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Waveform : a curve showing the shape of a wave at a given time.

In electronic circuits we need to produce many different types, frequencies and shapes of Signal
Waveforms such as Square Waves, Rectangular Waves, Triangular Waves, Sawtoothed Waveforms
and a variety of pulses and spikes. These types of signal waveform can then be used for either
timing signals, clock signals or as trigger pulses.

Characteristics of electrical signal waveforms

 Period: This is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from
start to finish. This value can also be called the Periodic Time, ( T ) of the waveform for sine
waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.

 Frequency: This is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time
period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, (ƒ=1/T) with the standard unit of
frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).

 Amplitude: This is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or
amps.
A Sine Wave Waveform

For sine wave

waveform the periodic time of the waveform in either degrees or radians, as one full cycle is equal
to 360o ( T = 360o ) or in Radians as 2pi, 2π ( T = 2π ), then we can say that 2π radians = 360o.
The time it takes for electrical waveforms to repeat themselves is known as the periodic time or
period which represents a fixed amount of time. If we take the reciprocal of the period, (1/T) we end
up with a value that denotes the number of times a period or cycle repeats itself in one second or
cycles per second, and this is commonly known as Frequency with units of Hertz, (Hz). Then
Hertz can also be defined as “cycles per second” (cps) and 1Hz is exactly equal to 1 cycle per
second.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

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Square-wave Waveforms
are used extensively in electronic and microelectronic circuits for clock and timing control signals
as they are symmetrical waveforms of equal and square duration representing each half of a cycle
and nearly all digital logic circuits use square wave waveforms on their input and output gates.

for a square wave waveform the positive or “ON” time is equal to the negative or “OFF” time so the
duty cycle must be 50%, (half of its period). As frequency is equal to the reciprocal of the period,
(1/T) we can define the frequency of a square wave waveform as:

Rectangular Waveforms
Rectangular Waveforms are similar to the square wave waveform above, the difference being that
the two pulse widths of the waveform are of an unequal time period. Rectangular waveforms are
therefore classed as “Non-symmetrical” waveforms

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Triangular Waveforms
Triangular Waveforms are generally bi-directional non-sinusoidal waveforms that oscillate
between a positive and a negative peak value. Although called a triangular waveform, the triangular
wave is actually more of a symmetrical linear ramp waveform because it is simply a slow rising and
falling voltage signal at a constant frequency or rate. The rate at which the voltage changes between
each ramp direction is equal during both halves of the cycle

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Saw tooth Waveforms

Saw tooth Waveforms are another type of periodic waveform. As its name suggests, the shape of
the waveform resembles the teeth of a saw blade. Saw-toothed waveforms can have a mirror image
of themselves, by having either a slow-rising but extremely steep decay, or an extremely steep
almost vertical rise and a slow-decay

Triggers and Pulses

Although technically Triggers and Pulses are two separate waveforms, we can combine them
together here, as a “Trigger” is basically just a very narrow “Pulse”. The difference being is that a
trigger can be either positive or negative in direction whereas a pulse is only positive in direction.
A Pulse Waveform or “Pulse-train” as they are more commonly called, is a type of non-sinusoidal
waveform that is similar to the Rectangular waveform we looked at earlier. The difference being
that the exact shape of the pulse is determined by the “Mark-to-Space” ratio of the period and for a
pulse or trigger waveform the Mark portion of the wave is very short with a rapid rise and decay
shape

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

RC Integrator
The RC integrator is a series connected Resistor-Capacitor network that produces an output signal
which corresponds to the mathematical process of integration. For a passive RC integrator circuit,
the input is connected to a resistance while the output voltage is taken from across a capacitor. The
capacitor charges up when the input is high and discharges when the input is low.
Note : A passive RC network is nothing more than a resistor in series with a capacitor

