ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION LEVEL | ERIKO AOTA (JOCV, NJOMBE FDC) [Link] (NJMBE FDC) In cooperation with Shintaro NAGIRA (JOCV, Wende High Schoo!) 31/0CT/201Preamble Njombe Folk Development College is among the VET providers in ‘Tanzania. Among others electrical installation course is offered at our college. In an effort to make sure that the students acquire good skills and knowledge and become competent in the field we have produced a simple booklet on the relevant field. This has been done in collaboration with a Japanese volunteer from JICA namely Eriko AOTA. It is hoped that this small booklet will help students and teachers where books about this field is difficult to find. ‘The booklet is not at all meant to cover the subject in its entirety. I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to JICA for all round support to enabling us to produce the booklet. Indeed I would like to Eriko AOTA for her whole heartedly efforts and cooperation. No-can I forebear to acknowledge the participation of Mary CHAPILE (the electrical tutor) for the stimulus and encouragement she offered to Eriko also not under-rating the course participants who on one way or the other their readiness to lean and through asking questions Jed contributed much to the production of this booklet. George Oscar MANGONMA Principal* Introduction MODULE 0 Safety, workshop and site operations ‘ Safety, workshop and site operations First aide Tools MODULE 1 ' Performing bench work UNIT 1.1. Perform cutting 1.4.4 Cut bars UNIT 1.2. Perform drilling 1.2.1 Carry out driling 1.2.2 Camry out reaming UNIT 1.3 “Perform filing 1.3.1 File materials UNIT 1.4 Perform bending 1.4.1 Bend fiat materials UNIT 1.5 Perform threading 1.5.1 Make external thread 1.5.2 Make internal thread sMODULE 2° Introducing electricity UNIT 2.1 Generate electricity 2.1.1 Basic Electricity 2.1.2 Generate eiectricity MODULE 3 Performing electrical joint and terminations UNIT 3.1. Perform cold electrical joints 3.1.4 Make eyelet joint 3.1.2 Make crimp joint 3.1.3 Make parallel groove clamp joint 3.1.4 Make bolt joint UNIT 3.2 Perform hot electrical joints 3.2.1 Make twist joint 3.2.2 Make tee joint 3.2.3 Make mattied joint UNIT 3.3. Perform soldering 3.3.4 Carry out soft soldering 3.3.2 Cany out hard soldering MODULE 4 Buliding simple electric circuits UNIT 4.1 Construct resistive circuits 4.1.1 Build single resistor circuit 4.1.2 Build series resistive circuit 4.4.3 Build parallel resistive circuit 4.1.4 Build series-parallel resistive circuit aos 45 46 47 49 50 53 55 ST 6s 76 78AC circuit (Alternating current circuit) UNIT 4.2. Construct capacitive circuits 4.2.1 Build single capacitor circuit 4.2.2 Build series capacitive circuit, 42.3 Build parallel capacitive circuit | 4.2.4 Build series-parallel capacitive circuit UNIT 4.3. Construct inductive circuits 4.3.1 Build single inductor circuit | 4.3.2 Build series inductive circuit, 4.3.3 Build parallel inductive circuit, 4.3.4 Build series-parallel inductive circuit UNIT 4.4 Construct RLC circuits 44.4 Build resistance and capacitance circuit 4.4.2 Build resistance and inductance circuit, 44.3 Build resistance, inductance and capacitance circuit UNIT 4.5 Construct RLC circuits 4.5.1 Measure voltage across a circuit 4.5.2 Measure current in a circui 4.5.3 Measure resistance in a circuit ODULE 5 Constructing power supply circuits UNIT 5.1 Build rectifier circuits 5.1.1 Build half-wave rectifier | 5.1.2 Build centre tapped full-wave rectifier 5.1.3 Build bridge rectifier 5.1.4 Build smoothing circuit UNIT 5.2 Perform voltage measurements 5.21 Canyout measurements of final DC output volage ¢ MODULE 6 Installing domestic wiring circuit UNIT 6.1 Install lighting circuit 6.1.1 Install lighting points controlled by one ‘way one gang switch 6.1.2 Install lighting points controtled by one way two/three gang switches 6.1.3 Instat! fighting points controlled by two way switches 6.4.4 Install Fghting points controlled by ~0-two switch end intermediate swit hy * UNIT 6.2. Fix power circuit 6.2.1 Install radial circuits 6.2.2 Instat! ring and spur circuits 6.2.3 Develop elzctric cooker circuit 6.2.4 Develop e rater heater circuit 80 96 98 102 104 105 111 12 114 116 17 19 129 134 147 149 151 153 187 158 159 160 161 166 166 169 71 473 175 176 180 181 182 183 186,UNIT6.3_ Fix alert circuit 8.3.1 Develop single stroke bell 6.3.2 Develop beli/buzzer 6.3.3 Develop continuous ringing bell 6.3.4 Develop indicator board ,UNIT6.4 Perform metering and tariffing 6.4.1 Measure electric power 6.4.2 Carry out tariff costing ,UNIT6.5 Carry out earthing system 6.5.1 Performing earthing methods (TT, IT and TNS) ,UNIT6.6 Carry out electrical tests 6.6.1 Carry out verification of polarity test 6.6.2 Carry out insulation test 6.6.3 Camry out ring circuit test 6.6.4 Carry out earthing test 6.6.5 Carry out continuity test 188 189 192 193 194 198 200 201 206 208 210 212 243 216 aSafety, workshop and site operations mployers and employees have a duty to ensure that the place in which they work is free from dangers which are likely to affect the health and safety of themselves and others. Work areas “>” Workers should have free access to and from all floor areas. - The areas need sufficient lighting to enable safe movement. - Gangways, stairs, entrances and exits should be clearly marked. - To keep clean. Clothing Tn working arcas, personnel should were clothing which will provide protection from danger. All clothing should be kept in a good state of repair. - Shoes ‘These should be of a type which provides protection against slippery conditions and which should be strong enough to protect the fect against injury. - Gloves ‘These should be worn where there are rinks when handling substances, continuous use of tools may cause damage to ‘the hands. : - Headgear Safety helmets should be worn in all areas where there is. danger from falling objects, whether inside or outside buildings. ‘Loose hair should be controlled when operating machine tools. - Safety glasses Safoty goggles or even face shields should be worn where there is likelihood of danger to the eyes, such as when using chisels, drills, grinding wheels, ete. or when Fig, 0-1 Safety clothsFi joxide fire extinguishers must be OTe eae citable equipment such as carbon ee displayed, readily availayye to deal with fire outbreaks, The equipment should be cleat! : a employees instructed in its use. Operating handle fo. Flexible hose — Cylinder containing CO2 Funnel type nozzle to direct on ire Fig. 0-2 Fire extinguisherFirst aide First aid facilities In every factory, workshop or site hut, a first aid box containing all the necessary treatment, requisites ‘must be provided. Workers should know where to go to obtain first aid materials and First aid treatment OElectric shock ~ If the person is still in contact with the live conductor, he should be pulled or pushed away fad ‘clothing or any insulating medium. Do not wait to find the switch and do not touch his ~ Remove him to a safe place, make him comfortable and warm and get assistance. If he is unconscious, check for breathing, loosen his clothing and place him on his side. Shout or signal for medical attention. If breathing has stopped, do not delay. Place casualty on his back, loosen neck clothing, remove false tecth (if any) and blow firmly into his mouth at repeated intervals, keeping his nose pinched. This may start him breathing again. It should be noted that this is emergency treatment only. Medical attention should be sought as quickly as possible. - Arrangements should be made to get the casualty to hospital as soon as possible and full details of the accident should be reported to the relevant personnel. Burns Cool the burnt skin with cold water and also spray water over any smouldering clothing. Do not remove any clothing unnecessarily, as it may remove damaged skin. Dress the wounds with burn dressings from the first aid box. Give sips of fluid, such as sweet tes. This will help calm the nerves. Again, seek qualified help. Report the accident immediately. Cuts and abrasions Clean with antiseptic and bandage to stop bleeding and infection. Olleavy bleeding Lay the patient down to reduce blood pressure, clevating the bleeding stop. Expose the wound and try not to disturb any clots of blood. in serious cases apply prescure with a thick pad, apply a dressing and then bandage. If bleeding continues, apply extra bandages. If possible, a tight band ‘on the artery above the wound will restrict the bloo¢ flow. Suspected broken limb ‘As previously mentioned, the injured person should only be moved if absolutely necessary, if possible, the limb should be kept still by tying or strapping it to the other leg, or to the body in tho case of an arm. Clothing or footwear should not be removes unless absolutely necessary and ‘then with great care.carry out efficiently they. pools sent and of the correct PS OTT eset of the follan eit The types of tools should be sufficient and of the TT work