UNIT 6: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR AND THE LAW

INTRODUCTION

Once again welcome to unit 6 of abnormal behaviour and the law.

The unit will start by giving definition of abnormal behaviour then
proceed to discuss other relevant sections of the subject. The unit is
divided into two sections as follows?

Section 1: Definition of abnormal behaviour

Section 2: Models of abnormal behaviour

Unit Objectives

by the end of this unit, you should be able to

1. Define Abnormal behaviour

2. Discuss the models of abnormal behaviour

SECTION ONE: DEFINITION OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

1.0 Section Outline

1.1 Section Introduction.
1.2 Section Objectives.
1.3 Definition of Abnormal Behavior
1.4 Section summary

1.1 Section Introduction

Welcome to section one of unit 6. In this section you will go through

the definition of abnormal behavior and begin to understand the
complexity of judging what is abnormal and normal.
Abnormality (or dysfunctional behavior), in the vivid sense of
something deviating from the normal or differing from the typical
(such as an aberration), is a subjectively defined behavioral
characteristic, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional
conditions. Defining who is normal or abnormal is a contentious issue
in abnormal psychology.

1.2 Section Objectives

By the end of this section you should be able to:
1. Discuss abnormal behaviors’ definitions

1.3 Definition of Abnormal behaviour

Abnormal behavior may be defined using various categories.

1.3.1 Statistical abnormality - A behavior may be judged abnormal
if it is statistically unusual in a particular population. One criterion for
"abnormality" that may appear to apply in the case of abnormal
behavior is statistical infrequency. This has an obvious flaw — the
extremely intelligent, are just as abnormal as their opposites.
Therefore, individual abnormal behaviors are considered statistically
unusual, as well as undesirable. The presence of some form of
abnormal behavior is not unusual. About one quarter of people in
the United States, for example, are believed to meet criteria for a
mental disorder in any given year.[1]Mental disorders, by definition,
involve unusual or statistically abnormal behaviors.

1.3.2 Violation of socially-accepted standards - An abnormal

behavior might be defined as one that goes against common or
majority or presumed standards of behavior. For example, one
might be judged abnormal in one's failure to behave as
recommended by one's family, church, employer, community,
culture, or subculture. Another criterion is morality. This presents many
difficulties, because it would be impossible to agree on a single set
of morals for the purposes of diagnosis.
1.3.3 Theoretical approaches - Theories approach abnormality by
starting with a theory of personality development, If normal
development can be defined, then abnormality is defined by the
failure to develop in this way. For example, if adults normally arrive at
a moral stage that prohibits killing other people, and someone does
not arrive at this stage, that person might be called abnormal.

1.3.4 Subjective abnormality -Abnormal behavior can be defined by

a person's feeling of abnormality, including feelings of anxiety,
strangeness, depression, losing touch with reality, or any other
sensation recognized and labeled by an individual as out of the
ordinary. A more discerning criterion is distress. A person who is
displaying a great deal of depression, anxiety, unhappiness, etc.
would be thought of as exhibiting abnormal behavior because their
own behavior distresses them. Unfortunately, many people are not
aware of their own mental state, and while they may benefit from
help, they feel no compulsion to receive it.

1.3.5 Biological injury - Abnormal behavior can be defined or

equated with abnormal biological processes such as disease or
injury. Examples of such abnormalities are brain tumors, strokes, heart
disease, diabetes, epilepsy, and genetic disorders.

Another criterion that has been suggested is that abnormal behavior

violates the standards of society. When people do not follow the
conventional social and moral rules of their society, the behavior is
considered abnormal. However, the magnitude of the violation and
how commonly it is violated by others must be taken into
consideration.
1

1.3.6 Culture - The first of these criterion being culture; what may be
seen as normal in one culture, may be seen as abnormal in another.
The second criterion being the situation & context one is placed in;
for example, going to the toilet is a normal human act, but going in
the middle of a supermarket would be seen as highly abnormal, i.e.,
defecating or urinating in public is illegal as a misdemeanor act of
indecent public conduct. The third criterion is age; a child at the
age of three could get away with taking off its clothing in public, but
not a man at the age of twenty. The fourth criterion is gender: a
male responding with behavior normally reacted to as female, and
vice versa, is retaliated against, not just corrected. The fifth criterion is
historical context; standards of normal behavior change in some
societies, sometimes very rapidly.

