& Theory of computation Why Toc’ ; This Subject acts as a base For vasiety OF aveas of computes engineering 0s Compiler construction , Languoge Processing» Operating system design and So Many others Every engineering process has Some mathematical , scientific base” Theory of computation ' studies that: Basic Concepts : a) Symbol _ Symbol is any abstract OF User defined entity | TE Can be anything e-g. letter, digit or symbol Vike 9,60, 2, y,2, O11, 2,3, t,-, #, Pt anything a) Alphabet CE):. - Tt is Finite get of symbols Oe i ee Ye 94b0,$ 65 here D,Y ave Alphabet sets We con detine Alphabet foo our language — 3) String Cor, Word ) - A string over on lphabet Ets defined as any ‘Finite Sequence of symbols fsom Conventionally Steings are denoted by Smal’ case letkexs. string] Wosd length = Number of symbols Fn the wordFor ex. Ze i _ then €, 4, b, ab, ba, aa, bb, Qaa.... all these are ‘strings 0° over alphabet set = _ “there Can be” infinite” _ Strings” over On alphabet . Ee _Oxefix of string is any number of ~ leading Symbols of the steing- @-q. let ‘Xe abe is any string then its prefixes are €,Q, ab,abc — Proper prefix > a,ab +e —¢ suffix of stxtiag is any number 5 7 trai li ng Sy mbols for ex €, C, be, abc Proper sulin 2 €,¢, be Eis Cepsilon) is an ore seeing with length O [E> 4) Kanguage : fe e A language is defined as q set of Strings oF Symbols From some one alphabet ~ Chul set) £5€3 are also languages * Set of all Strings over alphabet is language denoted PY ZF t 2 - Sat then | - §€, aq, aad,---- % is langaage _ ; _ii) “Let Ls JON} then — Zt $€,0,', 00, WoL 10,000, U1, -~ =a is language™ formal language: ') the languages we have define above Are called as formal lang wa eS it) Formal language refers to tbe Fact that all the vules for the language are explicitly Stated in terms of what strings of Symbols Can occurs 1 and which are the valid sentences H) Tt is to the form of strings oF symbols — »_N) Tk is not ke expression of rdeay - - _ like Natural language, CO _-Fintte State Machine oO : Machine fs ‘basfeally a tool to Check if GX Particular Stsing is From fhe given Language Or Nok Machine @n be built for @ Paztieulo + langueq Basic machine. Tt 1s the machine which wecognizes Qn input Set Ioand produces an Output set O, Where Land 0 are Finite pt Eesha Output here we are not fnterested what ts happening inside but only the output. Therefore these type of machine can be _ Niewed as a Punction which “maps Input Set LT to the output set QO. this is Called 5 machine Function Cmar) MAR. TIO SnEx AML logical gates like AND, OR, ¢tc. for AND gate _ z foo), (0,'), (6,0), cunt > § 0,15 MAF Table a Peatuses of Baste Machine — i) Tt simply accepts in put Fakta Ord Produces Out put “Input ¢ Can be Combinational Sof TE Can be called as Combinational Machine ex. AND gate ii) Et only, Performs table Took up Procedure som MAF Table m) It doesnt have any memory or internal state. — Tt may require large Size Eable For @ particulas Eask which May Slow down the machine. Also that much gpace might not be available each time. — Suppose