1.

ABSTRACT

 Quantum dot light-emitting diode (QLED) attracted much attention for

the next generation of display due to its advantages in high color
saturation, tunable color emission, and high stability.

 Compared with traditional LED display, QLED display has advantages

in flexible and robust application, which makes wearable and stretchable
display possible in the future. In addition, QLED display is a self-
emissive display, in which light is generated by individual subpixel,
each subpixel can be individually controlled.

 Each subpixel in LED display is constituted by liquid crystal and color

filter, which make LED display have lower power efficiency and less
enhanced functionality. This chapter introduces the QLED based on the
QLED structure and light-emitting mechanism of QLED. Then, a novel
method for fabricating QLEDs, which is based on the ZnO nanoparticles
(NPs) incorporated into QD nanoparticles, will be introduced.

 The QLED device was fabricated by all-solution processes, which make

the QLED fabrication process more flexible and more suitable for
industrialization.

 What is more, as QLED devices were planned to integrate into a display,

all-solution fabrication processes also make printing QLED display
device possible in the near future.

Janghya
Janghya

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 2. INTRODUCTION
In nanotechnology, nanoparticles are classified by their size (in the range of 1
nm to 100 nm) and properties. Nanocrystals are described as having at least
one dimension of less than or equal to100 nm and single-crystalline. Quantum
dots, also known as nanocrystals, are a non-traditional type of semiconductor
with limitless applications as an enabling material across many industries [1].
The quantum dots, which can also be called artificial atoms, are nanometer-
scale "boxes" that selectively hold or release electrons. These semiconductors
range in size from 2 nm to 10 nm in diameter, which consist of 10 to 50 atoms.
From a few hundred to a few hundred-thousand atoms, quantum dots (QDs)
bridge the gap between single atoms and solid state, and because of this, they
exhibit a combination of atomic and solid-state properties. The emission
wavelength, or the color emitted, of quantum dots depends on the size, and
using simple chemistry with semiconductor nanocrystals, the color can be
precisely controlled. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been created and
produced in various colors from quantum dots.

 After QLED was first published in 1994, a lot effort had been spent to
improve the reliability and performance of QLED devices [1, 2].
 The first QLED device uses thick QDs acting as both the emission layer
and electron transport layer, which can be referred to in Figure 1(a) and
(b). The luminous efficiency of QLED device has been improved by the
use of electron injection layer. Coe et al. published a sandwiched QLED
structure in 2002, which consisted of two organic thin films with QDs as
the emission layer.
 The luminescence was improved 25-fold over the best results of the
previous QLED device, as shown in Figure 1(d) [3]. The QLEDs use Alq3
and poly-TPD as the electron transport layer, as shown in Figure 1(c).
However, the organic thin layers were sensitive to moisture and oxygen.
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 Thus, replacing organic material with inorganic material seems to be the
best solution to improve the reliability of the QLED device. Mueller et al.
fabricated an all-inorganic Quantum Dots - Fundamental and Applications.