For an RC integrator circuit, the input signal is applied to the resistance with the output taken across
the capacitor, and then VOUT equals VC. As the capacitor is a frequency dependant element, the
amount of charge that is established across the plates is equal to the time domain integral of the
current. That is it takes a certain amount of time for the capacitor to fully charge as the capacitor
cannot charge instantaneously only charge exponentially.
The rate at which the capacitor charges (or discharges) is directly proportional to the amount of the
resistance and capacitance giving the time constant of the circuit. Thus the time constant of a RC
integrator circuit is the time interval that equals the product of R and C.
Time constant reflects the time (in seconds) required for the capacitor to charge up to 63.2% of the
maximum voltage or discharge down to 36.8% of maximum voltage.

Non sinusoidal waveform generators.

Single Pulse RC Integrator

When a single step voltage pulse is applied to the input of an RC integrator, the capacitor charges
up via the resistor in response to the pulse. However, the output is not instant as the voltage across
the capacitor cannot change instantaneously but increases exponentially as the capacitor charges at
a rate determined by the RC time constant, τ=RC.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

We now know that the rate at which the capacitor either charges or discharges is determined by the
RC time constant of the circuit.
for a continuous pulse input, the correct relationship between the periodic time of the input and the
RC time constant of the circuit, integration of the input will take place producing a sort of ramp up,
and then a ramp down output. But for the circuit to function correctly as an integrator, the value of
the RC time constant has to be large compared to the inputs periodic time. That is RC≫T, usually
10 times greater.
This means that the magnitude of the output voltage (which was proportional to 1/RC) will be very
small between its high and low voltages severely attenuating the output voltage. This is because the
capacitor has much less time to charge and discharge between pulses but the average output DC
voltage will increase towards one half magnitude of the input and in our pulse example above, this
will be 5 volts (10/2).

RC Integrator Output Waveforms

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

RC Differentiator

For an RC differentiator circuit, the input signal is applied to one side of the capacitor with the
output taken across the resistor, and then VOUT equals VR. As the capacitor is a frequency
dependant element, the amount of charge that is established across the plates is equal to the time
domain integral of the current. That is it takes a certain amount of time for the capacitor to fully
charge as the capacitor cannot charge instantaneously only charge exponentially.

Single Pulse RC Differentiator

When a single step voltage pulse is firstly applied to the input of an RC differentiator, the capacitor
“appears” initially as a short circuit to the fast changing signal. This is because the slope dv/dt of
the positive-going edge of a square wave is very large (ideally infinite), thus at the instant the signal
appears, all the input voltage passes through to the output appearing across the resistor.

After the initial positive-going edge of the input signal has passed and the peak value of the input is
constant, the capacitor starts to charge up in its normal way via the resistor in response to the input
pulse at a rate determined by the RC time constant, τ=RC.
As the capacitor charges up, the voltage across the resistor, and thus the output decreases in an
exponentially way until the capacitor becomes fully charged after a time constant of 5RC (5T),
resulting in zero output across the resistor. Thus the voltage across the fully charged capacitor
equals the value of the input pulse as: VC=VIN and this condition holds true so long as the
magnitude of the input pulse does not change.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

If now the input pulse changes and returns to zero, the rate of change of the negative-going edge of
the pulse pass through the capacitor to the output as the capacitor cannot respond to this high dv/dt
change. The result is a negative going spike at the output.

After the initial negative-going edge of the input signal, the capacitor recovers and starts to
discharge normally and the output voltage across the resistor, and therefore the output, starts to
increases exponentially as the capacitor discharges.
Thus whenever the input signal is changing rapidly, a voltage spike is produced at the output with
the polarity of this voltage spike depending on whether the input is changing in a positive or a
negative direction, as a positive spike is produced with the positive-going edge of the input signal,
and a negative spike produced as a result of the negative-going input signal.
RC Differentiator Output Waveforms

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Clippers
 There are a variety of diode networks called clippers that have the ability to “clip” off
a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating
waveform.

 Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input
signal is “clipped” off.