1.4 Section Summary

Abnormal behaviour is one of those concepts that is not easy to

define. The line between what is normal and what is abnormal is not
always clear-cut and easy to specify. Nonetheless, the following
definition specifies several criteria that can help us think about what
abnormal behaviour is. Abnormal behaviour is behaviour that is
deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful. There are three
criteria in this definition of s of these criteria needs to be met for the
classification of abnormal behaviour, but two or three may be
present.
So what can we say is abnormal or unacceptable behavior? If you
behave abnormally then this could be anything that is or could be
viewed as being: irregular, non-standard, uncharacteristic, unusual,
strange, anomalous, odd or peculiar, intolerable, unsuitable,
unwelcome, unwarranted, unprovoked, or unjustified.
SECTION TWO: MODELS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

2.0 Section Outline

2.1 Section Introduction
2.2 Section Objectives
2.3 Contents of the subject
2.4 Section Summary.

2.1 SECTION INTRODUCTION

Welcome to section two of unit six: There are a number of historical

and contemporary views or models of abnormal behavior. They
include the demonological, medical, social-learning, and cognitive
models. The organic and psychoanalytic models are offshoots of the
medical model.

2.2 section objectives

By the end of this section you should be able to:
1. Define abnormal behaviour.
2. Discus the models of abnormal behaviour

2.3 CONTENT OF THE SUBJECT

2.3.1 The Demonological Model - Throughout human history, the

demonological model has been the most widely believed model for
explaining abnormal behavior. During the Middle Ages and during
the early days of American civilization along the rocky coast of
Massachusetts, the demonological model was in full sway. It was
generally believed that abnormal behavior was a sign of possession
by agents or spirits of the Devil. Possession could stem from
retribution, or God having the Devil possess your soul as punishment
for your sins. Wild agitation and confusion were attributed to
retribution. Possession was also believed to result from deals with the
Devil in which people (“witches”) traded their souls for earthly power
or wealth. Witches were held responsible for unfortunate events,
ranging from a neighbor’s infertility to a poor crop.

In either case you were in for it. An exorcist, whose function was to
persuade those spirits to find better pickings elsewhere, might pray
at your side and wave a cross at you. If the spirits didn’t call it quits,
you might be beaten or flogged. If your behavior was still unseemly,
there were other remedies, like the rack, which have powerful influ-
ences on behavior.

In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII ordered that witches be put to death. At

least 200,000 accused witches were killed over the next two
centuries. Europe was no place to practice strange ways. The
goings-on at Salem were trivial by comparison.

There were ingenious “diagnostic” tests to ferret out possession. One

was dunking the suspect under water. Failure to drown was
interpreted as support by the Devil - in other words, possession. Then
you were in real trouble.

2.3.2 The Medical Model: Organic and Psychoanalytic Versions

According to the medical model, abnormal behavior reflects an

underlying illness, not evil spirits. The organic model and the
psychoanalytic model are offshoots of the medical model.

[Link]- Medical Model: Organic Version in 1883 Emil Kraepelin

published a textbook of psychiatry in which he defined the medical
model. Kraepelin argued that there were specific forms of abnormal
behavior, which within the medical model are often called mental
illnesses. (See Table 9.1 for a list of many of the commonly used terms
concerning abnormal behavior that reflect the widespread
influence of the medical model.) Each mental illness had specific
origins, which he assumed were physiological. The assumption that
biochemical or physiological problems underlie mental illness is the
heart of the organic model.

Kraepelin argued that each mental illness, just like each physical
illness, was typified by its own cluster of symptoms, or syndrome.
Each mental illness had a specific outcome, or course, and would
presumably respond to a characteristic form of treatment, or
therapy.