QLED Fig-1 QLED Fig-2

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QLED Fig-3 QLED Fig-4

QLED Fig-5 QLED Fig-6

QLED Fig-7
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 Figure 1. Structure designs and material designs for efficient QLEDs. (a) Energy-level
structure of the first QLED. (b) Electroluminescence of the first QLED [1].
 (c) Electroluminescence spectra and structures for a 40-nm-thick film of Alq3,
followed by a 75-nm-thick Mg:Ag cathode with a 50 nm Ag cap. (d) The
corresponding external quantum efficiency [3].
 (e) QLED structure consists of p-type GaN and n-type GaN. (f) Electroluminescence
of QLED consists of p-type GaN and n-type GaN [4]. (g) QLED structure with metal
oxide as the electron transport layer with layer-by-layer structure in emission layer.
(h) Electroluminescence and photoluminescence of the QLED with metal oxide as the
electron transport layer with layer-by-layer structure in emission layer [5].
 QLED in which QDs were sandwiched by n-type GaN and p-type GaN. Figure 1(e)
shows the structure of QLED with GaN, while Figure 1(f ) shows the corresponding
electrical performance. Mueller et al. used metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
(MOCVD) method to deposit n-type GaN and p-type GaN [4]. However, the
deposition method is too harsh for QDs that make the luminescence efficiency lower
than the first type of QLED device. Then in 2010, Bendall et al. demonstrated an all-
inorganic QLED with metal oxide as the electron transport layer. The QLED had a
layer-by-layer structure, which had three-layer emission layers as shown in Figure
1(g) and (h) [5].
 The overall device performance was still poor which is caused by the degradation of
QDs during the harsh deposition process of inorganic materials. However, these
devices showed condescending stability under long-term usage and high current
density conditions. The organic materials had an advantage of high luminescence,
while inorganic materials had an advantage of high reliability.
 Then the researcher combined the advantage of both organic materials and inorganic
materials by using both organic materials and inorganic materials as the electron
transport layers. MoS2, NiO, TiO2, and ZnO have been reported as the inorganic
charge transport layers (CTLs) [6–8].

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 3. HISTORY
 Traditional light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit monochromatic light. However,
white LEDs, by definition, emit polychromatic light. Therefore, white LEDs are a
significant departure from traditional LEDs.
 In the spirit of this significant departure, the phrase “solid-state lighting” is
frequently employed for the field of white LEDs. While traditional LEDs, i.e.
monochromatic LEDs, created mostly their own new markets, the implication of
the phrase “solidstate lighting” is that LEDs are used to replace conventional
lighting sources: Incandescent lamps (Thomas Edison’s light bulb) and fluorescent
lamps.
 Therefore, the phrase “solid-state lighting” is employed for white LEDs that are
used in applications traditionally served by conventional white-light sources
(incandescent and fluorescent lamps). Solid-state lighting includes general lighting
in homes and offices, street lighting, automotive lighting, and backlighting in
liquid-crystal displays (LCDs).
 High-efficiency red, orange, and yellow devices (AlGaInP LEDs) had been
developed in the 1980s. Highefficiency violet, blue, and green devices (GaInN
LEDs) had been developed in the early 1990s. Therefore, in the mid-1990s,
monochromatic high-efficiency devices, covering the entire visible spectrum, were
available. As a result the generation of white light by LEDs had been enabled.
 There are several viable approaches for white LEDs: A first approach is a multi-
LED-chip approach in which the light emitted from three LED chips emitting the
three primary colors (red, green, and blue) is mixed to generate white light [1].
This approach is illustrated in Fig. 1.
 Inspection of the figure reveals that the lamp needs to have four lead electrodes so
that each of the three LED chips can be injected with an appropriate current. The
approach became feasible with the demonstration of highly efficient blue and green
LEDs [2, 3].

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 Nakamura et al. [3] stated: “By combining high-power and high-brightness blue
InGaN SQW [single quantum well] LED, green InGaN SQW LED and red
GaAlAs LED, many kinds of applications, such as LED full-color displays and
LED white lamps for use in place of light bulbs or fluorescent lamps, are now
possible with characteristics of high reliability, high durability and low energy
consumption.”
 A second approach is based on using a ultraviolet (UV) or violet LED chip and a
phosphor that absorbs the UV or violet light and converts it to a broadband white
light.
 Due to its similarity to conventional fluorescent lamps [4], this approach has been
proposed multiple times prior to the advent of GaN-based blue LEDs [5]. Tabuchi
[6] disclosed an LED structure, shown in Fig. 2 that includes an LED chip and a
phosphor that is coated on the inside of a transparent cover.

QLED Fig-8 QLED Fig-9

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4. LIGHT EMISSION MECHANISM OF QLED
The emission mechanism of QLED is discussed in this subsection. A QLED has
a similar structure and behavior as an OLED. In the QLED, the emitter is a
semiconductor nanoparticle, while in the OLED, the emitter is an organic
material.