w ing hand. An electricians basic tool kit for general isting or bending cond OGeneral pliors f cutting cables and twisting Or B Conductors op General pliers are for the purpose o! entry into terminations. " Fig. 0-3 General pliers, OLong nose pliers Long nose pliers are to trim and to guide conductors into terminations too small or in accessible to the general pliers. Fig. 0-4 Long nose pli OSide cutters 9 nose pliers Side cutters aré to trim insulation and conductors of smaller size fixed and flexible cable. a xl . L Fig. 0-5 Side cuttersOSerewdriver Screwdriver is used for turning screws, It consists of a metal rod with a lat or cross chaped end that fits into the top of the serow. Fig. 0-6 Screwdriver OHammer Hammer consists of a heavy piece of metal at the end of a handle. It is used, for example, to hit nails into a pieces of wood or a wall, or to,break things into pieces. Fig. 0-7 HammerMODULE 1 Performing bench work UNIT 1.1 Perform cutting ELEMENT 1.1.1 Cut bars UNIT 1.2 Perform drilling .. ELEMENT 1.2.1 Carry out drilling 1.2.2 Carry out reaming UNIT 4.3 Perform filing ELEMENT 1.3.1 File materials UNIT 1.4 Perform bending ELEMENT-1.4.1 Bend flat materials URIT 1.5 Perform threading ELEMENT [Link] external thread 1.5.2 Make internal threaderations. The work pices must 1.1.1 Cut flat bars a bench Ww’ SE of metal is one of the most common be! be held securely in a vis . consists of a permanent frame ang oi sable blades, tensioned in the Hack saw terials. ‘A hack saw is used for eutting off tubes and MATT materials, It consists of a permanent frame an frame. th disposabl the cutis well established. cokes. ig. 1-4 Hack saw ; ae ‘de the blade until ‘I saw slowly with short str To start a hacksaw cut, it is a good practice to gui ‘To start an accurate cut, use the thumb as a guide ant Sawing machine ae " Sawing ; : length or contour, ‘The sawing machine is a machine tool designed to cut material a a desired ee a raring It functions by drawing a blade containing cutting teeth through # Se ie fd accent machine is faster and easier than hand sawing and is used principally top square or mitered cut on the work piece. - Power hacksaw Band saw -Vertical band saw -Horizontal band saw Power hacksaw ‘The power hacksaw uses a reciprocating (back and forth) cutting action similar to the one used in a hand hacksaw. The power hacksaw is used for square or angle cutting of stock. ically similar in design. The below figure shows a typical AU power hacksaw machines are ba: power hacksaw and identifies its main parts. ADJUSTABLE FEED CLUTCH ‘SPEED CHAN! MECHANISM 7jase ‘The base of the saw usually contains a coolant reservoir and a p' to the work. The reservoir contains baffles which cause the chips tank. A table which supports the vise and the metal being sawed is locate’ ump for conveying the coolant to settle to the bottom of the .d on top of the base ‘and is usually referred to as part of the base, Vise ‘The vise i adjustable so that various sizes and shapes of mi machines the vise may be swiveled so that stock may be save hacksaw is determined by the largest piece of metal that can Frame ‘The frame of the saw supports and carries the hacksaw blade. The machine is etal may be held. On some .d at an angle. The size of a power be held in the vise and sawed. designed 50, that the saw blade contacts the work only on the cutting stroke. This action prevents unnecessary wear on the saw blade. The cutting stroke is on the draw ot back stroke. SPEED-CHANGE MECHANISM ‘The shift lever allows the metals may be sawed at the proper speeds. number of strokes per minute to be changed so that a variety of . Some sawé have a diagram showing the number of strokes per minute when the shift lever is in different positions. ADJUSTABLE FEED CLUTCH ‘he adjustable feed clutch is a ratel ‘The feed clutch may be set ratehet-and-paw/ action, the acts as a safety device and permits slippage if too mucl mey also'slip because of a di shet-and-pawl mechanism that is coupled to the feed screw. to a desired amount of feed in thousandths of an inch. Because of the e feed takes place at the beginning of the cutting stroke. The clutch th feed pressure is put on the saw blade. It hall blade or if too large a cut is attempted. This slippage helps prevent éxicessive blade breakage. Band saw 5 a continuous band blade. Metal-cutting band saw machines fall into two ‘The band saw uses basic categories: vertical m: OVertical band sawing machine ; tical band sawing machine, also called a contour machine, is made in a ‘The metal-cutting vert variety of sizes and models achines and horizontal machines by several manufacturers. The size of a contour machine is ‘ch, which is the distance from the saw band to the column. The determined by the throat dep' a bh 7 below Figure sows a typical contour machine and identifies its main parts, which are dischgsed below. * The head is the Jarge uni! ¢ at the top of the contour machine that contains the saw band idler ‘ch, the tension adjustment hand wheel and mechanism, a flexible air wheel, the drive motor awit i ic work to keep layout lines free from chips), and the adjustable post line (directs a jet of air at which forts the upper saw guide, ear Eupnes ‘the speed indicator dial, which is riven by a cable from the * The column contains transmission and indicates + The base contains the saw ba supports the table and contains the table stot. The power feed me a coe ot medal aie located on the front of the base. handle and foot pedal i che ‘The job selector dial is also located on the head. the speed. nd drive wheel, the motor, and the transmission. The base 2!s0 ‘the lower saw band guide, which is niounted immediately under ichanism is located within the base, and the feed adjustment 8\VARIABLE SPEED ‘START ANO STOP ‘CONTROL, PUSHEUTTONS Figure 69, Horizontal Badeey, _” Fig 3 Vertical band sawing machine Fig. 1-4 Horizontal bandsaw OHforizontal band saw machine ‘The horizontal band sawing machine docs the same job as the power hacksaw but does it more efficiently. The blade of the band saw is actually a continuous band which revolves around a ative wheel and idler wheel in the band support frame. Two band guides use rollers to twist the band so that the teeth are in the proper cutting position. The guides are adjustable and should bo adjusted so that they are just slightly further apart than the width of the material to be cut. ‘This will give maximum support to the saw band and help assure a straight cut. The horizontal band saw has st much greater capacity for large stock than does the power hacksaw. Cutting fluids fo Cutting fluids are primarily used in machining operations to red, ae zi 0 reduce temper adhesion between the chip and tool. They also serve to keep the work piece eool to evord thermal expansion and easier handling. When a Inbvicant ‘s part of the eating fluid, it provides # rast ‘roof layer to the finished work surface. Cutting fluids DNR net cee trod the machining anes. are useful in clearing chips awey fro: ture anda of which is to absorb heat from Coolant oo Je functio tc i “A coolant is an agent (usually in liquid ed Jo ing effect of any cutting fluid. the work and the cutting tool. Water has Lubricants that enables it to act as lubricant is called g i id with the additional property 3 bricating agents. aaa These materials usually consist of both cooling and lubricating Types of cutting fluids This is one of the oldest and best cutting oils. It provides excellent nee ion, ineronses tool life, produces a smooth finish on the work, and prevents Tui This especially good for cutting screw threads, drilling deep holes, and reaming. Mineral-lard oil mixtures . ‘These mixtures are used in various proportions of lard oil and various petroleum base mineral oils in placé of lard oil because they are inore fluid, less expensive, and almost as effective. Water soluble oils Their use is limited to rough turning operations. Although they carry away heat better than lard oil or mineral oil, their lubricating qualities are poor. ~ > Chemical cutting fluids These compounds are mixed with water and generally do not contain any petroleum products. The chemicals used provide excellent lubricating and anti weld properties. + Low-viscosity oils Oils such as kerosene are used for cutting tough nonferrous metals ; i such as the bronzes, certain aluminum alloys, and alloys containing a(aYonal percentage of iron; for example, Monel metal. aa Review questions 1. Explain power saw and band saw. 2) Explain main parts of a power sawing machine, 3. Mention types of cutting fluids, 4. Name difiérent types of band saws and their uses. 104.2.1 Carry out drilling Drills ‘A twist drill is a pointed cutting tool, usually round. It is used for cutting holes in metal or other hard substances and is driven by a machine. The parts of a twist drill can be seen below Fig. ‘Shank Drill diameter Point angi ‘Shank length Flute length Fig. 1-5 Twist drill “ ‘The twist drills are specified according to the end by which; they are held, called the-shank. ‘Types of shank: + Taper shank drill Fig. 1-6 + Parallel shank drill “ . Fig. 1-7 - _ e - dobber’s drill Mat * Fig. 1-8 : Jobber’s drills are shorter than other varieties and are usually confined to size up'té about 12mm diameter. . Drilling machines The three principal types of power machine used for drilling are: . ‘The sensitive machine ‘Alight form of machine used for holes up to about 12mm diameter. + The upright or pillar machine In size up to that ean drill holes up to 50mm diameter. The radial drill Where the drill head is on an arm and may be swung or moved over the area of the machine table or base. uReviow questions 1. Describe drilling machine. 