 There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series
configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the
parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than cathode)
during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to become
forward biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for
a germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself constant at
0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output voltage which is
taken across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than anode)
blocking current flow through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the
sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load unaltered. Then the diode limits the positive half
of the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit.

Negative Diode Clipping Circuits

Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to -0.7 volts while allowing the positive half cycle
to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of the input
voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Clipping of Both Half Cycles

If we connected two diodes in inverse parallel as shown, then both the positive and negative
half cycles would be clipped as diode D1 clips the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input
waveform while diode D2 clips the negative half cycle. Then diode clipping circuits can be
used to clip the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or both.
For ideal diodes the output waveform above would be zero. However, due to the forward bias
voltage drop across the diodes the actual clipping point occurs at +0.7 volts and -0.7 volts
respectively. But we can increase this ±0.7V threshold to any value we want up to the
maximum value, (VPEAK) of the sinusoidal waveform either by connecting together more
diodes in series creating multiples of 0.7 volts, or by adding a voltage bias to the diodes.

Biased Diode Clipping Circuits

To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias
voltage, VBIAS is added in series with the diode as shown. The voltage across the series
combination must be greater than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently
forward biased to conduct. For example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts, then the
sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7 volts for
it to become forward biased. Any anode voltage levels above this bias point are clipped off.

Positive Bias Diode Clipping

Likewise, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts the
negative half cycle of the output waveform is held to a level -VBIAS – 0.7V as shown.

Negative Bias Diode Clipping

A variable diode clipping or diode limiting level can be achieved by varying the bias voltage
of the diodes. If both the positive and the negative half cycles are to be clipped, then two

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

biased clipping diodes are used. But for both positive and negative diode clipping, the bias
voltage need not be the same. The positive bias voltage could be at one level, for example 4
volts, and the negative bias voltage at another, for example 6 volts as shown.

Diode Clipping of Different Bias levels

When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the
waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore,
all positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically
clipped.
The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output signal from
exceeding preset voltage limits for both half cycles of the input waveform, which could be an
input from a noisy sensor or the positive and negative supply rails of a power supply.
If the diode clipping levels are set too low or the input waveform is too great then the
elimination of both waveform peaks could end up with a square-wave shaped waveform.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Clamper Circuit
A clamp circuit adds the positive or negative dc component to the input signal so as to push it
either on the positive side, as illustrated in figure (a) or on the negative side, as illustrated in
figure (b).

Note : The clamper is also referred to as an DC restorer and ac signal level shifter.

The circuit will be called a positive clamper, when the signal is pushed upward by the circuit.
When the signal moves upward, as shown in figure (a), the negative peak of the signal
coincides with the zero level.

The circuit will be called a negative clamper, when the signal is pushed downward by the
circuit. When the signal is pushed on the negative side, as shown in figure (b), the positive
peak of the input signal coincides with the zero level.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

The important points regarding clamping circuits are:

(i) The shape of the waveform will be the same, but its level is shifted either upward or
downward,

(ii) There will be no change in the peak-to-peak or rms value of the waveform due to the
clamping circuit. Thus, the input waveform and output waveform will have the same peak-to-
peak value that is, 2Vmax. This is shown in the figure above. It must also be noted that same
readings will be obtained in the ac voltmeter for the input voltage and the clamped output
voltage.

(iii) There will be a change in the peak and average values of the waveform. In the figure
shown above, the input waveform has a peak value of Vmax and average value over a
complete cycle is zero. The clamped output varies from 2 Vmax and 0 (or 0 and -2Vmax). Thus
ths peak value of the clamped output is 2Vmax and average value is Vmax.

(iv) The values of the resistor R and capacitor C affect the waveform.

(v) The values for the resistor R and capacitor C should be determined from the time constant
equation of the circuit, t = RC. The values must be large enough to make sure that the voltage
across the capacitor C does not change significantly during the time interval the diode is non-
conducting. In a good clamper circuit, the circuit time constant t = RC should be at least ten
times the time period of the input signal voltage.