we want to create Basic machine fos particulor langugge bo. check whether the given String Ts Prom giv language “Which is ToFioike and Psoduce the output as yes of no = Practically te is tmpossible to create Sach table with Toffnite word Set a “— Therefore, we have to Improvise the toorkirg Pinite State Machines are fntrelacee|PINTITE STATE MACHINE - It is the machine having inter mediate Stages - Which on veceival of Fnput chooses a Posticulay Path from initial stage Eo reach to Final stage to produce valid Output - Such machine having Rinite Totecnal States is called a3 finite State machine —_ONe ofthe simplest model ob computation cincl has very less memory : Finite state machines Finite Automata - a —PA with Oukpub Fh without outpe LL | = Gee Moore Meloy pea NEA E-NEA Machine Machine DFA- Deterministic Morte Qubomatq } S0O@ a ore States _ 5 JQ is tnitiol state wt) 0 is final state _—_— 7 iv) edges - Transit» SUPPOSE we axe in State @) < IF T ge inpet | then my state @ goest to state (B)e NC a labelling of iopet edges orf ia puds Formal def” oF DFA ° = 5 tuples - (Q.Z,t0F 8) eee Gz seb ob all states ee Zz: Inputs —_ Jo = Tiitial stole a + * nal srote (set ob) we con Powe rs nstion function that maps __ —t S + Tso Oxz=-G _ ee f Por this example + 5 A.8.6 ape pay 4 3+ 40, 4 alc | 6 —~f : 9, - =) BY, Oo A c f+ $0} c fa lo] E co. Qxz-Q_D ] ¥ Exam ple: = Design @ DEA which Accepts set ob r all stsings that stort with 6 5 L=$0,00,01,000 O10 ON -- ~~" e& rr : “ee 8 Eg- 00] 1 0-6-0 Q"—— eer eg — saeco Stole T trap state ox dead oan e stake a Initial State G-0-O-O — — —— aes : Ne final x a state*& Example 2 “construct DPA Phat accepl Set of all ksings over [0,14 oF length 2 2+ 90,15 7 b+ $00, ol 11,104 : a +, paar (A) 2! CO O46 om a j Trop state/ deod state from State D no Way out 40 final Skate ey. 00 10.7 _ 2DS@ inal | hts tia Store stole OolK P22) LO O)e ded stake @ Example 3 Constracl a DPA thot accep any strings _ Over 34,65 Hhat does nob contain -the String Oabb Z- 444 Try to design @ Simpler problem Let Gs construct O DPA that Accepts all skeings over 3.0,b3 that contains the String Gabb in it Q ; SibEE Blip the Statessmate the Final Stobe _ Tato non Final state ; a Make the non final states into Fraal | nA shakes 22 = - a = = &_ Example & Design DPA that veads strings made up of letters in the word “CHARIOT and eG nAZes the Strings that contain the Word CAT’ aS a substring - HAT ROT ae C AGH TSO;T R- : a \h d 9,)—s((93) aa Sy eo HaRTOT AHLOR state Eransibion diog sary ‘Jo HART OF >t [ht & bt bd he fe Ht | Ge eo 4 Ge Go be | 4 ee ee 4) [4s ts Gs ds bs he 4sNT Example 5° Ny Construct OF 4 accepting the Following “| __ language over the Olphabet $0,1% y —_(@) Number of 1's ts mattiple of 3 _(b) Number of 1's is not muttiple 7 ob 3 — 7) - 309-08 “og to Saar 1 Jo Transition dae 7. = qi 14, Gy For case Z np the States BX ol S0-5@) 9) = GREE? Ss or | Gy ! tdlds Go -Non deterministic PA (NFA) - A non determinist! © finite autoMaty— can be Wn mutti le stokes at the | ip - same time . ; _ NPA can guess abou ife sequen 1 _ Tk can