CHAPTER THREE

CASSAVA PRODUCTION AND CASSAVA PROCESSING IN IJEBU ODE, OGUN

STATE

3.1 Introduction

Agriculture is a key sector of the Nigerian economy, and cassava is one of the most important
crops grown in the country. This chapter will focus specifically on cassava production and
processing in Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, which is a major cassava-producing region. It will explore
the types of cassava varieties grown in Ijebu Ode, the soil and climate conditions suitable for
cassava farming, the cultural practices used to cultivate the crop.

3.2 Cassava

Cassava (manihot esculenta crantz) is a perennial, vegetatively propagated shrub, grown

throughout the lowland tropics. African countries produce over 103 million metric tonnes of
cassava per annum with Nigeria accounting for approximately 35 million metric tons per annum
Nigeria has the largest harvest in the world; three times more than the production level in Brazil
and almost double the production level in Thailand and Indonesia . 1 Attributed the large harvest
in Nigeria to rapid population growth, internal market demand, availability of high yielding
improved varieties of cassava tuber, and increased hectrage of farm land allocated to cassava in
the country. 2

Cassava can be a powerful tool to eradicating poverty in Africa. The cash income from cassava
proves more egalitarian than the other major staples because of cassava’s low cash input cost,
compared with other major staples, cassava performs well across a wide ecological spectrum. It
therefore benefits farmers across broader swath of ecological zones. Cassava is, likewise, less
expensive to produce, It tolerates poor soil, adverse weather and pests and diseases more than

1 IITA. "Cassava in Nigeria." International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. April 19, 2022

2 FAOSTAT. "Cassava Production (metric tons)." [Link] Accessed April 15, 2023.

.
other major staples.3 The crop puts ready money and food in the very vulnerable segments of
society. Cassava stores its harvestable portion underground until needed; it is therefore a classic
food security crop. Various parts of the crop such as the leaves stem and roots are used for
different purposes. The leaves are common vegetables among the Sierra Leoneans while the stem
is used as planting material during cassava production. The root tuber which is the most desirable
component is processed into various products, like garri, cassava flour (lafun),fufu and tapioca. It is a
rich source of industrial alcohol (ethanol) and starch. The export drive for the crop increased the
demand for cassava and promoted its cultivation.4

Traditionally, an average of three to five crops is often intercropped with cassava. The crops are
selected on the basis of differences in growth habits and can be combined in either simple or
complex mixtures. Cassava constitutes a major item in the crop combination of the most farmers
and contributes significantly to total farm income in Nigeria.5

3.3 Cassava varieties in Ijebu Ode

The cassava plant, also known as yuca or manioc, is a root crop that is native to South America,
but is now widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. The cassava plant
can be divided into two main types: bitter cassava and sweet cassava. In Ijebu Ode, both types
are grown, although the latter is more common. There are many different varieties of cassava
grown in Ijebu Ode, including Ogbodo, Angiyan, Okunbo, Agbagba, and Agbagbo. Each variety has its own
unique characteristics, such as yield, disease resistance, and taste. 6

The Ogbodo cassava is one of the most popular varieties grown in Ijebu Ode. It's a hardy variety
that can tolerate drought conditions and produces high yields. The tubers are medium to large in
size, and the skin is yellowish-brown with a smooth texture. The flesh is creamy white, with a

3Smith, John. "Cassava for Poverty Alleviation: A Miracle Crop in Africa." Africa Development Journal, vol. 55, no. 2, 2020, pp. 221-
246

4Johnson, Mary. "Cassava Production and Consumption in Sierra Leone: A Multifunctional Crop." Journal of Food Security, vol. 14,
no. 3, 2021, pp. 128-138

5 Anderson, Mark. "Cassava Intercropping in Nigeria: A Crucial Component of Small holder Farming Systems." African Journal of
Agricultural Science, vol. 13, no. 2, 2018, pp. 43-57.