Because the emission wavelength can produce a color by simply changing

the size of the quantum dot, they are ideal in making quantum-dot light-
emitting devices. The results, due to the small size of nanocrystal quantum
dots, are that a new quantum phenomena yielding extraordinary bonuses.
Material properties change dramatically because quantum effects arise from
the confinement of electrons and "holes" in the material (a hole is the
absence of an electron; the hole behaves as though it were a positively
charged particle) [2]. By altering the size, other properties of the material,
such as the nonlinear optical and electrical properties are affected by the
change in the size. This makes the quantum dots unique in comparison to as
if they were in bulk form of the material. Compared to the quantum dots and
when in bulk form, the energy levels are in close proximity to one another.
This makes the bulk energy levels to be considered continuous, which means
the difference in energy is insignificant or almost nonexistent. If a dot is
excited, the smaller the dot, the higher the energy and intensity of its emitted
light; hence, these very small, semiconducting quantum dots are gateways to
an enormous array of possible applications and new technologies [2].
Particular energy levels are unable to reached by electrons; these areas are
called the band gaps or energy gaps.

According to the Los Alamos Science,

“One of the defining features of a semiconductor is the energy gap
separating the conduction and valence energy bands. The color of light

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emitted by the semiconductor material is determined by the width of the
gap. In semiconductors of macroscopic sizes— bulk2 semiconductors—the
gap width is a fixed parameter determined by the material’s identity. The
situation changes, however, in the case of nanoscale semiconductor
particles with sizes smaller than about 10 nanometers. This size range
corresponds to the regime of quantum confinement, for which the spatial
extent of the electronic wave function is comparable with the dot size. As
a result of these “geometrical” constraints, electrons “feel” the presence
of the particle boundaries and respond to changes in particle size by
adjusting their energy. This phenomenon is known as the quantum-size
effect, and it plays a very important role in quantum dots. In the first
approximation, the quantum-size effect can be described by a simple
“quantum box” model [4], in which the electron motion is restricted in all
three dimensions by impenetrable walls. For a spherical quantum dot
with radius a, this model predicts that a size-dependent contribution to
the energy gap is simply proportional to 1 , implying that the
gapincreases as the quantum dot size decreases. In addition, quantum
confinement leads to a collapse of the continuous energy bands of a bulk
material into discrete, atomic-like energy levels. The discrete structure of
energy states leads to a discrete absorption spectrum of QDs, which is in
contrast to the continuous absorption spectrum of a bulk semiconductor.
The NQDs discussed earlier are small quantum dots that are made by
organometallic chemical methods and are composed of a semiconductor
core capped with a layer of organic molecules (Murray et al. 1993). The
organic capping prevents uncontrolled growth and agglomeration of the
nanoparticles. It also allows NQDs to be chemically manipulated as if
they were large molecules, with solubility and chemical reactivity
determined by the identity of the organic molecules. The capping also
provides “electronic” passivation of NQDs; that is, it terminates dangling
bonds that remain on the semiconductor’s surface. As discussed below,
the unterminated dangling bonds can affect the NQD’s emission
efficiency because they lead to a loss mechanism wherein electrons are
rapidly trapped at the surface before they have a chance to emit a photon.
Using colloidal chemical syntheses, one can prepare NQDs with nearly
atomic precision; their diameters range from nanometers to tens of
nanometers and size dispersions as narrow as 5 percent. Because of the
quantum-size effect, this ability to tune the NQD size translates into a

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 means of controlling various NQD properties, such as emission and
absorption wavelengths. The emission of cadmium-selenium (CdSe)
NQDs, for example, can be tuned from deep red to blue by a reduction in
the dot radius from 5 nanometers to 0.7 nanometers” [3].

For example in Figure 1, there is a fixed energy gap, Eg, which separates the
continuous conduction and valence energy bands for a bulk semiconductor
such as cadmium selenium (CdSe). Normally, all states up to the edge of the
valence band are occupied by electrons, whereas the conduction band states
are empty. The figure also displays the quantum dot being characterized by
discrete atomic-like states with energies determined by the radius a. Using
atomic-like notations, the quantum dot states that are well-separated can be
labeled with 1S, 1P, and 1D. The “quantum box” model can be used to obtain
the expression for the size-dependence separation between the lowest electron
and hole QD states [see Equation (1) and Equation (2)]. The continuous
absorption spectrum of a bulk semiconductor, in black, compared with a
discrete absorption spectrum of a quantum dot— the bars of color—as seen in
Figure 2.

