UNIT 2.

CYTOLOGICAL BASES OF HEREDITY

This unit presents specifically the cell structure, forms, functions, and how
does it affect the hereditary characteristics of an organism.

Learning Outcome/s

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

1. examine the chromosome numbers, structure, forms, size, shape, and types including the
processes of cell division.

Pretest

Test I Identification

Directions: Read and understand the following statements below. Write your answer on the
space provided for.

__________________1. Refers to the living material.

__________________2. The protoplasm and the boundary are organized to form a unit, called:
__________________3. The primary director of cellular activity and inheritance.
__________________4. The most important chemical constituent of living organisms.
__________________5. It is called the primary constriction.
__________________6. Are knoblike regions.
__________________7. Results to growth and development.
__________________8. It is also called as Cytoplasmic division.
__________________9. The first stage of mitosis.
__________________10. It forms four monoploid or haploid nuclei.

Protoplasm
Cell Nucleus
Proteins Centromere
Chromomeres Cell division Cytokinesis Prophase
Meiosis

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 Content

Learn the Language

Protoplasm
It refers to the living material that has a protective and absorptive membrane boundary
between itself and its environment.

Cell
Refer to the basic unit of life.

Cytoplasm
It is the major portion of the protoplasmic substance contained in the cell membrane.

Prokaryotes
Refers to organisms that have no nuclear membrane that separates the contents of the
cytoplasm from the nucleus.

Eukaryotes
Refers to organisms that have a nuclear membrane that separates the genetic material
from the cytoplasm.

Organelles
Refers to compartments within the cell that perform a specific function.

Proteins
It is the chemical constituent of living organism.

Nucleus
It is the primary director of cellular activity and inheritance.

Chromatin
It is the dark network in the nucleus.

Chromosome
It is a string of DNA wrapped around associated proteins that give the connected nucleic
acid bases a structure.

Centromere
It is the point on a chromosome where mitotic spindle fibers attach to pull sister
chromatids apart during cell division.

Chromomeres
 It is the knoblike regions along the length of chromosomes.

Mitosis
It is the step in the cell cycle that the newly duplicated DNA is separated, and two new
cells are formed.

Meiosis
It is the process in eukaryotic, sexually-reproducing animals that reduces the number of
chromosomes in a cell before reproduction.

Nature of Chromosomes

Chromosomes are thread-like structures, made up of the genetic material of the cell-
DNA and protein; visible during the cell division under microscope, only after they are stained
with dyes. Literally it means coloured body (chrom; colour, soma; body). Actually are the
structures that serve as the vehicle for transmission of genetic information.

The morphology of the chromosomes is best studied during meta- phase and anaphase
stages of mitosis.

The size of chromosomes varies from one organism to another. Further, the
chromosomes in a cell are never alike in size; some may be exceptionally large while others
may be too small. The largest chromosomes are lamp brush chromosomes present in certain
vertebrate oocytes. However, most metaphase chromosomes fall within a range of 3 µm in
Drosoplrila, to 5 µm in man and 8 pm in maize.

Chromosomes are classified into four types by their shape in metaphase or in

anaphase, which, in turn, is determined by the position of the centromere:

i) Telocentric chromosomes: Rod-like and have a centromere situated on the proximal end.

ii) Acrocentric chromosomes: Rod-like and have a small, or even imperceptible, arm.

iii) Submetacentric chromosomes: Chromosomes having unequal arms are thus ‘L’ shaped.

iv) Metacentric chromosomes: Having equal or almost equal arms and thus are ‘V’-shaped.

Cytogenesis’s have introduced many terms for different parts of chromosomes that can
be visualized in mitotic chromosomes. These are as follows:

Chromatid

At metaphase, each chromosome consists of two symmetrical rod- shaped structures,

the chromatids that are attached to each other firmly at the centromere and more loosely along
their entire length. At the start of anaphase, the chromatids get separated and start to migrate to
opposite poles. Each chromatid contains a single DNA molecule.