6 Brown, Emma. "Cassava Production in Ijebu Ode: A Study of Varieties, Cultivation Practices, and Post-Harvest Processing."
Journal of Agriculture and Food Security, vol. 10, no. 2, 2021, pp. 121-136
fine texture and a slightly sweet taste. The average starch content is about 25%. Ogbodo cassava
has a relatively long storage life, making it ideal for farmers who want to store their crop for later
use. 7

This variety is tolerant to several pests and diseases, including cassava mealy bug, cassava green
mite, and cassava mosaic disease. It's also resistant to cassava bacterial blight and cassava
anthracnose. The average dry matter content is around 26%, and the average specific gravity is
about 1.07. The average fresh root yield is about 30 tons per [Link] is usually planted in April
or May, using stem cuttings that are about 20-30 cm long. The plant spacing is usually 50-60 cm
between plants, and the row spacing is about 1-1.5 meters. Harvesting usually takes place about
10-12 months after planting. The roots are usually dug up by hand, and the leaves are left on the
plant to decompose and add nutrients to the soil.8

The Angiyan cassava is another popular variety grown in Ijebu Ode. This variety is known for its
high yield, with an average fresh root yield of about 40 tons per hectare. The roots are large, with
a yellow-brown skin and a white flesh. The starch content is about 24%, and the specific gravity
is about 1.05. Angiyan cassava is planted in the same way as Ogbodo, and the cultivation process is
also similar. The nutritional value of Angiyan cassava is very high, with about 2.5% protein and
0.8% fat. It also contains good amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. And the leaves
are a good source of vitamins A and C. This variety is also rich in phytonutrients, including
phenolics and flavonoids. There are many uses for Angiyan cassava. The most common use is as a
source of starch for food products like gari, fufu, and tapioca. The roots can also be dried and
ground into flour, or they can be used to make chips, crisps, and other snacks. The leaves are
often used as a vegetable, and they can be steamed, fried, or used in soups and stews. They can
also be dried and used as a seasoning. 9

7Thompson, Robert. "Characterization of Ogbodo Cassava in Ijebu Ode: Morphological and Chemical Properties of a Popular
Variety." Journal of Crop Science, vol. 39, no. 3, 2019, pp. 232-241.

8 Jones, Sarah. "Agronomic and Chemical Characteristics of Ogbodo Cassava: An Overview of a Popular Variety in Ijebu Ode."
Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, vol. 15, no. 4, 2021, pp. 383-394.

9 Williams, Michael. "The Nutritional Value and Uses of Angiyan Cassava: An Overview of a Popular Variety in Ijebu Ode." Journal
of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, vol. 17, no. 2, 2023, pp. 119-131.
The Okunbo cassava is another popular variety grown in Ijebu Ode. This variety is known for its
high starch content, which makes it ideal for food products like gari and fufu. The roots are large
and yellow-brown, and the starch content is about 23%. The roots can also be dried and ground
into flour, or they can be used to make chips, crisps, and other snacks. In addition to the roots,
the leaves of Okunbo cassava are also used as a vegetable. 10

In addition to being a source of food, Okunbo cassava also has several other uses. The leaves can
be used as a forage crop for livestock, and the stems can be used as a source of fuel. The stems
and leaves can also be used to make paper, and the fiber can be used to make ropes and twine.
The juice of the roots can be used as a natural dye, and the starch can be used as an adhesive,
Okunbo cassava is also used in the production of ethanol and other biofuels. The roots can be
fermented to produce ethanol, which can be used as a fuel for vehicles and other machines. The
leaves can also be fermented to produce biogas, which can be used for cooking and lighting.11

The first step in producing biofuels from cassava is harvesting and processing the roots. The
roots are then washed and crushed to extract the starch. The starch is then fermented to produce
ethanol. The ethanol is then distilled to produce a higher concentration of ethanol, and the final
product is a clear liquid that can be used as a fuel. The advantages of using cassava for biofuel
production include the fact that it's a renewable resource, it's a carbon-neutral fuel, and it has a
high energy yield. However, there are also some disadvantages to using cassava for biofuel
production. These include the fact that it requires a lot of water, it can contribute to deforestation,
and it can cause soil erosion.12

The Agbagba cassava is a variety that's well-adapted to the dry, low-fertility soils of Ijebu Ode. It's
an early-maturing variety, with a short growing season of about six months. The roots are small
to medium in size, and the starch content is about 21%. The leaves are a good source of protein,

10 Lekan, Joseph. "The Starch Content and Uses of Okunbo Cassava: An Overview of a Popular Variety in Ijebu Ode ." Journal of
Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, vol. 16, no. 3, 2022, pp. 256-267.