2. Explain drilling operations. 8. Explain different types of twist drill shanks. 4. Explain types of drilling machine. 1241.2.2 Carry out reaming Reamers ‘A reamer is a precision tool designed to finish, to a specified diameter, a hole that been produced either by drilling or by other means. Types of reamers Odand reamers Hand reamers are operated by hand with a tap wrench gitted on the square end of the reamer with the work held in the vise. These reamers cut on the flutes which may be straight or herical. — ———— Helical flutes Fig. 1-9 Reamers OMachine reamer ‘The solid fluted machine reamer is similar to the hand reamer except that it has a taper shank. These reamers may have straight flites, but more often they are cut with a left-hand helix. OChucking reamers Chucking reamers are machine reamers with shoeter flutes. Care of reamers Fig. 1-10 - Proper use of reamers determines the accuracy of drilled holes and the quality of their finish. Proper resharpening of reamers, suitable cutting fluids, rigidity of machine tools and fixtures, and correct feeds and speeds are all factors related to the proper use of reamers. - Reamers should not be permitted to become excessively dull before xesharpening. Proper equipment should be used for sharpening, and great care should be exercised. - Reamers should be transported and stored in containers having separate compartments for each reamer. - These tools are delicate and easily damaged. When not in use, they should be covered with rust preventive. Review questions 1. Describe meaning of reaming and its purposes, 2. Name common types and varieties of machine reamers, 131.3.1 File materials Fi Filing is a small particle rubbed off by a file when ei a roughened surfaces, typically of steel, used for sm The filing is a difficult operation for the beginner hands, without a means of guiding the tool, so that it will direction. moothing or shaping; and file is 3 tool with ing or shaping a hard material. ine re it depends on the motion ofthe ‘move over the work in the correct How to file 2 ‘k should be at the ‘The correct position and method of holding the file are eager hheavy work. Hold Proner height about level with the elbows on light work, and ttle lower #7! She file handle with the right hand thumb on top and fingers below the handle. cutting In filing, pressure should be exerted on the forward stroke only becaus edges are pointed toward the end of the file. Hingth, which is always measured from the heel to the point, the tang not being included. ~ Kind or shape, which refers to the shape or style 6 not being include Cut, which refers to both the character and the relative degrees of coarsenese of ths teeth OlLength . ; File lengths vary from 3 inches to 20 inches, Length Fig. 1-12 File 4OKiné-or shape . vey Kinde of files are manufactured for many different purposes. Shapes of file in common use are mill, flat, hand, square, three-square , half'round and round files. C4 Fiat = Halfround = Round - Three-squere Knife Square Fig. 1-13 . Ocut The teeth on a file are shaped to from a cutting edge similar to that ofa tool bit, and they have, both rake and a clearance angle. KAY NNN Ry xy) X ANY i) WY Wy iy YY) m 4. AX XX a RY yy Ty \ " Xi " xy ¥ Lk Single cut Double cut Rasp cit Curverdtooth Fig. 1-14 3 7 ‘The cut of small files is usually designated by numbers as: 00, 1, 2, 3, Ay cut is 00, and 8 is the finest cut. . Fig. 1-15 ‘ 15| | ! ODraw filing i ross the work, the action is known idewise a¢ dis When, the file is grasped by the enda and mioved si 5 and edges and is used on en the file is grasped by the e! arrow surfaces APG OS od. A singlecut ‘to scratch the surface of as drawhling. This produces a smooth finish 7° VC, smooth file § nd ps tool marks. A second Sw ris less turned work to remove any likely file is better than a double-eut file because the work. Fig, 1-16 Draw filing Scraping is the operation of correcting the irregularities of machined surfaces by means of scrapers 60 that the finished surface is a plane surface. “Although it is impossible to produce a true plane surfaces are used to approach a plane surface. OSeraping Fig. 1-17 Scraping FlatorStraigh Hook Straight bhatfround Curved fratfround Fig. 1-18 Three comered Double handle 16Review questions 1 , Explain different types of files. 2. 3. 4, Explain different types of filing methods. Define filing and a “file”, Explain two classes of files. AW1.4.1 Bend materials force to make it curved or to put an : ree Bendina , is fat or straight, you use fOr5" Vy frequently used. 1f you bend something portant operation in forein © angle in it. Bending Types of bend - Angle bend ee dge of the anvil, over block of ‘Angle bend may be made by hammering the metal over the ed@® 0° Tt No crtened and metal held in fa vise, When metal is bent the layers of metal on those on the outside are stretched. Outside metal unaffected EH? Inside of bend compressed : and bulged sideways Fig. 1-19 Gradual bends may be made by using the break of i bent round a bar of the correct radius held in vine, Snvit a former, oF the metal may by Over beak of anvil . Fig. 1-20 1. Define bending. 2. Mention two types of bending. Se4.5.1 Make external thread Threading dies 7 The tool used for cutting external threads on bars or tubes is called a die. In order to hold and manipulate the die it is carried in the centre of a pair of operating handles called stocks. There are various forms of dies and some of the most usual are shown at below. - Asolid die Fig. 1-21 Asolid die Split die together with its stocks The split permits of a certain amount of adjustment in the size the die will cut by springing it a small amount open, or closed, by means of the screws in the stocks. Fig. 1-22 Split die Stocks with loose dies 5 aa ge" ‘These consist of a pair of dies which fit into the stocks and are clamped by a screwed ring. Fig. 1-23 Stocks with loose dies Review questions 1. Define die in thread cutting. 2. Describe a die stock. - 8. Explain types of dies. . a 194.5.2 Make internal thread Taps (Internal thread) smal threads. Taps 97° threaded A tap is a tool used for cutting inte? i taps are made of carbon steel and high-speed steel accurately and fluted. 7), yp ps : threads, in holes s0 that the ay sof tae ‘the tapping operation is to make helical grooves, OF may hold bolts, studs, screws, etc. ‘The most common taps are the? - Hand tap > Machine-screw tap Hand tap | ne a Originally, hand taps were intended only for hand operation, but they = new eae is machine production work. Standard hand taps are made in sets of three. standard in the Unified Screw Thread from as follows: - The taper tap is used to start the thread. At least six threads are tapered or chamfere] before full diameter of the tap is reached. Fig. 1-24 Taper tap ~The plug tap is used to cut the threads as fast as possible after the taper tap has beet used. Three to five threads of the plug tap are chamfered or tapered, 20Machine-screw tap . There is in reality no difference in standard hand taps and machine-screw taps, except that the Javier are made in the machine-screw system of size. Machinewerew tare are ceed for tapped holes below % inch in diameter. They are available in the Unified Screw from of thread in taper, plug, and bottoming styles. Review questions 1. Describe threading. 2. Define tapping. 3. Explain types and standards of threads, 21MODULE 2 Introducing electricity UNIT 2.1, Generate electricity ELEMENT 2.1.1 Basic Electricity 2.1.2 Generate electricity 222.1.1 Basic Electricity Introduction OWhere is the electricity used? TV, Camera, Fridge, Light, SIM ete Electricity is one of the most important forms of energy used in the world. Without electricity, there would be no convenient light, no radio or tel ‘levision communications, no telephone service. Early history * 2500 years ago, by the Greeks these facts were discovered. When an amber was rubbed with some other materials, amber attracted the materials, such as dried leaves and mand shavings. The Greeks called the amber efektron, which is how the word electricity came about. it became charged. The charged > 2000 years ago Around 1600 William Gilbert classified materials that acted like amber as electrikes, and those materials that did not, as nonelectrike About 300 years ago ee mst: Chasice DuFay notice that 4 charged nicce af glace atiracted some charged objects, but on the other hand repelled other charged objects. He concluded that there were two types of electricity. Around the mid of 1700 Benjamin Franklin named these two kinds of electricity positive and negative, The matter Anything that you can see, feel, or use is defined as a matter, Matter ig a liquid or gas. Solids Stone, Wood, Metal, etc. Liquids Water, Alcohol, gasoline, etc. Gases Aix, Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide, ete. nything that has weight and occupies its space. It can be in the form of a solid, 23The elements at, The elements ai E.g. Oxygen, Hydroge? There are 103 elements. 