Chromonema
 During the early stage of condensation (prophase), the chromatids look like very thin
filaments and are referred to as chromonemata. This chromonemata form the gene-bearing
portion of the chromosomes.
Chromomeres

During interphase, some bead like structures are found along the length of the
chromosomes which are called chromomeres. These are actually accumulated chromatin
materials and tightly folded regions of DNA. In polytene chromosomes, chromomeres are clearly
visible where they become aligned side by side. At metaphase, the chromomere is so tightly
coiled that chromomeres become invisible.

Centromere or Kinetochore

Each chromosome contains a site where the outer surfaces are markedly indented. This
site is called centromere or primary constriction. It serves both as the attachment site for micro-
tubules during cell division and as the site of association of sister chromatids.

Telomere

The repeated sequences at the ends of the eukaryotic chromosomes are called
telomeres that form a ‘cap’ at each end of the chromosome. They play some critical role in
chromosome replication and maintenance. They protect the chromosomes from nuclease and
other destabilizing influences and prevent the ends of chromosomes from fusing with one
another.

Secondary constriction

Constrictions other than primary constriction, at any point of the chromosome are called
secondary constrictions. These are constant in their position and are distinguished from the pri-
mary constriction by the absence of marked angular deviations of the chromosomal segments
during anaphase.

Nucleolar Organizer

Certain secondary constrictions contain the genes coding for 18S and 28S ribosomal
RNA and induce the formation of nucleoli. These are referred to as nucleolar organizer. In
human, the nucleolar organizers are located in the secondary constriction of chromosomes 13,
14, 15, 21 and 22, all of which are acrocentric and have satellite.

Satellite

Sometimes the chromosomes bear a rounded knob-like body connected with the rest of
the chromosomes by a thin chromatin filament. This structure is called ‘satellite’. Chromosomes
bearing this satellite are designated as ‘Sat chromosomes’. The shape and size of satellite
remain constant.

Karyotype and Idiogram

A complete set of all the metaphase chromosomes in a cell is called its karyotype. The
term, however, has been given to a group of characteristics that identifies a particular set of
chromosomes; i.e., the number of chromosome, relative size, position of centromere, length of
arms, secondary constrictions, and satellite. Karyotype is species specific.
Cell Division

Where Do Cells Come From?

Figure 3
A mouse cells in the final stages of cell division (telophase).

Note: (Image by Lothar Schermelleh)

Sometimes you accidentally bite your lip or skin your knee, but in a matter of days the
wound heals. Is it magic? Or, is there another explanation?
Every day, every hour, every second one of the most important events in life is going on
in your body—cells are dividing. When cells divide, they make new cells. A single cell divides to
make two cells and these two cells then divide to make four cells, and so on. We call this
process "cell division" and "cell reproduction," because new cells are formed when old cells
divide. The ability of cells to divide is unique for living organisms.

Why Do Cells Divide?

Cells divide for many reasons. For example, when you skin your knee, cells divide to
replace old, dead, or damaged cells. Cells also divide so living things can grow. When
organisms grow, it isn't because cells are getting larger. Organisms grow because cells are
dividing to produce more and more cells. In human bodies, nearly two trillion cells divide every
day.

How Cells Divide?

Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide—mitosis and meiosis.
Each of these methods of cell division has special characteristics. One of the key differences in
mitosis is a single cell divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same
number of chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for basic growth, repair, and
maintenance. In meiosis a cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes.
Reducing the number of chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides
for genetic diversity.
Mitosis Cell Division

Mitosis is how somatic—or non-reproductive cells—divide. Somatic cells make up most

of your body's tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells.
Reproductive cells (like eggs) are not somatic cells.
In mitosis, the important thing to remember is that the daughter cells each have the
same chromosomes and DNA as the parent cell. The daughter cells from mitosis are called
diploid cells. Diploid cells have two complete sets of chromosomes. Since the daughter cells
have exact copies of their parent cell's DNA, no genetic diversity is created through mitosis in
normal healthy cells.
Figure 4
Major phases of mitosis cell division creates two genetically identical daughter diploid cells.