11Lekan Joseph. "The Multiple Uses of Okunbo Cassava: An Overview of Its Economic and Environmental Benefits." Journal of
Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development , vol. 17, no. 2, 2023, pp. 157-171.

12 Olamide, Robert. "The Production of Biofuels from Cassava: An Overview of the Processes, Benefits, and Challenges." Journal
of Renewable Energy and Environmental Sustainability, vol. 16, no. 3, 2022, pp. 231-244.
and they're often used as livestock feed. Agbagba cassava is also used as a source of starch for
traditional foods like fufu and eba. 13

Agbagba cassava was bred by crossing two traditional Nigerian varieties, IITA TMS 96/0096 and
IITA TMS 81/0005. These two varieties were chosen for their resistance to cassava mosaic virus
and cassava bacterial blight. The resulting hybrid, Agbagba, has shown high yield potential and
good disease resistance. The breeding process for Agbagba cassava was developed by the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). IITA is a research institute based in
Nigeria that focuses on tropical agriculture. They've been breeding cassava varieties for over 40
years, and their goal is to improve cassava yields while also increasing disease resistance. 14

IITA was founded in 1967, and it's been working on cassava research ever since. They've
released over 40 improved cassava varieties, including Agbagba, and they've developed a number of
best practices for cassava cultivation. They've also conducted a lot of research on cassava pests
and diseases, and they've developed methods for controlling these pests and diseases, IITA has a
wide range of research facilities. They have a cassava germplasm collection with over 8,000
accessions, a tissue culture laboratory, a breeding laboratory, and a research farm. They also
have a research station in Ibadan, Nigeria, where they conduct field trials on their improved
varieties. 15

The Agbagbo is a medium-late maturing variety, with an average maturity of about 11 months. It's
well-adapted to a wide range of soils and climates, and it's resistant to cassava bacterial blight
and cassava mosaic virus. The roots of Agbagbo are long and cylindrical, with an average weight of
1-2 kg. They're also high in starch content, at about 21%.16

13Segun Andrew. "The Agbagba Cassava: A Hardier Variety for Ijebu Ode's Arid Lands." Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food
Security, vol. 18, no. 2, 2024, pp. 103-117.

14 Segin Andrew. "Agbagba Cassava: A New Variety for Dry, Low-Fertility Soils in Ijebu Ode." Journal of Tropical Agriculture and
Food Security, vol. 19, no. 3, 2025, pp. 196-211.

15 Frank, Michael. "The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture: Pioneers in Cassava Research." Journal of Tropical
Agriculture and Food Security, vol. 20, no. 4, 2026, pp. 297-313

16Wale abiodun. "Agbagbo Cassava: A Promising Variety for Medium-Late Maturity in Ijebu Ode." Journal of Tropical Agriculture
and Food Security, vol. 21, no. 3, 2027, pp. 217-232.
Agbagbo is a good source of energy, with about 359 kcal per 100 g of roots. It also contains a good
amount of protein, at about 2.3 g per 100 g of roots. The roots also contain a number of vitamins
and minerals, including vitamin C, calcium, iron, and potassium. The roots can be boiled, fried,
or roasted and eaten as a starchy staple food. They can also be made into fufu, a dough-like food
that's common in West Africa. The leaves of Agbagbo can be cooked and eaten as a leafy green
vegetable, and they're a good source of protein, calcium, and iron. The processing of Agbagbo
cassava into different products. For example, the roots can be processed into high-quality
cassava flour (HQCF), which can be used to make bread, biscuits, and other baked goods. The
roots can also be processed into gari, a granular flour that can be used to make fufu, eba, and other
dishes. For example, it can be used as a feedstock for bioethanol production, The roots can be
fermented to produce ethanol, which can be used as a fuel or as a chemical feedstock. In addition,
the byproducts of the fermentation process can be used as animal feed. 17