92 around us is made from the elements. simple chemical combination or separa! ars Silver -made. Everything we , Aluminium, rs are man-made. 809 mo are natural an te ers are yes cannot be Produced by the ee But #l tion of other elements. re the basic materials thi The compound 2 i ‘There are more materials than the number of| ca Y is be produce different materials that ‘The reason for this is that the elements can »ments. have charactonistis completely different from those of the ele} E.g. Water (H20) = Hydrogen + Oxygen Sodium + Chlorine Salt (NaCD The molecule . ‘The molecule is the smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it breaks down into its elements. + Amolecule of salt TT Sodium Chlorine Fig. 2-2 The atom "The atom is the smallest particle that an element can be reduced to still keep the properties of that element. A molecule of water © ‘One atom of Oxygen Two atoms of Hydrogen Fig. 2-3 The structure of the atom ‘An atom contains three types of subatomic partick is i Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons. Particies that are of interest in electricity The protons and neutrons are located at the around the nucleus in the orbits. © center of the atom, and the electrons trav! 24Protom Neutron Electron . ° Protons Neutrons Necleus a ‘Atom a Electrons Fig. 2-4 Structure of the atom OThe nucleus ‘The nucleus is the central part of the atom. It contains protons and neutrons. OThe proton | The proton has a positive electrical charge. It is located in nucleus, OThe electron The electrons revolve in orbits around the nucleus of an atom, and have negative electrical charge. So it is attracted to positive. Review questions 1. Where is the electricity used? 2. What is matter? 3. What is atom? 4. What is electricity? x . 5. Mention three forms of matter. * . . ye 7 25).2.1.2 Generate Electricity Electric current developed when many free electrons in a wire are moved in the same ‘The electric current is develope } ane each end of the wire, a negative charge at i » by putting electrical charges on Som negative point to Bese S00 ehinys ‘at the other end. The electrons flow positive point. (See fig.2-6) Outerorbit Necleus Wire Free electron Fig. 2-5 Outerorbit Necleus Wire KOXOKOKOXOKONO) COOQOOOCSY XOXXNINKGFNSONS) Gaz Free electron Fig. 2-6 Othe elegtron theory ‘The electron theory states that since electrons are negative parti rent flows fro ron th rticles, most negative point in the circuit to the most positive point, Tent lows from the OThe conventional current theory ‘The conventional current theory is clder than the clectron curren the from the most positive point to the most negative point. Although ve ree Coes carrent flows to a certainty that the electron theory is correct, i has been established almost negative terminal is used as ground, the positi hot. It is casier for most people to think i noe: Te ene ft moet Pep of something flowing dow:Aclosed circuit ‘Aclosed circuit is needed for current to flow. ~ electron Fig. 2-7 Closed circuit An open circuit An open circuit will not conduct currént, E.g. in case that the wire is cut at any point. When the filament in a lamp breaks, the electron circuit is opened and the electric current stops flowing. Thus the lamp does not light. Fig. 2-8 Open circuit 27Electrical quantities d set of values. The standards of measurement must be the same for Electricity has a standard set of values. everyone. ; mb is 6.28 x10, op a Soalonb ia a quantity measurement for electrons. One coulo 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. ~ The ampere icity that is flowing through a circuit. If ‘The ampere is a measurement ofthe amount of electricity that is Rowing UNIO TO Ts Icoulomb passes a point in second, then ampere of current ampere (A), and the letter I stands for current. ampere (A) = 1eoulomb/ Isec. - The volta : . . When two charges. have a differcnce of potential, the electric force that results is called an electromotive force (emf). The unit is the volt (V), and the letter V stands for emf. When a difference of potential causes 1coulomb of current to do 1joule of work, the emf is Ivolt. Acharge of 1coulomb = 6.28 X 10 electrons ~~ An emf of 1volt (V) = 1coulomb doing Ijule of work ~ + The ohm An ohm is the unit of resistance to current flow. The letter R stands for resistance, and the unit is ohm (@). A resistance of lohm when an emf of lvolt and a current of lampere. 1ohm Fig. 2-9 Relation of current, voltage and resistance + The watt Wattage is a measure of the amount of power [Link] bei 7 incu stands for power, and the unit is watt (W). avis being used in a circuit. The letter P + Other measures of power The watt is not only unit of * Horsepower (hp) 1 hy * The joule joule Power measure. E.g. horsepower, j ae power, joule 1W/sHow electric is produced Blectricity ean be produced by Q) Friction (2) Chemical activity (8) Pressure @ Heat (6) Magnetism (1) Friction This is the method that was first discovered by the ancient Greeks. When glass is rubbed with silk, it became charged. The charged glass attracts a piece of paper. This charge is called static electricity. . (2) Chemical activity Chemicals can be combined with certain metals to cause a chemical action that will transfer electrons to produce electric charges. This is how the ordinary battery: works. One example when copper and zinc bars are immersed in the solution of sulphuric acid, electtic current flows. . Ly Nact (Sodium chloride) +126 (v; Fig. 2-10 Chemical activicy 29(8) Pressure Pressure on some materials produces ¢l crystals or Barium titanate are used. Jectricity, which is called piezoelectricity. Usually lectricity, rubbercushion Barium titanate or crystal Fig. 2-11 Pressure (Heat When copper and zine are joined and then heat to the junction of the two metals. The coppers positively charged and ‘the zinc is negatii charged is reece rely ‘ged. That phenomenon is called Fig. 2-12 Heat 30(®) Light Light in itself is a form of energy. When the light beam strikes a material, the} energy: xy release their — \~ Photon energy Soler panel (©) Magnetic we ‘The force of a magnetic field can be used [Link] electrons. When a copper wire is moved through a magnetic field, electrons flow in the wire. Fig. 2-14 Magnetic 31ith magnetism. A; Electromagnetism sroduced wit ny Tiis is called electromagnetisn, Magnetism can be caused by electricity: conductor that carries an electric current just as electricity i8 iil act like a magnet- aulite, Fig, 2-15 To pick up iron filings Oa left-hand rule ‘A basic law of physics ctates that Whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, « magnetic field is formed around the conductor. The direction of the magnetic field depends ox the direction that the current flows. | it Jefe hand rule can be used to detormine the direction of the magnetic field. Tf you wrap you fingers around the wire with your thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow, your fingers | point in the direction of the magnetic field. ‘the direction of current flow is reversed, that of magnetic field is also reverse also. | Electron flow Direction of magnetic field Fig. 2-16 A left-hand rule OFlectromagnetism in a coil “A helical eail made to produce a étrong magnetic field ; alee applied for solenoids. If you wrap fingers around the called solenoid. A left-hand rath Jour thumb points to the N pole. © direction of electro fo * 32Fingers pointin direction of electron flow Thumb point towerds north pole Fig. 2-17 Aleft-hand rule for solenoids Electri and magnetism at work - @ The incandescent light @) The electric heater * . : (8) The buzzer . @) The electric motor (5) The meter (QD) The incandescent light ‘When electric current flows through a poor conductor, it glows red or white hot. That poor conductor in the light bulb is called filament and is usually made of tungsten wire. Filament (usually tangsten wire) Vacuum ‘Wire support Glass support Fig. 2-18 Incanjlescent light‘ i itch i ae cotcs heal i made similar to the incandescent light Eo whan evi mo lon the current goes through the heating element to heat it. The heating i, made of nichrome wire, is supported by insulation. Hot water heaters, irons, toasters, ete. work in similar ways- Insulator Heating element (usually nichrome wore) Fig. 2-19 Electric