QLED Fig-10

H2 n2 Equation (1)
EG, quantum dot =EG,0 +
2
2mr a
Mr = Memh , me is the effective electron mass Equation (2)
me+mh mh is the effective hole mass

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 QLED Fig-11
Quantum dots are produced using several methods, such as through chemical
and non-chemical means. Through chemical means, an organometallic
method is used for the fabrication of highly monodisperse cadmium selenide
nanocrystal quantum dots [see Figure 3]. Nucleation and subsequent growth
of NQDs occurs after a quick injection of metal and chalcogenide precursors
into the hot, strongly coordinating solvent such as a mixture of
trioctylphosphine (TOP) and trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO) in the case
shown. After a fixed period, removing the heat source stops the reaction. As a
result, NQDs of a particular size form. The colloidal NQDs obtained by the
method illustrated in Figure 4 consist of an inorganic CdSe core capped with
a layer of TOPO/TOP molecules. In Figure 5, the solutions of cadmium
selenide nanocrystal quantum dots of various radii emit different colors due to
the quantum size effect under ultraviolet light. Orange is emitted for an
energy gap of approximately 2 eV is for a dot of radius
2.4 nm; blue is emitted for a dot with a radius of 0.9 nm has a gap of
approximately 2.7 eV. As observed, the light becomes redder as the radius of
the dot increases. The wavelength becomes shorter in the direction of blue,
when the radius of the dot decreases.

Figure 3—Injection of MeCd and Se in TOP into TOPO

Figure 4—CdSe Core

QLED Fig-12 QLED Fig-13

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 QLED Fig-14

Figure 5—CdSe Solutions of Different Radii

In 2002, MIT researchers have combined organic materials with high-

performing inorganic nanocrystals to create a hybrid optoelectronic structure—
a quantum dot-organic light-emitting device (QD-OLED) that may one day
replace liquid crystal displays (LCDs) as the flat-panel display of choice for
consumer electronics [5]. A collaborative effort between Moungi G. Bawendi,
professor of chemistry, and Vladimir Bulovic, assistant professor of electrical
engineering and computer science, resulted in this work. Dr. Bawendi also
researched the electronic and optical properties of semiconductor nanocrystal
quantum dots to apply in areas ranging from biology to optical devices.
“Unlike traditional LCDs, which must be lit from behind, quantum dots
generate their own light. Depending on their size, the dots can be ‘tuned’ to
emit any color in the rainbow. And the colors of light they produce are much
more saturated than that of other sources.” [5]
The QD-LEDs come in a wide range of colors, such as advertised on Evident
Technologies’ website, as one of their products. Coming in LEDs of sizes 3
mm and 5 mm, the available colors are plum, cobalt, aqua, lime, lemon, gold,
tangerine, peach, persimmon, cranberry, pink, candlelight, pearl, and ice [see
Table 1].
Table 1—Standard Series Single Color Through-hole LEDs
Size 3 mm 5 mm
Products Package Type Round
Viewing Angle 30 15

Plum

Cobalt

Emission Color

Aqua

Lime

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 Emission Color Lemon

Gold

Tangerine

Peach

Cranberry

Pink

Candlelight

Pearl

Ice

In a different approach to creating white light several researchers at the

Department of Energy’s (DOE) Sandia National Laboratories have developed
the first solid-state white light-emitting device using quantum dots [6]. In
development of the first solid-state white light-emitting device using quantum
dots, Lauren Rohwer was the principal investigator of a research team for it.
Any color is obtainable using quantum dots presently. “Quantum dots
represent a new approach. The nanometer-size quantum dots are synthesized
in a solvent containing soap-like molecules, called surfactants, as stabilizers.
The small size of the quantum dots — much smaller than the wavelength of
visible light — eliminates all light scattering and the associated optical losses.
Optical backscattering losses using larger conventional phosphors reduce the
package efficiency by as much as 50 percent.” [6]
Most recently at the Los Alamos National Laboratories, multi-color light-

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emitting diodes have been developed on the basis of colloidal quantum
dots encapsulated in a gallium nitride (GaN) semiconductor. Solid-state
lighting offers the advantages of reduced operating expenses, lower energy
consumption and more reliable performance [7].