Contemporary supporters of the organic model point to various

sources of evidence. For one thing, a number of mental disorders run
in families and might therefore be transmitted from generation to
generation by DNA. For another, imbalances in neurotransmitters
and other chemicals produce behavioral effects like those found in
disorders such as severe depression and schizophrenia, as we shall
see later.

According to the organic model, treatment requires biological

expertise and involves controlling or curing the underlying organic
problem. The biological therapies discussed in Chapter 10 are
largely based on the organic model.
[Link] - Medical Model: Psychoanalytic Version

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic model argues that abnormal

behavior is symptomatic of unconscious conflict of childhood origins
-an underlying psychological rather than biological disorder. The
abnormal behavior (or “symptoms”) often reflect difficulty in
repressing primitive sexual and aggressive impulses.

Within Freudian theory, neurotic behavior and anxiety stem from the
leakage of primitive impulses. Anxiety represents the impulse itself
and fear of what might happen if the impulse were acted on. In the
case of psychosis, impulses are assumed to have broken through, so
that behavior falls under the control of the id rather than the ego or
superego. According to psychoanalytic theory, treatment (other
than a sort of “Band-Aid” therapy) requires resolving the
unconscious conflicts that underlie the abnormal behavior.

The medical model is a major advance over demonology. It led to

the view that mentally ill people should be treated by qualified
professionals rather than be punished. Compassion replaced hatred,
fear, and persecution.

But there are problems with the medical model. For instance, the
model suggests that the mentally ill, like the physically ill, may not be
responsible for their problems and limitations. In the past, this view
often led to hospitalization and suspension of responsibility (as in
work and maintenance of a family life). Thus removed from the real
world, the coping ability of the mentally ill often declined further. But
today most adherents of the medical model encourage patients to
remain in the community and maintain as much responsibility as
they can.

2.3.3. - The Social-Learning Model

From a social-learning point of view, abnormal behavior is not
necessarily symptomatic of anything. Rather, the abnormal behavior
is itself the problem. To a large degree, abnormal behavior is be-
lieved to be acquired in the same way normal behaviors are
acquired -for example, through conditioning and observational
learning. Why, then, do some people show abnormal behavior?

One reason is found in situational variables; that is, their learning or

reinforcement histories might differ from those of most of us. But
differences in person variables such as competencies, encoding
strategies, self-efficacy expectations, and self-regulatory systems
might also make the difference.

A person who lacks social skills might never have had the chance to
observe skillful models. Or it might be that a minority subculture
reinforced behaviors that are not approved by the majority.
Punishment for early exploratory behavior, or childhood sexual
activity, might lead to adult anxieties over independence or
sexuality. Inconsistent discipline (haphazard rewarding of desirable
behavior and unreliable punishing of misbehavior) might lead to
antisocial behavior. Children whose parents ignore or abuse them
might come to pay more attention to their fantasies than to the
outer world, leading to schizophrenic withdrawal and inability to
distinguish reality from fantasy. Deficits in competencies, encoding
strategies, and self- regulatory systems might heighten schizophrenic
problems. Since social-learning theorists do not believe that
behavior problems necessarily reflect organic or unconscious
problems, they often try to change or modify them directly, as with
behavior therapy (see Chapter 10).

2.3.4 The Cognitive Model

Cognitive theorists focus on the cognitive events - such as thoughts,
expectations, and attitudes -that accompany and in some cases
underlie abnormal behavior.

One cognitive approach to understanding abnormal behavior

involves information processing. As noted in earlier chapters,
information-processing theorists compare the processes of the mind
to those of the computer and think in terms of cycles of input (based
on perception), storage, retrieval, manipulation, and output of
information. They view abnormal behavior patterns as disturbances
in the cycle. Disturbances might be caused by the blocking or
distortion of input or by faulty storage, retrieval, or manipulation of
information. Any of these can lead to lack of output or distorted
output (e.g., bizarre behavior). Schizophrenic individuals, for
example, frequently jump from topic to topic in a disorganized
fashion, which information- processing theorists might explain as
problems in manipulation of information.