heater (8) The buzzer The buzzer uses the electromagnetic coil. When the switch is closed: electron goes through the eléctromtagnetic coil" The coil produces a magnetic field that attracts the armature. Buzz adjustment screw Switch qrmature switch | : Armature Electromagnetic coll Electromagnetic colt Fig. 2-20 Buzzer 34@)The electric motor ‘The electric motor works because of the effect that a magnetic field has against a wire carrying an electric current. ‘The right-hand rule for motors can be used to find the direction that the wire will move. Motion Right Hand Rule To determine the direction in electron-carrying wire will move in a ficld, uss the right hand motor rule. Point the {ex-finger in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of electron flow. The thumb will indicate the direction of motion. electron flow Fig. 2-21 The right-hand rule 1 rotation of loop i, DC power supply Fig. 2-22 When electrons flow at magnetic field, # is produced motion. es. J©The meter as the current flow, A basic type of meter uses a solenoid coil and a movable core. AS 800% 7 hrouy coi i cts the core and swings through the coil, a magnetic field is made ‘up. A magnetic field attracts the the Pointer, Seal Pivot Pointa Collterminal Fig. 2-23 Meter 36The electric ‘An clectric circuit consists of (Q) A power source (2) Connecting wires or conductors (@)Alload, which is a device that use the energy Switch Fig. 2-24 Three elements are necessary fo have an electric circuit Oswitch ‘All switebes do the same basic work. These are opening and closing electric circuits. OLoad ‘A light bulb, a motor, toaster, heater are loads. The load consumes energy from the power souree. 37The direct current circuit (DC circuit f the source through the load, and back to t Ne t flows i from the positive terminal Neeiiateeren a ocelot ag nent chang ie cen same direction. This type of current is called direct curren ae eae aca eee In the DC circuit, voltage is always the same, and current a! _ Voltage - 220V *1 current 123465 Time (second) Fig. 2-25 Direct current circuit (DC circuit) The alternating current circuit (AC circuit) When the voltage changes, or alternates, the direction of current flow also alternates. Thi type of current is called alternating current (AC). Fig. 2-26 Altermating current circuit (AC circuit) 33 |Conductance ‘There are two basic kinds of material, conductors and insulators. The conductance is used to describe how well a material allows current to flow. In conductors, current can flow easily, and in insulators oppose the flow of current. Silver has the greatest conductance, but copper is used more often than silver because copper is cheaper than silver. BEB ESERE SR SER EEERESE BESE g223 aeS aes 7 Fig. 2-27 The rel Resistance Nichrome ‘conductance of different metals as compared fo copper Resistance is the opposition to current flow in a cireuit. The resistor is the low-conductance materials oppose or resist the flow electric current. Alumun, Tungsten 39 '54.6602030 CarbonIfa metal is made thicker, more current will flow. IES +» Fig. 2-29 To decrease resistance | fou decreaee cere It means the resistance is decreased. | | j OTo increase resistance If you add ‘an extra length, the distance which interrupts the current flows is longer. The longer a wire has more resistance. @toem Fig. 2-30 To increase resistance Othe unit of resistance The unit of resistance called the ohm. There urre} there is a resistance of 1 ohm. fre @ current of 1 ampere and an EMF of 1 volt, ohmInsulators Insulators are materials that resist the flow of current. Eg. rubber, plastic, glass, wood Insulation (rubber, plastic, etc.) Fig. 2-32 Olnsulation and current ‘The resistance of a wire determines how much current will flow through the wire when it is connected across a voltage source. There are two factors-that should be considered when it comes to current flow. One is that the wire resistance will allow a certain amount of current to flow. ‘No more current can flow than the power source is able to supply. Sources have a safe limit of maximum current they can supply before they burn out. ‘Second factor to consider is how much current the wire can safe carry. Electric current heats a wire. If the wire becomes too’ hot, its insulation covering will burn, and the wire can deteriorate. ‘Therefore if you need a lot of electricity you hane to choose devices that use good insulators. Fig. 2-33 Electric current heals wire 41OCable insulations > Rubber ‘ ‘This was one of the most common insu is floxible, blocking water coming insi temperature gets more than 55°C. lating materials unt de. But it hardens + 85U rubber ‘This material works in a temperatui such as mobile cranes and conveyors. re up to 85C. It is often used for - Silicone rubber ‘This material is designated 150°C insulation. It is used for fix the wiring of fire alarm, security and emergency lighting circuit. - PVC (Polyvinylchloride) It is the most common insulating material ‘The maximum working temperature is 70°C, At low temperatures aro becomes brittle. } + Mineral insulation til it was replaced by P.V.C. I, ‘and becomes brittle when a heavy-duty place, for fire-resistant cable including 1 used for cables and flexible at low voltages. und 0°C, the PVC ‘This is composed of magnesium oxide power and is used in the type of cable MIMS (Mineral Insulated Metal Sheathed) with the sheath usually made from copper (MICS). ‘The cable is non-ageing and:can work with sheath in a temperature up to 250°C. ~ Glass insulation This material is very heat resistant and is used under the temperatures as high as “180%. This is found in the internal wiring of electric cookers. Review questions ©. & 1. Write down units of voltage, current, and resistancé. 2. What is électric current?” 8. State the conventional current theory. 4, What is open circuit? 5. Explain electricity generation. 6. Explain electromagnet. 7. What is left-hand rule? 8, Define DC and AC circuit. 9. Deseribe electric conductor. 19, Deseribe resistance. 42What is current? What is voltage? water fiowing, end voltage is tike water pressure, } Current is fi 43MODULE 3 Performing electrical joint and terminations UNIT 3.1. Perform cold electrical joints ELEMENT 3.1.1 Make eyelet joint 3.1.2 Make crimp joint

Cl 5. Crimp tool Fig. 3-2 Crimping tools Method 1. Remove the insulation from the wire. 2. Clean the end. 8. Crimp it 4, Roll tape.Review questions 1. Define crimping. 2. List down crimping tools. a - 48(o) 3.1.3 Make parallel groove clamp joint ‘This method provides a separable contact. Surfaces must be clean and in definite mechanical contact. It must be taken to ensure that the bolt and nuts of the clamp are locked tight. Fig. 3-3 Parallel groove clamp Review questions 1, Describe parallel groove clamp joint. 3.1.4 Make bolt joint This method involves drilling holes in the material and has the obvious disadvantage of reducing the effective area of the material Contact pressures also tend to be less uniformly distributed in a bolted joint. Bolt joints can be separated easily. Fig. 3-4 Solt joint Review questions 1. Define bolt joint.aa A ted conductors. 3.2.1 Make twist joint single-core insulal 5d for This joint is not strong and generally use Fig. 3-5 twist joint Method noe ‘1 Remove the insulation from each end for a distance of about 30mm. 2. Clean the end. |B. Cross, the conductors. 4. Using. pliers, grip the crossed conductors together. 5. Twist from the bottom to the top of wire , 6. Roll tape. Review questions 1. Define twist joint. 50. 3.2.2 Make tee joint Through-piece uu "| | Tee-piece Fig. 3-6 Tee joint with single-core conductors. ‘Method 1. Remove the insulation from the through place for a distance of 50mm. id the centre. This ware must not be cut. 2. Remove the insulation from the tee-piece for a distance of about 75mm frdm the end. 3. Clean the conductors \ 4. Place the tee-piece at rightrangles to the left hand side of the bored through-piece and tightly bind it round the through conductor from left to right. \ 5. Cut off surplus conductor end on the bevel with side-cutters and smooth over with pliers. 6. Solder the joint. . 7. Make good the insulation removed ~\ ‘Tee-married joint The joint is used with stranded conductors. Tee-piece U Fig. 3-7 Tee joint with stranded conductors 7 Method 1. Remove the insulation from the through-piece for a distance of about 30mm in the centre. This wire must not be cut. 2. Remove the insulation from the teepiece for a distance of about 75mm from the end. 3. Twist the strands of the through piece 4, Twist the strands of the tee-piece in the insulation, 5. Untwist the remainder of length of the tecpiece and straighten strands. 6. The four strands are made to go round the loft hand side of the through-piece and three strands round the right hand side of through-piece. 7. Tighten the strands in their respective directions. 8. Cut off surplus strands on the bevel with side-cutter, Smooth over with pliers. 9. Solder the joint. 