Note: It is advantageous to first consider the condition under which the diode becomes
forward biased.

Consider a negative clamping circuit, a circuit that shifts the original signal in a vertical
downward direction, as shown in the figure below. The diode D will be forward biased and
the capacitor C is charged with the polarity shown, when an input signal is applied.

During the interval 0 to T/2 the network will appear as shown in Fig. below, with the diode in
the “on” state effectively “shorting out” the effect of the resistor R. The resulting RC time
constant is so small (R determined by the inherent resistance of the network) that the
capacitor will charge to V volts very quickly. During this interval the output voltage is
directly across the short circuit and vo = 0 V. When the input switches to the -V state, the
network will appear as shown in Fig. below, with the open-circuit equivalent for the diode
determined by the applied signal and stored voltage across the capacitor both “pressuring”

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

current through the diode from cathode to anode. Now that R is back in the network the time
constant determined by the RC and it can be assumed on an approximate basis that the
capacitor holds onto all its charge during this period.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop will result in

The resulting output waveform given below with the input signal. The output signal is
clamped to 0 V for the interval 0 to T/2 but maintains the same total swing (2V) as the input.

A positive clamper can also explained in similar way by changing the orientation of the Diode in the
above circuits.

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Reference

1. Electronic Devices and circuit Theory, Robert Boyelstad

2. [Link]
3. [Link]

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Voltage-Multiplier Circuits
 Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of diodes and capacitors to step up the
output voltage of rectifier circuits.
 Voltage-multiplier circuits are employed to maintain a relatively low transformer peak
voltage while stepping up the peak output voltage to two, three, four, or more times
the peak rectified voltage.
 There are variety of voltage multipliers such as

 Voltage Doubler
 Voltage Tripler
 Voltage Quadrupler

Voltage Doubler

 The network of Figure above is a voltage doubler.

 During the positive voltage half-cycle across the transformer, secondary diode D1
conducts (and diode D2 is cut off), charging capacitor C1 up to the peak rectified
voltage (Vm).
 Diode D1 is ideally a short during this half-cycle, and the input voltage charges
capacitor C1 to Vm with the polarity shown in Fig. below

 During the negative half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diode D1 is cut off and diode
D2 conducts charging capacitor C2.
 Since diode D2 acts as a short during the negative half-cycle (and diode D1 is open),
we can sum the voltages around the outside loop
 Capacitor C2 charges to 2Vm with polarity as shown in figure below.


Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

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 On the next positive half-cycle, diode D2 is non-conducting and capacitor C2 will

discharge through the load.
 If no load is connected across capacitor C2, both capacitors stay charged—C1 to Vm
and C2 to 2Vm.

Voltage Tripler or Quadrapler

It is an extension of the half-wave voltage doubler, which develops Three and four times the
peak input voltage. It should be obvious from the pattern of the circuit connection how
additional diodes and capacitors may be connected so that the output voltage may also be
five, six, seven, and so on, times the basic peak voltage (Vm).

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET

 [Link]

Sweep Generator using Transistor as Switch

• During the positive half cycle of the input signal the base-emitter junction of the
transistor becomes forward biased.
• The transistor conducts and is driven into saturation. Capacitor is uncharged. Then
the output voltage will be low.
• During the negative half cycle the base-emitter junction becomes reverse biased
• Transistor is driven into cut-off. During this interval the collector of the transistor will
be at a voltage slightly less than VCC. The capacitor now charges towards this high
voltage.
• During the next positive half cycle the transistor turns ON and provides the
discharge path for the capacitor. The capacitor discharges during the short time
interval.
• During the positive half cycle: the output of the circuit will be low.
• During negative half cycle output is sweep wave. Hence the name sweep generator
for the circuit.
Output Waveform

Credits :- Harikrishnan P M , Assistant Professor, Sahrdaya CET