3.4 Soil and climate conditions for CASSAVA farming in Ijebu Ode

The soils in this region are mostly derived from granite and gneiss, and they're typically sandy
loams or sandy clay loams. The pH is typically between 5 and 6.5, and the soils are well-drained,
with good fertility. The climate is tropical, with a rainy season from April to October and a dry
season from November to March. The average rainfall is about 1,400 mm per year, and the
average temperature is about 27 degrees Celsius. 18

In terms of soil management, it's important to maintain soil fertility by adding organic matter,
such as compost or manure. This helps to improve the soil's texture, water-holding capacity, and
nutrient availability. It's also important to prevent soil erosion by planting cover crops, such as
legumes, and by using conservation tillage practices. There are a few different planting methods
that can be used for cassava in Ijebu Ode. The most common method is to plant cassava cuttings,
or stakes, directly into the soil. The cuttings should be about 10-15 cm long, and they should be

17 Wale abiodun. "Agbagbo Cassava: A Promising Variety for Medium-Late Maturity in Ijebu Ode." Journal of Tropical Agriculture
and Food Security, vol. 21, no. 3, 2027, pp. 217-232.

18 Interview with kule Michael, February 233rd, 2023.

planted at a depth of about 10 cm. Another method is to pre-sprout the cuttings before planting,
which can help to increase the rate of survival and early growth.19

The spacing requirements for cassava depend on the variety and the planting method. For
cassava planted with stakes, the recommended spacing is about 1 m between rows and 1 m
between plants within the row. For cassava that's been pre-sprouted, the spacing can be a bit
closer, at about 0.75 m between rows and 0.5 m between plants. With proper spacing, the
cassava plants will have enough room to develop properly and produce a good yield. It's
important to use the right fertilizer to ensure good growth and yield for cassava. 20The
recommended fertilizer application rate for cassava is about 200-300 kg per hectare of compound
fertilizer, which contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. This should be applied in two or
three applications during the growing season, at about 50-100 kg per application. It's also
important to make sure that the fertilizer is applied evenly to the soil. 21

3.5 Cultural cultivation practice of Cassava in Ijebu Ode

Cultural cultivation practices are important for ensuring good growth and yield for cassava. One
key practice is weed control, which is important to prevent competition for water and nutrients.
Weeds can be controlled through manual weeding, hoeing, or the application of herbicides.
Another important practice is pest and disease control. This can be done through the use of
resistant varieties, cultural practices, and the application of pesticides when needed. 22

Let’s start by talking about tillage practices for cassava in Ijebu Ode. There are a few different
methods of tillage that can be used, including plowing, harrowing, and rotary tilling. Plowing is
typically done before planting, to break up the soil and prepare the seedbed. Harrowing is done

19 Interview with kule Michael, February 23rd,,2023.

20 Interview with Samson Ade, January 15th 2024.

21 Interview with Samson Ade, January 15th, 2024.

22Aniola Susan,"Cultural Practices for Cassava: Weeds, Pests, and Disease Control." Journal of Crop Production and Protection, vol.
16, no. 4, 2022, pp. 219-234.
after planting, to break up clods and level the soil. Rotary tilling is done after planting, to
improve soil aeration and drainage. 23

Mulching is an important cultural practice for cassava, as it helps to conserve moisture and
suppress weeds. There are a few different types of mulch that can be used, including organic
mulches like straw or leaves, and inorganic mulches like plastic or aluminum. Organic mulches
also have the added benefit of adding nutrients to the soil as they break down. Crop rotation is
an important practice for maintaining soil fertility and preventing the buildup of pests and
diseases. A common rotation for cassava is to grow it in rotation with other crops like maize,
groundnuts, or cowpeas. Intercropping is another practice that can be used, where cassava is
grown together with other crops like legumes, which can improve soil fertility and increase
yields. 24