10. Make good the insulation removed. 51Review questions 1. Define tee joint. 823.2.3 Make married joint ‘The married joint is used with stranded conductors. When made correctly it forms a very strong and satisfactory joint. —o- —— PN mee Fig. 3-8 Married joint Method 1. Remove the insulation for 75mm from each conductor end. 2. Twist the strands of each conductor firmly in the direction of lay for 35mm, leaving 60mm splayed out. 3. Interleave the strands and butt the twisted portions together. 4, Hold down the strands of the right hand conductor along the left hand conductor. 5. Wrap the strands of the left hand conductor round the right hand conductor. 6. Cut off surplus strands on the bevel with side-cutter. Smooth over with pliers. 7. Solder the joint. 8. Make good the insulation removed. Review questions 1. Define married joint. 5B3.3.4 Iderin: ae joints in condueto: The arm. arn paces ae is generally used (0 re otal used for joining to terminate a conductor for a mechanical connection by metal. 1 My copper surfaces is solder, which is an alloy of tin and lead. (0% oe ¢ 200°C) The disadvanta, It melts at a comparatively low temperature. (Melting point is ahout 20" ge of soldering is that it makes the joint a non-separable connects. Soldering tools 1. Soldering gun 2. Solder stand 3. Solder wire 4. Cotton waste Fig.'3-9 Soldering tool Method 1. Shaping the metal parts so that they fit closely together. 2. Cleaning the surfaces to be joined. 3. Applying the soldering flux. 4, Applying molten solder, 5. Removing surplus solder and cooling the joint. Fig. 3-10 Soldering Review auestions i. Explain coft soldering. 2. List down tools exci equipment for soldering. 643.3.2 Carry out hard soldering (Brazing) =~ Brazing is a metal-joining process. It is similar to soldering, except the melt the metal are higher. (More than 450(C) - E.g- Aluminium, Copper, Silver, Nickel temperatures used to ‘The following point must be observed ) All suzfaces must be clean 2). When joint is being made between stranded conductors the stra increase the surface area. () The surface must be heated-bofore the flux is applied. The flux will take only when the temperature is high enough. (4) Apply metal until the surface is bright. we (5) Joints in metal should always be protected from contact with the atmosphere; by painting, taping or compounding. nds must be ‘stepped’ to Fig. 3-11 Hard soldering Review questions ‘ 1. Define hard soldering. . 2, Explain types of soldering. 3. List down tools and equipment for soldering: aMODULE 4 _ Building simple electric circuits UNIT 4.1 Construct resistive circuits ELEMENT 4.1.1 Build single resistor circuit 4.1.2 Build series resistive circuit 4.1.3 Build parallel resistive circuit 4.1.4 Build series-parallel resistive circuit UNIT 4.2 Construct capacitive circuits ELEMENT 4.2.1 Build single capacitor circuit 4.2.2 Build series capacitive circuit 4.2.3 Build parallel capacitive circuit 4.2.4 Build series-parallel capacitive circuit UNIT 4.3 Construct inductive circuits ELEMENT 4.3.1 Build single inductor circuit 4.3.2 Build series inductive circuit 4.3.3 Build parallel inductive circuit 4.3.4 Build series-parallel inductive circuit UNIT 4.4 Construct RLC circuits ELEMENT 4.4.1 Build resistance and capacitance circuit 4.4.2 Build resistance and inductance circuit 4.4.3 Build resistance, inductance and capacitance circuit UNIT 4.5 Construct RLC circuits ELEMENT 4.5.1 Measure voltage across a circuit 4.5.2 Measure current in a circuit 4.5.3 Measure resistance in a circuit 56UNIT 4.1 Construct resistive circuits How resistors are used. Resistors are used for adding resistance to an electric circuit. Resistors are made from low- conductance materials, such as carbon, nichrome, constantan and manganese. Resistors OTolerance : ‘The basic resistor has the number of ohms of resistance. This is called the resistor value. This is marked on the surface of resistor with a tolerance. ‘The resistor tolerance indicates how much above or below the nominal value the actual value of the resistor may be. Typical tolerance values are 20, 10, 5 and 1 percent. = The actual value of the resistor may range from 800 to 1209. Fig. 4-1 Value of resistance ‘The lower the tolerance the more expensive the resistor is. Current rating Every resistor has a maximum current rating, and should not be used in a cireuit where more than this maximum current will flow. Otherwise, the resistor may burn out. — Safe Current 87OStandard resistor color code ven First significant Figure muttiplyi Tolerance second Significant Figure Fig. 4-3 - First signific fi 5 Te cee afte frst band indicates the first digit of the resistor value- - Second significant figure . ‘The color of the second baud indicates the second di Multiplying value 7 ‘The color of the third banc indicates how much the first two dig obtain the resistance value. - Tolerance ‘The,[Link] fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor. git of the resistor value. gits are to be multiplied to Black 0 ; é few : x10 7 ee 2 x 100 = Orange 3 x 1000 = Yellow 4 x 10000 : — 5 x 100000 : Blue a a : Violet 7 x 10000000 = Gray 8 x 100000000 aa 9__ | + 1000000000 = Gold c Siver | - ~ ea Non = Color (ae i | Fig. 4-4 Color code 58Resistor types Composition resistors - Wire wound resistors Fixed resistors - Film resistors - Adjustable resistors + Variable resistors OComposition resistors This is the most common type of resistors. They consist of a powdered-carbon, a tubular plastic case and wire leads. ~ Powdered carbon is mixed with an insulating material, called a binder. - Tubular plastic case for sealing and protection. - Wire leads for connecting the resistor into a circuit. * ‘Those resistors are small and rugged, and the cost is low. But those will get‘overheat with high current, and have wide tolerance range. Plastic case Wireleads Inthe resistor carbon composition resistance element with binder Fig. 4-5 Composition resistor 59OWire wound resistors ire wound resistors. ; f basig types o There are two nee ower type AL * Precision tyPe i is used when resistances Power type is used for circuit having large current. Precision tyP° with very small tolerances are required. joy wire around an insulating coating. Both types are made by winding special all Special alloy wire wound, around insulating core Symbol Terminals Fig. 4-6 Wire wound resistor OFilm resistors See Film resistors are made by a thin film of resists ‘ tore axe ance ma are carbon film resistors, boron-carbon film resistons Beta or es sas OF Ceramic tube, Thes film resistors. ; Im resistors and metallic oxide Wire leadsOAdjustable resistors With an adjustable resistor, you can get any resistance value covered by the range of the resistor. Me PA (i) Movable clamp. Fig. 4-8 Adjustable resistor OVariable resistors Variable resistor can be varied from 0 ohm to the value marked on the resistor. Those are used for controlling the volume of a radio and the brightness contiol of a TV screen. : << Terminals Fig. 4-9 Variable resistor 61‘ ircuit 4.1.1 Build single resistor circ tor opposes the flow of Qhm's law ev ina closed cite t and a resiste™ ed the unit of When voltage causes current to aa wg Simon oie who was 0 current. This relationship was made by resistance. v= voltage IM] a 1=Current A] ‘= : R R=Resistance[O] ¥ Fig. 4-10 ‘Ohm found in DC circuit as follows; 4. 1f V go up, I will go down 2. 1f Vigo down, I will go down 3.1fRgo up, I will go down 4.1 R go down, I will go up In a DG circuit, the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance, ve tay = ——— : 3 Ria vu Ria = Wal ve = Wal x Ria OCalculating current Eg. sv R 10 vot = 10vor ohm * 2Ampores 128 62Calculating resistance Eg. vu Ria Ty e0vor —— 3 Amiperes R = fot z ‘3 Amperes = 200hm R=209 OCalculating voltage Eg. Vig MAL x Rin} a 2Amperes 1000hm 1 Amperes x 100'chm : = 200 volt ¥=200V Power ‘The power is used to describe how fast a load can do work. The faster works is done, the more power is used. tvok 1 Amperes ohm ‘watt of power Is used when 4 ampere flows through a potential difference of 1 volt. Mechanical power is usually measured in unit of horsepower (hp) 1 horse power (hp) = 746 watts (W) , 63OFormula tial ‘The number of watts used is equal to the pote! The unit of power is watt (W) aiforence of voltage tomes CUTER Noy, P: Power P= Vix HAL V: Voltage Pon vm = : Current ics 1: CurrertiAl Pm me Eg. Poa = Vix 1A sve = Sam baie = Svolt x 3 Amperes = 27 Watt P=27w Roviow questions 1. What is the function of resistors? 2. Mention five types of resistor.” 8. Mention three fixed resistor 4. What is tolerance? 