4(i).Electron molecular orbital:

Once a molecular orbital achieved the maximum electron energy, it is
called the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO). Otherwise, if a
molecular orbital has unfilled electrons, the molecular orbital is called the
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). The energies of HOMO and
LUMO affect the ionization potential and electron affinity of materials (Figure
3) [12]. Ionization potential energy is the minimum energy required to extract
one electron from the HOMO, and electron affinity is the energy required to
add one electron to the LUMO so that the system is stabilized [11, 12]. Before
considering the light emission mechanism, it is important to understand the
electron configuration in both the ground state and the excited state. Before
excitation, when in ground state, the electrons are placed with both upward
spin and downward spin (Figure 3). When excited, the electrons in the upper
state are allocated with the same spin state, or the spin is reversed. The light
emission is resulting from the energy transfer from the excitation state to the
ground state.

4(ii).Electron transfer and recombination:

Normal materials in QLED have high resistance at weak electric fields.

Therefore, researchers introduced the thin film to create strong electric field
and chose

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 QLED Fig-15

 Structures and materials suitable for charge injection [13]. The QLED
performance is highly dependent on the choice of charge injection
materials. Good charge injection materials should have high carrier
mobility and balance the electron/hole injections well. The charge
injection from electrodes follows the Schottky effect that means the
injection barrier would be lowered according to the image force principle.
When an electron is injected into the electrode, if all the HOMO orbitals
are occupied and cannot accept the additional charge, the charge will be
transferred into the LUMO. When electrons are transferred into the
LUMO, they form an electric current. At the same time, there will be a
hole injected from the anode electrode which will be transferred into the
HOMO. However, when the amount of injected charge exceeds the
internal charge amount, the conduction system changes from ohmic to
“space charge-limited current” [12–14]. If charge transfer by electric field
and diffusion is taken into account and no trap is assumed, the electric
current can be expressed as Eq. (1): J = _9 8 V 2 _ d 3 (1) According to
Eq. (1), the electric current is proportional to the square of the voltage.
This is called the Mott-Gurney law, an extension of Child’s law that takes
collision into consideration [15]. The recombination and generation of
excitons of QLED are shown in Figure 4. When an electron and a hole
recombined in the emission layer, the photons formed, whose wavelength
corresponds to the energy bandgap of the quantum dots. The more
electron and hole are recombined, the more photos will be generated,
which corresponds to more light we could detect. Thus, people applied the
hole transport layer (HTL) and electron transport layer (ETL) to restrict
the electrons and holes in the emission layer, in order to improve the

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 device efficiency. There are five typical layers for a QLED structure: •
Electron transport layer (ETL)—for electron injection from the cathode
and transportation of the electron. • Electron injection layer (EIL)—for
electron injection from the cathode electrode. • Hole transport layer
(HTL)—for hole transportation from HIL to EML.
 Hole injection layer (HIL)—for hole injection from the anode electrode.
 Emission layer (EML)—electron/hole transportation and their recombination to
form an exciton; this is the QD layer in QLED.
 This direct injection of charge carriers is assumed as the most common
phenomenon for creating an exciton in the device. In Section 1, the QLED
structure types are elaborated. Thus, it is very important to design a QLED by
factoring in the relationships between the work function of each layer. The
QLED device fabrication process will be discussed in Section 3.