Other cognitive theorists (Albert Ellis, 1977, 1987, is one) view anxiety
problems as stemming from irrational beliefs and attitudes, such as
perfectionism and overwhelming desire for social approval. Aaron
Beck attributes many cases of depression to “cognitive errors,” such
as self-devaluation, interpretation of events in a negative light, and
general pessimism (Beck et al., 1979). Some cognitive psychologists,
as we shall see, attribute many cases of depression to cognitions to
the effect that one is helpless to change things for the better.

Social-learning theorists such as Albert Bandura (1986) and Walter

Mischel (1986) straddle the border between the behavioral and the
cognitive. As noted, they place primary importance on encoding
strategies, self-regulatory systems, and expectancies in explaining
and predicting behavior. For example, expectancies that we will not
be able to carry out our plans (low “self-efficacy expectations”) sap
motivation and lead to feelings of hopelessness -two aspects of
depression (Bandura, 1982).

Many psychologists look to more than one model to explain and

treat abnormal behavior. They are considered eclectic. For
example, many social-learning theorists believe that some abnormal
behavior patterns stem from biochemical factors or the interaction
of biochemistry and learning. They are open to combining behavior
therapy with drugs to treat problems such as schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder. A psychoanalyst might also be eclectic. He or she
might believe that schizophrenic disorganization reflects control of
the personality by the id and argue that only long-term
psychotherapy can help the ego achieve supremacy. But the
psychoanalyst might still be willing to use drugs to calm agitation on
a temporary basis.
Now let us consider the major categories of abnormal behavior, as
compiled in the third edition (revised version) of the Diagnostic and
Statistical
Manual of the Mental Disorders (DSM –III-R) by the American
Psychiatric Association (1987). We shall refer to the DSM-III-R because
it is the most widely used classification system in the United States.
However, psychologists criticize the DSM-III-R on many grounds, such
as adhering too strongly to the medical model. So our use of it is
intended as a convenience, not an endorsement. In future years
psychologists might publish their own system for classifying abnormal
behavior patterns.

Unit 6 Review Questions

1. Behavior may be judged abnormal by the following EXCEPT?

a. Statistical abnormality
b. Violation of socially accepted standards
c. Theoretical
d. Lingual diversion
e. Subjective abnormality
2. Brain tumors, strokes etc help to define behavior abnormality in
the category of
a. Subjective abnormality
b. Theoretical approach
c. Violation of standards
d. Biological injury
e. Brain maladaptivity
3. Criterion commonly referenced as maladaptivity
a. If a person is behaving in ways counter-productive to their
own wellbeing
b. When a person does not follow the conventional social and
moral rules of their society
c. When statistically rare behaviours are called abnormal
 d. There is failure to function
e. Where all definitions of abnormality are used to determine
whether an individual behaviour is abnormal
4. Medical model of behaviour pioneers are people like?
a. Albert Ellis
b. Emil Kraeplein
c. Pope Innocent VIII
d. Albert Bandura
e. Walter Mischel

Answers

1. a
2. d
3. a
4. b

References
1. Bennett, P. (2011). Abnormal and clinical
psychology: an introductory textbook (3rd edition).

2. Berkshire, Great Britain: McGraw- Hill Butcher, J.

N. (2007). Abnormal psychology (14th edition).

3. Boston, Mass.: Pearson [Link], R. J. (2009).

Psychology and Life. 18th Edition.

4. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Pearson Learning Solutions.

Retrieved social psychology: goals in interaction, fourth edition.
5. Pearson learning solutions .Lateef Mungin. Dad stands trial over
daughter's mutilation.

6. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution Sunday, October 22, 2006.

Lilienfeld, S.O. and Marino, L. (1995) Mental disorder as a
Roschian concept: a critique of Wakefi eld‟s „harmful
dysfunction‟ analysis, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104:
411– 20. Mungin, L. (2006, October 22). Man stands trial over
daughters mutilation.