be can be pene 3 4 state attes vedval " so the move cannot 5& determ E _ uniquely | oo ppag Oe a ea Q 4. Je | ae yo 4 > pes. 4 qb on Thus the Stsin ag BNolg” ae by ven) ize is Accepted e “An. NPA with” States l-& 5 and Fn) __alphabet 4 ay byt has Follow : ___Eronsi fen m table 7 at eee hase oe aa, ares a Se Af eg gp 4 of 455g 5 bog. >> a) Ds row Q _ Eeansitien dvoa b) Calcaloke Ss Caty— — ee aac : 341,243, 0b 3Examp) ft: oe ae convert the NPA given into its equivalent DFA: : a On Z [oOo 7. =F) = ek 8+ lb 99.93 _ Lh £95 AMIS $05. step 1. Starting Stoters $4aF O34, is 34.5. 7 oO | L>4, is @ $9.8 144.5 4 }—fi 3 4 ae ; step 2 A new subset 94% is generated. OS is F405 : th is 34.5_ Step 4. 4 New subset $4.,4,% is generated “ O Successor of 4 4o i424 SCP4A3 03 ~~ = $0460) UV § (4,0) 99.4645 | Successoy of 3 04,3 8 (444,01) = $901) 0 § (42,1) =P U4, “Steps a A nee subset 99444. 45 1S_generated Successov of F + 8(44, 4,85 04 = $(4.,9)0 $74.0) 0 § (4,0) *—S4ei,) 3—4,——4 = 40,4, 4,3 in | Successox of Soa. 4 3 nae 6 ( 2% Se, fl | oe eee $41) 0 $41) $a) ——+—$9,5 U > pigqrq3. Eh “Since now no new subset Is Generated Psocess of subset generation stop § °step 3: A new subset S4e04,% Fs = Generated ~ O- “Successor of 3 904,% _ 2S C8404,5,03 = 8(4.0% OE (9, 0% se = 3930 — = $43 | - Successor of $455.3 . SIC Sa) 0a (4.1) *~__c JU 34,,4.,%NY AS Fa was Final state of NFA Qa\\ the states Contain aq_ a, should be ___token os Final stokes final DFA transition table . Ona | er | 343 [4% EL —4404f | a5 240 _¢ A4ed§? 1940 9,4.5 —__405____ 940 9,3-7 49 904,,4,5 140 F 4 | _@ pe Example 220 Convert to a DPA the following NFA: ’ fo! jor aad 303 ws | qs3_ 6 S'] 355 35 1 479] aPa3 a | nn ao 2 $745 | GPar53 3PA5o _ 3 4rd] SPawsté FAP y 4 P4s¢ 5 9P$ Lo qParss § ppus5 7 FPgs75 TPS SR § P33 TPS98las NFA with Epsilon € stands Fer a null symbol \ ANE transition allows transition one _ Cor noi/p), the emply String a This Implies that the Machine can mak, A transition clthotct any i]/p st Pormal Notation for an € -NFA M=39,5,%o)F, 83 - GX {ZU 5GF5 > 28 a [es[sag] @ [4 Oe thy 6 $481 até $ | 5955 * E closure E Closure oF state 4; is the set of —o— states induding gf eohith are reachable by @ move from 4; Tt includes — State 4; — Set of States reachable From 43 on e-mrove, - Set of States reachable From @yisti ing a Stakes, in € € closure , Using eninouesaaeeea and So on5) xe closuse ob Je + 4934 a 4.3 olay 7) @ Closure ob g > 94 924,5 _ Equivalence of @ NFA and NFA. An NPA with © move can be | Convested into an equivalent NFA voithour € moves et: Ae O12 aN ieee GOS LS Ci) = = fae TP there fs € Move betWeen any too States 4 4%) then © reve Can be removed as 0) Al) moves fens 45 should also “Osiginate From gy - For en. if Qe) oe aeSO o) rf 4; is a Fidal state then L / mate 7 08 a Pinal stake 7 b qi Con tains Fi na Tf € closuse ob state then i! ts Cilso considered g final State _______— Example ° convert C-NFA to an NFA — — ° | — 23-36 Ca) NFA with EG move Convest: EG NFA — DEA Example: 7 consider the Followin a ena Ea bo PPR 993 Gq $3 143 ey Wd 993 ¢) Compute | the a - closure oF each _ Skate a states —e) closure a (a — tt __ 3P, P45 nnn Semone ay ee (6) Convest given G-NFA to DPA. Step C1). @ closure 6 initial state Pts taken as a first Subsel C closave CP): 973 Q Successor oF 7pZ . eC Closuve (6 CP,a) ) > © closase (1?) 