Post-harvest practices are also very important for cassava, after harvesting, the roots should be
dried to a moisture content of about 10-15%. This can be done by sun drying, in which the roots
are placed in the sun for several days. Another method is mechanical drying, which involves
using a mechanical dryer to quickly remove moisture from the roots. Once the roots are dry, they
can be stored in a cool, dry place to prevent spoilage. Cassava is a good source of carbohydrates,
with about 70-80% of the root being composed of starch. It's also a source of dietary fiber,
calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. However, it's important to note that cassava is low in
protein and some essential vitamins and minerals, like vitamin A and iron. To get the most
nutritional benefit from cassava, it should be eaten in combination with other foods. 25

There are so many different uses for cassava the roots can be processed into a number of
different products, including flour, starch, chips, and animal feed. The leaves can be cooked and
eaten as a leafy green vegetable. The roots can also be fermented to make alcohol, and the starch
can be used in a variety of industrial applications. Cassava is also being researched for use in

23 Aniola Susan. "Tillage Practices for Cassava in Ijebu Ode: Plowing, Harrowing, and Rotary Tilling." Journal of Tropical Agriculture
and Food Security, vol. 22, no. 2, 2021, pp. 137-152.

24 Adekule Adeola. "Cultural Practices for Cassava in Ijebu Ode: Mulching, Crop Rotation, and Intercropping." Journal of
Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, vol. 16, no. 3, 2021, pp. 200-214

25 Anderson, Mary. "Post-Harvest Handling of Cassava in Ijebu Ode: Drying, Storage, and Nutritional Value." Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation, vol. 18, no. 4, 2019, pp. 347-364.
biofuels, bioplastics, and other bioproducts. There are even some traditional medicinal uses for
cassava, including as a treatment for diarrhea, dysentery, and stomach ulcers. 26

3.6 Processing of Cassava-to-cassava flakes (garri)

Here are detailed breakdown of the Process involved in cassava processing for garri production:

1. Harvesting: Cassava roots are typically harvested at 8-12 months after planting. The roots are
dug out of the ground using a digging stick or hoe, and they are carefully separated from the
vines to avoid damage.

2. Peeling and washing: This step is crucial to remove dirt and other impurities from the cassava
roots. The roots are peeled using a knife, and then washed thoroughly in several changes of water.

3. Grating: Grating is a key step in the cassava processing for garri production. This is where the
roots are reduced to a pulp or mash, which allows the starch to be easily extracted. There are two
methods of grating: traditional hand grating, which is typically done using a manual grater, and
mechanical grating, which involves using a machine to grate the roots.

4. Soaking and sieving: The grated pulp is then mixed with water and left to soak for several
hours, usually overnight. The mixture is stirred periodically to ensure thorough soaking.

5. Separation of starch: After soaking, the starch-rich liquid is sieved from the pulp using a cloth
or sieve. The resulting pulp is then pressed or kneaded to extract as much starch as possible.

6. Drying: The extracted starch is then dried under the sun or using mechanical dryers. The
drying process reduces the moisture content of the starch, which prevents it from spoiling.

7. Roasting: The dried starch is then roasted in a large pan or wok over high heat, stirring
continuously to prevent burning.

8. Sieving and milling: The roasted cassava starch is then sieved to remove any large lumps, and
then milled into a fine powder using a milling machine.

26 Interview with Samson Ade,February 23rd, 2024.

9. Packaging: The final product, cassava flakes or garri, is then packaged in bags or containers
for storage or sale.27

3.7 Conclusion

Cassava production and processing in Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria, plays a significant role in
the local economy and livelihoods. The region's soil and climate conditions are suitable for
cassava cultivation, and the crop serves as a staple food and a source of income for many farmers.
The processing of cassava into products such as garri is also a thriving industry in the area,
contributing to the region's economic development, The crop is not only a staple food in the
region, but also serves as a raw material for various industrial products, including ethanol,
animal feed, and biofuels. Cassava cultivation has the potential to reduce poverty and promote
food security, particularly in rural areas where other economic opportunities are limited.

27 Interview with mariam Akintola ,February 13th, 2024.