Note: (Image by Mysid from Science Primer and National Center for Biotechnology Information)

The Mitosis Cell Cycle

Before a cell starts dividing, it is in the "Interphase." It seems that cells must be
constantly dividing (remember there are 2 trillion cell divisions in your body every day), but each
cell actually spends most of its time in the interphase. Interphase is the period when a cell is
getting ready to divide and start the cell cycle. During this time, cells are gathering nutrients and
energy. The parent cell is also making a copy of its DNA to share equally between the two
daughter cells.

The mitosis division process has several steps or phases of the cell cycle—interphase,
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis—to successfully
make the new diploid cells.

Figure 5
Mitosis cell cycle (includes several phases that result in two new diploid daughter cells. Each
phase is highlighted here and shown by light microscopy with fluorescence).
Note: (Image from OpenStax College with modified work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal, Roy van Heesheen,
and the Wadsworth Center.)

Meiosis Cell Division

Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is cell division that creates sex cells,
like female egg cells or male sperm cells. What is important to remember about meiosis? In
meiosis, each new cell contains a unique set of genetic information. After meiosis, the sperm
and egg cells can join to create a new organism.
Meiosis is why we have genetic diversity in all sexually reproducing organisms. During
meiosis, a small portion of each chromosome breaks off and reattaches to another
chromosome. This process is called "crossing over" or "genetic recombination." Genetic
recombination is the reason full siblings made from egg and sperm cells from the same two
parents can look very different from one another.

Figure 6
Meiosis cell cycle (has two main stages of division -- Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The end result of meiosis is
four haploid daughter cells that each contains different genetic information from each other and the
parent cell)

Note: (Image from Science Primer from the National Center for Biotechnology Information.)

The Meiosis Cell Cycle

 Meiosis has two cycles of cell division, conveniently called Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Meiosis I halve the number of chromosomes and is also when crossing over happens. Meiosis II
halves the amount of genetic information in each chromosome of each cell. The end result is
four daughter cells called haploid cells. Haploid cells only have one set of chromosomes - half
the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Before meiosis I start, the cell goes through interphase. Just like in mitosis, the parent
cell uses this time to prepare for cell division by gathering nutrients and energy and making a
copy of its DNA. During the next stages of meiosis, this DNA will be switched around during
genetic recombination and then divided between four haploid cells.

So remember, Mitosis is what helps us grow and Meiosis is why we are all unique.

Thank you for reading the content!

Now that you have learned about the cytological bases of heredity,
do the succeeding learning activities. If you have questions
regarding the activity, you may email or message me in
messenger or in my email address: gualbertoguitao@[Link]

Learning Activities

Activity 1 Illustration

Direction: Illustrate and identify the stages or phases of meiosis and mitosis.

A. Meiosis

Answer:
B. Mitosis

Answer:
 Assessment

Test I Multiple Choice

Directions: Read and analyze carefully each statement below. Write only the letter of the
correct answer on the space provided before each number.

____1. What nutrient needed by living organisms for various aspects of their function, structure,
and synthesis is called?
A. Carbohydrates B. Fats C. Lipids D. Protein
____2. It is the primary director of cellular activity.
A. Cytoplasm B. Nucleus C. Protoplasm D. Nucleolus
____3. It is classified by its centromere central and arms of equal or essentially equal length.
A. Submetacentric B. Acrocentric C. Telocentric D. Metacentric
____4. The centromere is very near one end and arms very unequal in length.
A. Submetacentric B. Acrocentric C. Telocentric D. Metacentric
____5. The centromere terminal with only one arm.
A. Submetacentric B. Acrocentric C. Telocentric D. Metacentric
____6. The first stage of mitosis.
A. Anaphase B. Telophase C. Prophase D. Interphase
____7. This stage is characterized by the alignment of the chromosomes at the equatorial
plane.
A. Metaphase B. Telophase C. Prophase D. Interphase
____8. It is also known as intermitotic period.
A. Anaphase B. Telophase C. Prophase D. Interphase
____9. The major portion of the protoplasmic substance contained in the cell membrane.
A. Cytoplasm B. Nucleus C. Protoplasm D. Nucleolus
____10. The centromere submedian, giving one longer and one shorter arm.
A. Submetacentric B. Acrocentric C. Telocentric D. Metacentric

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