4p _b successor oF 4°3> closure Cte) -¢ closure DH AGS successor oF tP3- C conve (580) a 2 © closare eS) ean oisa success oF of. $04 37 2 € closuse( i P30 o) -e@ closure CEP-44) | Fea osure £3 U ec closure $43 b Successox aE $P.43> @ closure ( 8( Fb) Us (35) ) = € closuse(s U $x3 ) = Two new Subsets TP. 43 and Pay are generated: worl Calcedote thd Succes Sot + = € closuse 4q3 U € closure oy} PAF U_ GPG LP. ys C Successo¥ (2) f.4.+F A Successor ob GPqxf -C* fone 9) -€ closuse ( $P5 U $ethes) 2 € Closuve P_ UE dosure 4 U @ closuse ¥ iaimie feeno lrg ncmenS closuse(8(P.<) v $(4,0)) E closure (ar U¢) E Closure fx3 GP5 UGPSS DIPS 5 Pg ts—_b_ successor ob GPav3. € closure VT C SCP,b) HEC CB) =—- aS lesure( $45 p gx5 UF a 2€ € closure $43. aiencr -Closuve Gy3_ So ere A) FP ¥F5 ame gape eves Ce arn ot {Pg 63 = - . ¢ Closure tSTEENS) O §(C4,c) Us Cr.c)) 2 € closwe (343 UO dV RP) = @ closuve(r) U_ €-closure (a>) > 2P403 U 8P3 2 GegrtMinimization of DPA: State equivalence : When two states _ gqiand 4; on same i/p yietds identical O/P then two stetes Fi + 4 are said to be jeentical- Fox ex. for minimization of DPA we MN geplace eqguivalert States by “each Othe Rules for replace ment: 4) woe can replace Non-final States by TH eguivalent Nnon-final Stee, only, ii) we con replace final slate by tts equivalent Fraal skate only. is) We cen not replace foitial’ state hyethes Ww We Can not replace Non- Final stafe by - final state v) Replacing state A by Bo means deleting entries re lated to ‘A? From — table, whereves woe Find symbol ‘A’ replace thee Symbol by ©B7 -gegt| (PTT “spai| Spans 4h “ges| gras 1P8 _hP938| § e943 P.983 ] spars] J P4753 1 P83 4Pas3| $P.4,55 4 P55 4 Ps3*| $[Link] 40.33 seplace State ¢P ) 4rsi b meplace State P55 ae PAS) sar ° $0.44 TP : 4P9h | 3 P4 13 on 1.45] §tast- fPap $Px3| §P 485 4P% {P4SF IPH s>- FPos5 g P5319 Pas3 Py 5%.Equivalence of DEA —Two foite automata M, and My are Said +o be equivalent if they accept Same _ tanguage ee —~ TE too DEAS are eqeivalent then — On the application vo (i) eithet both M] 4 M2 will be in final State or - Gi )Both Ml and M2 wii be 7 : Sete Simultaneously nena ye Testing equivalence ef +00 DFAS | Equivalence of +00 DPAS Con be. established by Constsucting a Combined DPA for two DRA's M) < M2 -~— M)< M2 ill be equal if Por every state both Si «4; are non nal stake; Example . - Show cohether the Qutomoata My anc M2 __ fn given Fig. ate equiva eat or not - i q -Constructton tep 4- amen Tay EB (449 i): — let us expand Lhtal C5, 5607 = 2 Lat 8, (44.34), d) L8,C4,. a = <4.) er od) 8, db Combinecl DFA m3 Start stale ot my is 4, Stost state af M tsa let as Stavk totth combised stake (4 wD fey ee (ag E424 ——> (S a (Id olde : CaP Step 2: State <4,4.7 fs Selected for ©X pansion Sa Fai Fe7, ©) = C810) 62.0450) , = C447 : —_85((%4,2,d) = 