base T: twisted pair (100m without refresh)
UTP (unshielded)
STO (shielded)
AUI
altri standard cable
UART
USB
Parallel cable
cross-over
IEEE488

altri tipi di connessioni

Optical fiber
maggiore velocità, maggiore portata, meno interferenze, piu sicura
single/mono mode
multi mode
Wireless
Several Frequencies
Several Standards
Infrared

Cabling standards:

ANSI: EIA/TIA 568, TSB36 and TSB40

twisted pair
 cavo Freq type Max data Max
(MHz) Transmission Bandwidth
speed (Mbps) (MHz)
Cat 3 16 UTP 10 16
Cat 4 20 ? ? ?
Cat 5 100 UTP 10/100/1000 100
Cat 5e 100 UTP 10/100/1000 100
Cat 6 250 UTP/STP 10/100/1000 250
Cat 6a 250 STP 10.000 500
Cat 7 600 S/FTP 10.000 600
Physical layer infrastructure

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Repeater, Hub
Media converter
Transceiver
MAU - Media Attachment Unit
Multiport Transceivers
Vampirs
Patch Panel
Information transmission

direct signal
signal modulation
base band coding
NRZ e RZ codes
Phase coding codes
Multilevel codes
Polar and Unipolar coding
modem: digital signal to analog
(ASK) amplitude modulation
(FSK) frequency modulation
(PSK) phase modulation
(QAM) quadrature modulation
multiplexing: multiple channel communication on the same line
tecniche:
(TDM) time division multiplexing
(FDM) frequency division multiplexing
(WDM) wavelength division multiplexing
(OFDM) orthogonal frequency division multiplexing

LAYER 2
Data link

must give its upper layer a link without errors

must manage how a machine/device access a network
manages framing (data packets sorting)
error detection and correction
resolve shared media communication conflicts

errors are caused by:

electronic noise, impulse noise, mutual interference, echoes on trasmission lines, attenuation casued
by transmission lines

data integrity checks:

Parity
VRC, BCC, SRC, Interleaving
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checking)

error detection and correction: Hamming

Some IEEE 802.x standards
802.1 Higher LAN protocols
802.2 Logical Link controls
802.3/22 schede di rete

MAC e LLC sub-layers

protocols active on this layer:

CSMA/CD
native speed 10Mbps
process:
CS (carrier sense) each node listen the network for activity
MA the network is shared among all nodes
CD during transmission the node are actively listening to detect collision

Ethernet
uses CDMA/CD, 10Mbps
difference between Ethernet and CDMA/CD (2bit per frame)

when a packet is received if(content>1500){ethernet packet}else{handled by LCC level}

ethernet II packet structure

fast ethernet
100Mbps, UTP, STP or fiber
 802.3u
Gigabit ethernet
1000Mbps
802.3z (optical fiber)
802.3ab (UTP)
10 Gigabit ethernet
10Gbps
802.3ae
100 Gigabit ethernet
100Gbps
802.3ba

Token Ring
16 Mbps
uses token passing (station can transmit only with token)
each station act as a repeater
802.5
Working principle:

When a machine wants to communicate it has to wait for free token, as soon as the machine gets
a free token it loads the token with data.
The clearing process is expected to be done by the machine that originates the token, that will
therefore empty it.
Other machines have to wait for the token to be free to communicate, however they can reserve
the token to use it when it will be free.

token ring LLC frame token ring Snap frame

format format

FDDI
fiber distributed data interface
100 Mbps
ISO 9314
Fiber, UTP, STP

SLIP
(is considered the originating point-to-point protocol for TCP/IP traffic, it is still used by some ISP)
(uses a (0xC0) as a start and end character for each IP datagram)
(max size of slip datagram 1066bytes)

PPP
point-to-point, is an encapsulation service for data link WAN similar to what is used in LAN
Includes:
-Encapsulation methods supporting multiple concurrent protocols on the same link;
-A specialized protocol (LCP) Link Control Protocol, used to negotiate any PPP
PPP header includes:
-Flag, Protocol Identifier, (FCS) Frame Check Sequence
Has maximum packet size: 1500 bytes