5. State ohm’s low. ‘ 64ati it 4.1.2 Build series resistive circu! ee OCurrent in series circuit e path for eurren Aseries circuit is a circuit that has only ont Lamp Fig. 4-12 Ri Re Lamp1 Lamp2 Lamp3 - 7 v= : 7 (] Battery is + Fs Re : " Fig. 4-13 si wing (fig.4~ rf 7 nie op side des 6 (Gg.4-12), especially itis called a simple circuit, There are one sount 66fees tance is found by adding all the resistances of the load in the Fomula Rtotal = R1 +R2+R3+Re4+Rs E.g. 2 Ri=109 Re=50 ~ Rtotal = Ri + R2 + R3 + Re + Re sov-—— R3=20 . =10454248+20 ¢ =400 Rr= 400 Rs=200 R+=680 Power sources in series circuit When power sources are connected in series, the total voltage is equal to the sum of the individual source voltages. EFomula Viotat = V1 + V2 V=1.5V . R=60 Ve1.5V Viotal = V1 + V2 =15V+41.5V =3v Vr=3v 67they will oppose each other, direction, If power sources are not connected in the same Viotal = VLarger + VSmaller - y= Vi -V2 V=15V eas =7.5V v=av OVoltage drops in series circuit Tn a series circuit, the eum of all the voltage drops across all the resistor voltage applied to the circuit. -s must equal the Va =20V v2=30V Vs = 50V 100V Fig. 4-14 Viet = Vit V2+Va4Vers = Ifin this circuit, a current flow of 5A, the resistance value of each resistor is given by! given by; vu 20v oe al 5A R2 = = 89 = 100 68Riot = Ri +R2+ R3+ Rat = = 40+60+100+200 0 40 Rr=409 OSummary (Series circuit) 1 = W=t2=13 Veotl = Vat V2+V34VEt > > Riotd = Ri+ Rot Rs+Ret- = - Fig. 4-15 1. The current is the same at any point in the cireuit 2, The total resistance is the sum of each resistance. 3. The sum of the voltage drops of each resistor must equal the applied yoltage. Review questions Define series circuit. . Explain current behavior in series circuit. Explain voltage behavior in series cirouit. Explain resistor behavior in series circuit. aeNe 69ive circull t devices such ai 4.1.3 Build parallel resistive circuit people are used. Mos' 8 , ich most Parallel circuit is the type of circuit for Gere a vvrallel. lights and receptacles in homes are connecte current to flow. The total th for ore than one pal ough all of the branches. currents thr OCurrent in parallel circuit Parallel circuits are circuits that have more than current flow in the circuit is equal to the sum o! Formula Trad = 11+ 12+13+- + A ‘Wot 13, Fig. 4-16 OVoltage drop in parallel circuit The voltage drop across any branches of a parallel circuit is the same as the applied voltage. Formula Vota = Vi=V2=Va- - = Ivy Mt Fig. 4.17 70Resistance in parallel circuit The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the resistance of the lowest-value for the resistor in the circuit. Eomuta Rr Ri Re Ra Fig. 4-18 If in the above circuit, 71yu can use the formula. o When resistances are only two branches; ¥' Rix Re Rroo= Rit Ro Rix R2 15x30 Ye 15+ 30 450 45 OCalculate total resistance from current and voltage Eg. Iotet thee rota = Vi = Va = vs V Tote R Total = = SATHAFHIA 18V = Vi=V2=y3 V Total 72Re Rt 1 1 + 18 15 fl 4 ++ 3 15 16 15 13rallel circuit) OSummary (Pat al Oo I, + Ra vt VT ote Fig. 4-19 Iroa =n ti2tist = Vos = V1=V2=V3- + M1 1 1 1 te y + + +++ (Q RT Ri Re Rs 1, The voltage across any circuit branches is the same as the applied voltage. 2. The total current is the sum of the current through all of the circuit paths. 3. The total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of resistance in each branch. Review questions 1. Define parallel circuit. 2. Explain current behavior in parallel cireui 3. Explain voltage behavior in parallel circus 4. Explain resistor behavior in parallel circuit, 14RexR3 Rot Rs After that, calculate Rrotal Ri + Res RexRs " 2 + Rat Rs orme. And in series ch is the same. carey across any bran ircuit. In the parallel circuit, the voltage drop ied to the circuit the sum ofall the voleage drops is equal the voltage aPP v2 Mi Vv2=V3 * Viotel = Vi+V2 Vrrota Fig. 4-23, In series circuit, current is the same in any points in the circuit. And in parallel circuit, the total current is equal to the sum of the currents through all of the branches. emf : Vote = 11 = 12+ 3 Nota = Fig. 4-24Kirchhoff's law he sum of voltage drops a , ir f the emf’ in that loop. (Voltage eas round any closed loop is equal to the sum of the emf’s Law No.2: The current arriving at any juncti int in a ci It irrent leavin that point (Current tay unetion Point in a circuit is equal to the cut 9 OKirchhoff’s voltage law Ima loop closed circuit, the voltage drop and voltage source are always equal. Eg. 20a Voltage sources = Voltaagedrop 80 [V] = 20[0] x 1+ 10[Q]*1 60 = 2014101 60 = 301 60 30 1=2 21a) ‘ 200 75v Voltage sources = Voltaage drop ‘75(V] - 60 [V] = 20 {0} «1+ 10[0}% 1 15 = 201+ 101 102 15 = 301 8, 30 1=05 = OSTA 7‘At any junction point in @ (— ey ee tin = {= tins A loz Tin = tout + lout OKirchhoff’s current law current circuit, the int 2 9 a om 1 1 1 \,, First apply Voltage law, Voltage drop = Voltage source 20] * Itotal + 6a] x11 = 61] 2ltota +6 =6 = - +O 210) * total + 310] xl2 = 6[V] 2btotal + 312=6 + - -@ And use Current law Itotal = It + Iz 2hota +6 =6 > - =D 2(4 +12) +6 =6 2in + 22+ 6H =6 gh+22=6--°-@ 786-. 2(H +2) +3n=6 2h + 2i2+3i2<6 2h+52=6-..@ 8h+2k=6-..@ 2H+52=6-. .@ @x4 4X (21+ 5i2) =4xg- . .@ 81 +2012=24 - - .@ ®-@ 8h +2012=24- - © 84+22=6---@ 8+ 2x1=6 Itotal = 11 +12 + + + Current law =14+05 =1.5A W=15A Review questions 1. Define series-parallel cireuit. 2. State Kirchhoff’s laws. 79AC circuit (Alternating current circuit) In AC circuit, first the current flows in one direction and then it flows in the opposite. Today about 90 % of all the electric power consumed through the world is AC. There are ty, reasons for this: ° 1. It is cheaper for the power companies to produce and distribute to their customers, 2. AC is more useful than DC. OTransmission and distribution of electric power _ The below figure shows the generation, transmission and distribution stages from the raw fue, input to the power station to the electricity supply at the consumer's premises. sypstaion tep bow ; 400KV or 275kV Transtormer__ysaee High power consume, Transmission lines 1 25KV Power station lerok High power consume : 33kv or| ‘ 11kV Generating Transmission Customer a 6 Domestic and smal ‘Step Up. (nS) power consumer ‘Transformer ‘ABV or 240V Fig. 4-26 ‘The key to the diagram is as follow: Input fuel to power station. (coal, oil or nuclear fuel, etc.) Power station containing boiler plant, prime mover (steam turbine) and the electric generator. Supply from the generator at 25kV three-phase. Generating transformer (step up) and switchgear. ‘Transmission at 400KV or 275KV three-phase on overhead lines. Substation transformer (step down) Distribution at 33kV or 11kV three-phase on overhead lines. Further local authority supply substation. (on the pole) Final distribution at 415V three-phase four-wire or 240V single-phase two-wire. Pr PEreray High voltage transmission lines are used to transmit electric power over long distances, s0 the resistance is large. Normally, high voltage (HV) transmission power lines are made of high Conducting lines of copper or aluminum. Assume the power to be transmitted is P, and the resistance of the transmission line is R. ; ‘ven the power is transmitted with voltage V, then the current flow through the transmissi® line isi P : P 1s— The powerloss Poss = F XR = ( ¥ xR v Vv Since P and R are fixed conditions, less power will be lost if high voltages V are used. 80OValues of AC voltage and current, AC voltage and current have more than one type of values, + Peak Value Peakto Peak Value Voltage or Current o Instantaneous + Value Peak Valus | Fig. 4-27 The instantaneous value of voltage or current is the [Link] one particular instant of time. * The peak value is maximum value of voltage or current. ~The peak-peak value is distance from the maximum positive value to the maximum negative value. i Oaverage values The average value of an AC voltage or current is the average of all the instantaneous values during one half cycles. The average value is 0.637 times the peak value. Vav = 0.637 * Vek Average Value Time Voltage or Current ° Fig. 4-28 As an example, if the peak voltage in a cixeuit is 100V, . Vay = 0.637 * VPK = 0.637 * 100 Vav=63.7V =63.7V 81. tage or current. I OE hu RMS values jue of DC vol t ig Tila sale produras Me ame amount of POW as value OF ig stands for root-mean-squay, id ammeters: i value indicated by almost all AC voltmeters and 0m ean of the square of the instantaney,, which is an abbreviation for the square 70 currents. 