QLED Fig-16

4(iii).ZnO nanoparticles:
Behind the QLED structure, the ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO NPs)
have gained substantial interest in the research community as the charge
transport layer (CTL). In 2008, Janssen [8] and co-workers demonstrated all-

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solution-processed multilayer QLEDs by using ZnO NPs as ETLs and organic
materials as HTLs. The colloidal ZnO NPs were dispersed in isopropanol, and
the deposition of the ZnO NPs on the top of the QD layers did not dissolve the
underlying layers. Since then, continuous efforts were made to improve the
performance of QLED with solution-processed n-type oxides as CTLs. ZnO
NPs are widely used as CTLs in the state of the art of high-performance
QLEDs. Generally, solution-processed oxide CTLs can be deposited by two
approaches, the precursor approach and the nanocrystal approach. The molar
ratio of zinc precursor to potassium hydroxide (KOH) played an important role
in determining the shape of ZnO NPs and hence affected the conductivity and
mobility of ZnO NP film prepared from ZnO NPs [15–17]. ZnO NPs were
synthesized by hydrolysis/ condensation reactions under basic conditions. The
synthesis procedure will be introduced in Section 3.

4(iv).QLED fabrication by spin coating:

 Experimental chemicals:
Detergent TFD4 was purchased from BioLab, PEDOT:PSS 4083 from
Heraeus, poly-TPD (LT-N149) from Luminescence Technology Corp Ltd., patterned
ITO glass from Xinyan Technology Ltd., green (CdZnSeS/ZnS) quantum dots from
Suzhou Mesolight Inc., and zinc acetate dihydrate powder, potassium hydroxide
flakes, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, chloroform, and chlorobenzene all
from Aldrich.

 Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles:

The uncleation-dissolution-recrystallization growth method [16] was
applied to synthesize the ZnO nanoparticles. Firstly 0.37 g potassium hydroxide was
dissolved in 16.25 ml methyl alcohol. Then zinc acetate dihydrate solution was
prepared by adding 0.74 g zinc acetate dihydrate in 31.25 ml methyl alcohol at 60°C
under vigorous stirring. Then the potassium hydroxide solution was jetted into the
zinc acetate dihydrate solution at the rate of 0.8 ml/min. The reaction takes around

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1.7 h under N2 protection condition. After the reaction, the solution was allowed to sit
for another 2 h to let the ZnO nanoparticles settle at the bottom of the reaction flask.
The ZnO nanoparticles were washed twice by methyl alcohol. Then the ZnO
nanoparticles were dispersed in chloroform and isopropyl alcohol mix solution at the
concentration of 35 mg/ml. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL JEM
2010) was applied to characterize the morphology of the nanoparticles.

 QLED device preparation:

The patterned ITO glass was cleaned by detergent, methyl alcohol,
acetone, and isopropyl alcohol in turn, each sonication for 20 minutes. After cleaning,
UV ozone plasma was applied for surface energy modification. PEDOT:PSS was
spin-coated on the cleaned ITO surface at 3000 rpm for 30 s and then baked under
vacuum at 150°C for 30 min. Then hole transport layer (HTL) was prepared by spin
coating poly-TPD on the annealed PEDOT:PSS surface at 3000 rpm for 60 s and
baking at 100°C for 30 min under vacuum protection. Quantum dots were also
deposited on the annealed poly-TPD surface by spin coating at 3000 rpm for 30 s.
Then the synthesized ZnO nanoparticle solution was spin-coated at 1500 rpm for 60 s.
The baking temperature is 60°C for 30 min. The cathode was deposited by vapor
deposition method. A more detailed QLED device fabrication process was mentioned
in previous work [2].

4(v).Results and discussion:

The concentration of precursor, evaporation rate, and the time of
reaction were all significant synthetic parameters, which affected the growth of ZnO
nanoparticel dimensions and structures. Figure 5 shows the TEM images of the as-
synthesized.

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 size is smaller in the reaction of 105 min than in the reaction of 80 min. Moreover,
the crystal lattice fringes are more clearly observed in the 105 min reaction sample
rather than in the 80 min reaction sample. According to confinement effect,
particles with smaller diameter would have higher energy. Therefore, the ZnO NPs