ISDN

DQDB

WIRELESS LAN
#FIXME 68-73

typical infrastructures:

Switch
Bridge (old)
Access point

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

for digital transmission of multiple types of traffic
25, 155, 622 Mbps or 2.4 Gbps

cell based
53 byte cells, for end to end connections, virtual circuits
 frame based
dedicated capacity, NOT an IEEE-Standard

LAYER 3
#IP address
class A -> 2 hosts
24

0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh

0...127
class B -> 2 hosts
16

10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh

128...191
class C -> 2 hosts
8

110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh

192..255
dove
n: network part
h: host part
netmask

Subnetting: split network in several sub-nets

Supernetting: merge different neighbor nets

Special IP addresses:

Network address: first host address in the IP range

Broadcast address; last host address in the IP range
Loopback or Localhost: 127.0.0.n
Private IP addresses:
cannot be used on the internet (reserved for private network)
[[Link]/8] -> [Link] .. [Link]
[[Link]/12] ->[Link] .. [Link]
[[Link]/16] ->[Link] .. [Link]

Subnet Mask
32 bit
1-> indicate network part of the IP address
0-> indicate host part of the IP address
es: [Link]

In a LAN, IP and and a Subnet Mask are enough to communicate

To communicate outside the LAN is required a Default Gateway

Gateway
a gateway connects two networks
works at OSI layer 3

Routing
A router make decisions on frames
In order to route packets uses a routing table
a routing table contains information about:

sub networks (group of contiguous IPs)

parameters like: Distance Vector, Bandwidth, Delay
default route (if exist)

A switch connects two hosts in the same network

A router connects different (sub-)networks
A routing switch (Layer 3 Switch) has both de functionality of a layer 2 Switch and a Router.

Layer 3 switch:
firstly developed at the end of the 90's
based on ASIC technology
they are in fact real router: they can:

determine a path and route networks

check integrity of a layer (L3)
check time to live of a packet
allow the creation of security features for networks

both L3switch and Router

manage Layer 3 communication protocols and routing protocols

some communicate using protocols to

exchange routing information
transport data on the layer
Router use protocols to communicate with end nodes to
to learn information from the connected networks
 to obtain the MAC address from the network address
to gain information about possible network issue

Charateristics Layer 3 switch Router

can route protocols like: Y Y
IP, IPX, Appletalk, ...
subnet definition L2 functionality Hardware port
Forwarding architecture Hardware Software
Remote monitoring Y Y
Packets forward performances High Low
WAN support N Y
Need setup configuration Minor Major
Cost $$ $$$$

types of routing:

static routing
Each new network or route must be manually added, programmed and maintained
dynamic routing
uses routing table
autonomously cares for routing, updates of routing table and status
Optimization of routing path is based on:
"Distance vector"
system to calculate path, n of hop, n of network between 2 nodes
"Link state"
operates taking into account the current tate of the path: bandwidth, link state such as
delay, network congestion
How does a router Work?

Network
Network protocols: (not IP)
Routing protocols: OSPF, RIP, ...
Network IP protocols
#IPv4
#RARP ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
#ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
#IPv6

Routing:
Static
Dynamic

Backbone : connessione tra differenti LAN

Routing schemes:

Unicast
Broadcast
Multicast
Anycast (=multicast, ma basta che 1 riceva il messaggio)
Geocast (=multicast, ricevitori nello stessa geographical location)

Routing topology:

Directly connected routing network:

Every router interface is connected to at least one network.
Traffic form nodes connected to an interface is routed to the interface assigned to the target
network.

Routing protocols:
 Non adaptive
the algorithm does not take in account the current network state
(static routing)
Adaptive
make decision using network state
router exchange information on their neighbors
to do this router exchange "hello packets"
examples: RIP, IGRP, IS-IS, OSPF, EIGRP.

Non adaptive routing: Flooding

invia l'informazioni in arrivo a tutti i vicini escluso quello a cui l'ha mandato.