2 ‘The effective value is 0.707 times the peak © alue- tere = 0.707 * IpK Time Voltage or Currant If the peak current is 10A, Tere = 0.707 * IK = 0.707 x 10 7A ‘The effective value is the one usually used to rate AC voltay ; . e ge and current. We usually 1s 220V in home and 220V is effective voltage, 50 peak voltage can be calculated ass Vere = 0.707 * VeK Vere Vek = = 0.707 0.707 sot veK= S14V ani 220¥OFrequency ‘The most common of all AC wave form is the sine wave shown in below figure. They are ‘d by all rotating machines. The sine wave contains a total of 360 electrical degrees. It reaches its peak positive voltage at 90°, returns to a value of OV at180*, increases to maximum negative voltage at 270°, and returns to OV at 360°. Each complete wave form of 360°is called a cycle. The number of complete eycles that occur in one second is ealled the frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), + Time Voltage or Curent teyele Fig. 4-31 In Tanzania 50Hz of frequency is used. This means that the voltage increases from zero to its maximum value in the positive direction, returns to zero, increases to its maximum value in the negative direction, and returns to zero 50 times in each second. second Time Voltage or Current Es e Voltage or CurrentFrequency is expressed any HH 1 rey qetime of teycle [-] Eg. el FetHz - 108 = O84 FrodHz oa to F=10Hz 84FeooHz 85 0.028UNIT 4.2 Construct capacitive circuits. Capacitors Capacitors are devices that oppose a change of voltage. rating e of int constructed by separating two metal plates by some ‘YP dielectric. if capacitor mplest type of a The sintgting material called the Plates Insulating Material (Dielectric) Fig. 4-33 Capacitor in DC circuit When a capacitor is connected to a source of direct current, after some period of time the capacitor becomes charged. ‘Then even though the source is diseonnected from the eapacitor, itis still charged. When the capacitor is disconnected to the source, the capasitor start to discharge and after some period of time the capacitor has no charge. 100V 98.2V 95V Voltage 86.4V 63.2V Time Capacitors charge curve Time Fig. 4-34 Capacitors discharge curveCapacitor [___] \ After some period of time OV? 100V 100V, The capacitor is charged | The battery is disconnnected OV? 100V 100V. The capacitor is charged J After some period of time Charge has been di v C4 ischarged Fig. 4-35 87Unit of capacitance cito The basic unit of eapacitance is farad (F). Acapmrr or change of one volt across its plates rest = Capasitance [F] Its in a move! v Q= Amount of charge [coulomb] V= Voltage (M1 1000 mF - ( milifarads ) Types of capacitors ONon-polarized capacitors ‘These are often used in an AC circuit, because thi ‘Also it can be connected to DC circuit. ieee OPolarized capacitors ‘These capacitors are sensitive to polarity wh can be used in DC circuit only. wen they are connected to positive or negative. It OFixed capacitors ‘There are non-polarized capacitors and pola: capacitors have their fixed capacitance, and it ea sensitive to polarity connection. rized capacitoy mnot be Hanged 1" Fixed capacitors. Fixed ql ne To [ Syenbo] Fig. 4-37 Capacitors 88,OVariable capacitors In variable capacitors their capacitance can be adjusted. ee KR Fig. 4-38 OFlectrolytic capacitors A Electrolytic capacitors have large capacitance values in a small case. There are two basic. types of construction, wet type and dry type. They are usually polarized capacitor. (1) Wet type The wet type electrolytic capacitor has a positive plate made negative plate is made from a borax solution. of aluminiura foil. The Negativelead Positive lead Fig. 4-39 oan ape electrolytic capacitor is very similar to the wet type except that gauze is used to hold the borax solution. Positive plate (aluminum) Electrolyte (Gauze and borax salution) Positive lead Negative lead Fig. 4-40 89Color codes Otubular and Mica capacitors . An identification chart for postage stamp mic capacitors is shown in the below figure. It shot capacitors use a five-dot color code. rs and tubular paper or tubular mic, ito! a capacl that most postage stamp mic uld be noted Voltage Tolerance Second Digit Mutipier First Digit Second Digit Multiplier Voltage Non color Tolerance i : Fig. 4-41 2 First and Second = 7 Color digit Multiplying Value Tolerance Black |. _0- 1 : -|- Brown 1 x10 E : oe | Rea 2 x10 ~~ | Orange 3 x 1000 * | Yellow 4 x 10000 = 3% ‘Green 5 i x 400000} 24% __| Biue 6 xt000009~} —-2 5% _ | [Violet | 7 —| «10000009 —j-—2 8% __ | Gray 8 | 400000009-—-—22% | White 9 | "= 1000000009 28% | | __ x04 pp —29% 0.07 p> —25% | | 10%Ceramic Capacitors Another capacitor that often used color codes is the ceramic capacitor, This: capacitor will generally have one basid that is wider than the others. The wide band indicates the temperature coefficient and the other bands a first and second digits multiplier, and tolerance. Temperature coefficient First digit Second digit Multiplier Fig. 4-42 Color | Firstand Second | ‘Multiplying |__ Tolerance Temperature digit Value _| More than 10pf | Less than 10pf | _ coefficient Black 0 1 + 20% = 2ph 0° Brown 1 x10 £1% = -30°C Red 2 x 100 £2% = -80°C Orange 3 x 1000 £3% - ~150°C Yellow 4 x 10000 £4% - =220°C Green 5 | #8% £0.5pf -330°C Blue 6 - £6% e “70°C Violet 7 = £T% = “750°C Gray 8 x 0.01 £8% £025pf [430°C White 9 x04 £10% £1pf #500°C Gold - | x04 8% [or oar Silver = x0.01 + 10% = Otemperature Coefficients ao ~ The temperature coefficient indicates the-amount-of eapacitance change with temperature. ‘Temperature coefficients are listed in percentage par degree Celsius. ‘A positive temperature cvefiient indicates that the capacitor will increase ito capacitance with an increase in temperature. A negative temperature is opposite, OVoltage Rating The voltage rating indicates the working voltage of the capacitor. 91Factors determining capacitance jacitor. There are three factors that detamaine the capaciea02: Ce 1. The area of the plates 2. The distance between the plates 3, The type of dielectric used Olncreasing capacitance When plates become large, capacitance increases. High Capacitance Low Capacitance icm aan tem 2cm {4 ° Fig. 4-43 ODecreasing Capacitance When distance between plates becomes large, capacitance decreases. High Capacitance Low Capacitance tem tem tem em 2em 2cm Fig, 4-44 ‘The capacitance of a capacitor is inversely proportio: it is proportional to the area of the plate. The eee, to the distance bet physical factors that affect it are expressed by the equ; ship between rotween the plate, aod ation: ‘pacitance and tho® cae C: Capacitance £* Pletectrte permitivity A? Area of the plates qs Lentth between plate 32= Capacitors connected in series ‘Connecting capacitors in series has the effect of increasing the distance between the plates, so decreasing the total capacitance. Eormulas 1 1 1 1 = + + cer cr C1 C2 cs (Al cr = _otxcz ci+c2 LF] E.g. Find Cr C1=20F - i + T C2=30F C3 =80,F = 1 2 or - i 1 5 1. 5 1 : 20 30 60 G -_3 4.2, 1 60 80 60 1 1 ~ o cr ~ 10 Cr = 10)F 93Capaci cted in parallel the plate area of one capaci es in on has the effect: a5 at Ser ae and 60! F are eee In the example three capacitors having capacitance 0 , } in parallel, The total capacitance isi Eormulas Cro = C1t2+est- * + LF] E.g. Find Cr 20 “P 30F [BOP Cota = 20¢F + SOgF + 6OpF ed r= 140eF Capacitors connected in series and parallel (combination E.g. Find Cr c1=20F 94C234 = C2+C3+ Cap] C234 = 10pF + 20pF + 50pF C234 = 80pF —t_ =_1 ,_1 cr a C234 =_1 4, _1 20 so 24 4 1 80 80 =_5 BO 1 _ 1 cr 16 cr = 16 r= 169F Review questions 1. Define capacitor. 2. Explain types of capacitors. 3. Explain capacitor color codes. 95,stor circuit 4.2.1 Build single capacitor circull The capacitors in AC circuit When a capacitor is connected to 4) through the capacitor. __ cuit current will appear to alternating current circuit 2 ow 2 Voltage or Currant ° Pott Spe Capacitoris charged Capacitoris discharged Fig. 4-45 Capacitive Reactance In AC cireuit, capacitor has resistance. It is ealle a ‘ capacitive reactance (Xe) and unit is oh ‘The formula of capacitive reactance is; 1 Xe = XC: Capacitive reactane ta] w3.14 Les # Frequoncy Hy ©: Capactance [Fy 96Eg. Find Xe 120V 1 S0Hz C= 36F 2x 3.14 50x 0.000035 " 1 0.01083 " E.g. Find | Now the value of capacitive reactance is known, it can be used like resistance in Ohm's lbw formula. 90.991811 X¢=90.99Q v 1 - —> R R= Xe 120V e = 90.990 = ‘S0Hz Xe= 90. ' xe -__120V 90.880 = 1.3188 1.524 Review questions 1. Define capacitive reactance. 2. Calculate capacitive reactance. 97i it found ‘i 4.2.2 Build series capacitive circuit | total capacitance ca be found in a tinidy i the When capacitors are connected in series, "Nr. it. 5 allel circuit. manner to obtain the total resistance of parallel Eormulas ere 1. fe “er c G Fl xe = anfc [2] Xetotal = Xct + xXC2#XCI#XCATS * * at every point in the circuit is the same. Ang In series capacitive cireuit, the current flowing ee eee the sum of all voltage drops across all the capacitive reactance the circuit. E.g. Find Xer C1 = 10 480V 60H2 T can sor C3 = 15)F -_1 xet *§ xe = 1 2%3.14x 60x C2 = 1 2x 3.14*60xCr — 14 60x 0.000030 a 1 s——_1t 23.14 60x 0.000010 “> 011304 5 1 0.003758 = BB489 265.590 98itive circuit itance can be found in g « 4.2.2 Build series capacitive citrt ‘the total capacital Sing, When capacitors are connected in 807168) TT ouit, manner to obtain the total resistance of Pa Formulas 1 poe 1 21 4 t+ t ct c2 CS (Fl Xe = 1 anf [0] Xetotal = Xc1+XC2+XC3+ XCAF = © © ii i it, the In series capacitive circuit, the current flowing at every point in the a a same se the sum of all voltage drops across all the capacitive reactance must equal ge applied y the cireuit. E.g. Find Xcr C1 = 109F 480V “GOH Gaxsor Tt oC3=15F . i Xora Xe = 1 > 2%3.14x60x¢2 i 1 =—_1__ 2%8.14% 60x Cr St *8.14x BO = 1 ‘Q.000030 re 23.14% 60x O.000gI9 = —1 0.014 ot 304 0.003768 = aa480 = 265990 98