QLED Fig-17
used for QLED preparation are the smaller ZnO NPs. In order to analyze the
bandgap and quantum effects of the different ZnO NPs, their absorption and
photoluminescence spectra need to be measured, which will be processed in future
study. The energy bandgap (Eg) of the colloidal ZnO nanoparticles is determined
from the intercept between the wavelength axis and the tangent to the linear
section of the absorption band edge. The energy bandgap of ZnO NPs at 2.9 nm is
3.65 eV. The energy bandgap for the 5.5 nm ZnO NPs was 3.35 eV [17], while the
energy bandgap of bulk ZnO is 3.2–3.3 eV [18], which is lower than the energy
bandgap of ZnO NPs. It is found that the tendency of energy bandgap enlargement
with decreasing size is consistent with the relationship based on effective mass
approximation. Therefore, the reaction of 105 min can obtain smaller ZnO NPs
than the ZnO NPs in the reaction of 80 min. In addition, the lattice fringes can be
clearly observed in the TEM images, which suggests good crystallinity of the ZnO
Ps.

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Figure 6(a) shows the structure of the QLED device, while Figure 6(b)
shows the energy band diagram of the QLED device. The QLED device is a
multilayer structure, which consists of PEDOT:PSS, poly-TPD, QDs, ZnO
NPs, and Al. The thickness of each layer was measured by the surface
profile (Alpha-Step 200 Tencor). Figure 7 shows the TEM image of quantum
dots; the diameter of the quantum dots was around 7 nm.

QLED Fig-18

QLED Fig-19

QLED Fig-20

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The energy-level diagram in Figure 6(b) illustrated that the electrons and holes
can be easily recombined together in the emission layer. Because ZnO NPs have
a wide energy bandgap, the holes can be stored in the quantum dot layer. At the
same time, poly-TPD’s energy bandgap is from −2.3 eV to −5.4 eV. −2.3 eV is
larger than −3.8 eV, which can also restrict electrons in the quantum dot layer.
What is more, adding PEDOT: PSS layer and poly-TPD layer reduces the energy
gap for holes jumping into the emission layer (quantum dot layer). The
introduction of ZnO NPs has a similar function as PEDOT:PSS and poly-TPD,
which confine the excitation and recombination region, hence potentially
improving the efficiency of photon generation. The thin layer structure of QLED
device makes it a promising candidate for the next generation of flexible
displays. Figure 8 shows the device performance analysis. The turn-on voltage is
shown in Figure 8(a), which is between 2 V and 3 V. The low turn-on voltage is
due to the high electron mobility of the ZnO NPs and the design of the QLED
structures. When there is a current applied to the device, the electrons can easily
be injected into the emission layer, while the holes can also flow to the emission
layer easily and be restricted by the ZnO NP layer. At the same time, the
electrons accumulate at the interface of the poly-TPD/quantum dots due to the
~1.5 eV energy offset between the LUMO of poly-TPD and quantum dots. When
one high-energy hole can be obtained after absorbing the energy released from
the interfacial recombination of an electron/hole pair, the high-energy holes can
cross the injection barrier at the poly-TPD interface and recombine with the
electrons inside the QD layer and then emit photons. This is called the Auger-
assisted hole injection [14, 19]. Therefore, the high electron mobility of ZnO
nanoparticles and the band alignment structure can facilitate the hole transport
and balance of the carrier injection of the device. The electroluminance (EL)
spectra of the QLED under different voltages are shown in Figure 8(b). The
inserted picture is the QLED device. The EL intensity of the QLED device
increases as the applied voltage increases. The wavelength is 534 nm with the

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Figure 7. The TEM image of green QDs from Mesolight. Quantum Dots -
Fundamental and Applications.

QLED Fig-21

QLED Fig-22

QLED Fig-23

full width at half maximum (FWHM) value is 44 nm through the spectrum. The peak
wavelength of QLED electroluminance spectra is 2 nm red shift compared with the
peak wavelength of QD solution, which might be because of the dot-to-dot
interactions in the close-packed solid film. Moreover, the electric field induced the
Stark effect [20]. The 1931 CIE coordinate after emission is (0.31, 0.66) as shown in
Figure 8(c).