Adaptive routing: shortest path

uses Dijkstra
the cost is expressed in hops, geographical distance

Adaptive routing: #RIP

uses Bellmann-Ford algorithm (Ford-Fulkerson)
the cost is expressed in hops

Adaptive routing: #IGRP

same as RIP, up to 255 hops (RIP at most 15)
proprietary CISCO

Adaptive routing: #OSPF

Open Shortest Path first
takes in account topology and its status
uses link state broadcast
not proprietary

Adaptive routing: #EIGRP

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol: protocol based on combination of distance vector and
link state information
Evolution of IGRP
max 224 hops
IGRP uses a combination of 5 metrics: delay, bandwidth, reliability, Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU), load.
proprietary CISCO
Comparison

Interconnecting autonomous systems

Interior / Exterior gateway protocols

Intradomain (AS internal routing):

distance vector: #RIP
link state: #OSPF
Hybrid: #IGRP , #EIGRP
Interdomain (routing between AS)
#EGP
#BGP

#EGP Exterior Gateway Protocol

similar to a distance vector protocol
first protocol used for this task
features:

Neighbor acquisition
verifies if is there a agreement to be neighbor
Neighbor reachability
monitor neighbor connection
exchange the information of network
#BGP Border Gateway Protocol
developed to substitute EGP
 BGP routers exchange information using TCP connection on port 179
these are called BGP session.
eBGP → External BGP session, between routers of different AS
iBGP → Internal BGP session, between routers of same AS

Router configuration
interface definition
an IP is assigned at every router interface
static path definition
static routes (including subnet mask) are setting the route path to the next hop allowing to reach
the destination
if an issue arise reaching a destination with static routing is impossible

protocols:

ARP protocol
Address Resolution Protocol
maps an IP of a device and its MAC address
keeps track of the response
does not provide mechanisms to authenticate responses

ICMP protocol
Internet Control Message Protocol
transmit information regarding malfunctions, control information, messages between IP network
components
Incapsulated directly into IP, (delivery not guaranteed)
Often used as ping and traceroute

#IPv4
identifies a network interface
32bit (4bytes-.-.-.-)
see in more detail #IP

#IPv6
128bit
comparison

#DHCP protocol
A host without a valid IP can request one to the DHCP server
A DHCP srv send these information to the host
- IP address including Subnet Mask
- Default gateway
- Other configuration network parameters
DHCP server can dynamically assing IP addresses to hosts ad re-use/assign IP address
 some DHCP srv allow IP reservation mapped with MAC
Why?
Host don’t have to be manually configured
Includes administration controls for network administrator
It provides the stack protocol and configuration parameters (for application and others) to the
hosts
What can do?
Plug-and-play
Move a computer from one office to another, from a network to another
Renumber
Other renovations - change subnet masks
Mobile IP - portable
Move infrastructure - portability
#FIXME

Dynamic IP assignment

#RARP
#BOOTP
#DHCP

LAYER 4
It allows exchanges between hosts using IP addresses and communication ports.
Offers:

Flow controll
Guaranteed data correctness
Reliable information

Most used standards:

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

offers to application IP datagram direct exchange service
Connectionless:
Can be used for broadcast
Not reliable, leaves these task to the application:
check if data arrival order is correct.
check if data actually arrived at the destination.
check if data are not duplicated.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
main features
Connection Multiplexing
 Reliability
achieved through acknowledge
ack confirm multiple segment at once
Congestion prevention protocol
Congestion control, Congestion avoidance
Protocol optimization
Fast recovery & fast retransmit algorithm
Silly window syndrome
Delayed acknowledgment
Open a connection
Three way handshake

Close a connection

UDP TCP

both uses application communication port

the "protocol" field in the IP header contains the code of the protocol that is transporting at layer 4
TCP (6)
UDP (17)
ICMP (1)

Port Service Port Service

7 echo 111 sunrpc
13 daytime 115 sftp
15 netstat 123 ntp
20 ftp-data 137/9 NETBIOS
21 ftp - control 143 imap
22 ssh 161 snmp
23 telnet 443 HTTPS
25 smtp 465 smtps
53 DNS 520 RIP
80 HTTP 993 imaps
110 POP3 995 POP3S