6,(9,,4) $4 ted - €459,9 - - Step 3: State C4,,457 15 _ Selected For expansion - Os (S454, 0) * << (45:¢) ena 2 4a 2457 3 (U44,4,2,4) = 25, hd), 839, ,d)7 <4. > <4, 4,9 step 428 » state 24, Gat is aclected For _ expan si ODS5(I2:45 6) 265,40), bal 4 2 L44,)4,7 = = at 2h) 42 28,4), AGA? Ss 44.9 - Sto <4 4u7_- both © Ge are Final States C ta4ay ~ both F945 are TP fioa) states La tery © both are Mon Final states 4,,4:7 — both are Non tinal states * We Can Conclude that M4 M2 are edaivalent:|— Rroite Qutomata vith Outputs Meaty Machine, CQie.a Sd, ) tohere B+ Noite set ob skates Zs Rinite Non emp __ Set ot Up “alphabets A+ Sethog Output alchabell § + Pransition anction | 7 @x — A= Ousput function’? ZxXQ. Moore machine (G,Z,A,8.0, 40) Where Y= Finite set ob stotes Zz = Rinite non-empty Set of Tp alphabets J = Set ob Ofp alphabets YUP String length :4 __OfP String lengtn 34 seer <7!) BLYA)SB o bab TP string length » 4 O(p Steing length on — nant a Construction of Mealy Maching — Ex. | : 10100 > Olol |) construck g mealy Machine that produces. VWs complement of any binary i/p stringprints 6a! whenever +he SOguence ‘ol? ts encountesed tn any i/p binary stain SE r$ore A-F 963 Ex. 2) Construct a mealy machine that _ey-3) Mealy | Machine |, where is Labs —o— and the strings should end with either ‘ad or bb aa Sy j bb SIR] a/| In XS yo / | o/o by ¢ ty bi EX. 4) Construct a mealy Machine that Bives 2'S complement of any binarys/p _ 2's Complement = 15 complement + | Ff lo 1 00 11100 Lis ye Olotrt Oool] 0000 oan | + | + oO! loo Ool1aod 000 | after _|'st_one (1) from Ls pail bits Qte veversedlOle Cuprant . siete yg, WP \ Oakput | A ~ = B Present Next stake Stat oO | state [o/p | a A A |[o |. 2 - Se | ei 2 ; Cons teuction oF Moose prochine _ &% construct G mosge machine that PHOES Sa? Whenever the sequence ‘Ol ante in any foput tay Stria ESOT TAS abhtN 2) Construct a Moore Machine - That COUMES fhe occaxences of +he gegquence ‘Abb? in any i/p sLaing overs $0,bF T= Faby A -F0,1F as aa Q — —&g. a bb - . 7 Sere for the Following Mo Moose Machine the T/p _alphobet is [+9465 aed the O/p Alphabet fs A- Son : Run the following ip sequence § © Frad tespectty ec oct puts States | ab folp I) AaAbah so | 4 % |o WHE-OLHD 4 4e 4g | 0 OOOO} Ar | 45 te |) abt b G2 | 44 94 | 0 b e ga a. a | 0 es *“ b, Geb eo 00 eae schgaHO 6)78 ‘eNcountere 4 in “and then convest Whenevey aching that the Sequence ‘oy? | ifp bina sy String Meals [ Moth any ‘tbo 0 |e |>le! P| oe 2 et 45 Sanaa 4 b/0 fs A OV; W/O # La 5/0 V0 | mH |__| 3 S70 a) |x ea i\tuaqs | ne a > Osa Q | | J ey 2) co) 2) Ze - a | wv AIS ayo = oO |Convert given _ tote | 0 | Ge | % Ga G1 Ys z Go | Fa 1 43 | So Gy ofp Incr Moore poaching fess meoly Zod A> $e.1% Next ° — Go 4, | © | Go % [45 | Tb 14 - Qo do | dy 4s | eel eae eeConvert Mealy machine 40 Moore tal)? Ch tbo @ i i —S Moore Macldag “Moore —> Meloy =) No- ob States were Same Mealy ~3 Moore 7 No. ot Stokes increcwec(, t Scan have max (x*Y) $ ghabos J ‘ - states —O} p— - — “~_} Convest given Mealy mach ine Jo Moore . b Sy | 1 43 Yo qo | 20 Yo