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 5. APPLICATIONS
5(i).Quantum dot light-emmiting diodes for phototherapy
Quantum dots LED QDLEDs use in phototherapy. One exression is a
medical dressing having an occlusive layer and translate layer. Quantum dot
light-emmiting diode chips are configured within the occlusive layer to
proide light of a specific wavelength for use in phototherpy. Another
embodiment is a medical dressing having an occlusive layer and translucent
layer, where in quantum dot material is embedded or impregnated within
one or both layer. Phototherapy , also known as heliothrapy, is the use of
light to treat medical disorders. Since then, phototherapy has been used to
trat wide range of condition, including skin disorder, circaditions rhythm
and seasonal affective disorder, neonatal jaundice, and tumours. Treatment
of skin conditions using phototherapy, e.g. psoriasis, eczema,dermatit is ,
acne vulgaris, is largely reliant on radiation in the UV region, however red
to infrared (IR) light can be used to promote would healing. Quantum dot
light-emmiting diode chips are configured within the occlusive layer to
provide light of aspecific wavelength for use in phototherapy.

5(ii).Near-field scanning optical microscopy(NSOM)

Near-field flurescence exciation and imaging with a quantum dot (QD) light
emitting diode (QDLED) integrated the tip of ascanning probe. The tip-
embedded QDLED is employed in a near-field scanning optical microcopy
setu to directly excity a secondary colloidal QD sample. Eclecrically
pumped QDs enable multi-color, self-illuminating probes with no
conventional optics needed for light coupling. Monolayer QDs stamped at
the very tip of a micromachined silicon probe facilitates precise position
control of the ultra-thin (10-15 nm) light source. Sensitivity of fluorescence
intensity to the QDLED-QD sample distance was measured down to 50 nm
order, demonstrating spatially resolved imaging.

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5(iii).Incandescent bulbs
“QD-LEDs can potential provide many advantages over standard lighting
technologies, such as incandescent bulbs, especially in the areas of
efficiency, operating lifetime and the color quality of the emitted light,” said
victor klimov of los Alamos. Incandescent bulbs, known for converting only
10 percent of electrical energy into light and losing 90 percent of it to heat
are rapidly being replaced worldwide by less wasteful fluorescent light
source. However, the most efficient approach to lighting is direct conversion
of electricity into light using electroluminescent devices such as LEDs.

5(iv).Other application

Quantum-dot based light emitting diodes (LEDs) fabricated on silicon have

applications in nanophotonics, optical micro/nanoelectro mechanical system
(MEMS/NEMS) and biomedical sensing and imaging. Control of both the
thickness and the area of the nanoparticles during depositing can be achieved
via micro content printing. QD-LED are also applied in novel optoelectronic
applications including near-field microscopy beyond the diffraction limit,
MEMS-based medical endoscopes for-cellular imaging, and compact light-
on-chip biosensors and biochips.

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 6. FUTURE OF WHITE LEDs
As LED devices with higher efficiency and power capabilities have become
available, new application areas are constantly emerging. Figs. 15(a) and 15(b)
show the use of LEDs integrated into medical goggles worn by a surgeon during an
operation [109, 110]. The LED-based light source promises substantial weight
savings and fulfills the stringent requirements of high-quality color rendition
required during medical operations. An animated pedestrian traffic signal is shown
in Fig. 15(c). LED-based automotive headlights were first introduced by the Audi
Car Company in 2004 using Lumileds Lighting’s Luxeon devices [111]. The car is
shown in Figs. 15(d) and 15(e). LED replacement light bulbs were introduced in
2010 and became available in stores worldwide. There is a great variety of LED
products. They encompass individual SMD LEDs (no external optical losses) and
retrofit LED lightbulbs and tubes (with about 20% optical losses and about 10%
electrical power supply losses). These products encompass a range of color
temperatures (2 700 K to 6 500 K), a range of CRI values (general CRI, Ra, ranging
from 75 to 95), and a range of system configurations (dimmable or non-dimmable;
color-tunable or non-tunable). The luminous source efficacy will vary accordingly.
Nevertheless, it can be assumed that future light sources (bulbs, tubes, as well as
non-traditional smart sources) will have luminous efficacies exceeding 150 lm/W.
Photographs of retrofit LED lamps are shown in Fig. 16 [112, 113].

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QLED Fig-24
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