Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Units & Measurement
Physical Quantities:

Quantities which can be measured are called physical quantities. Velocity, acceleration, force, area, volume, pressure, etc.
are some examples of physical quantities.

There are two kinds of physical quantities:

1. Fundamental physical quantities:
2. Derived physical quantities:

1. Fundamental Physical Quantities:

Are those which do not depend on other quantities and also independent of each other. They are seven in number viz;
length, mass, time, thermodynamic temperature, electric current, luminous intensity, and amount of substance.

2. Derived Physical Quantities:

Derived physical quantities are those which are derived from fundamental physical quantities. For example, velocity is
derived from the fundamental quantities length and time, hence it is a derived physical quantity.

UNIT's:
To measure a physical quantity it is compared with a standard quantity. This standard quantity is called the unit of that
quantity For example, to measure the length of a desk, it is compared with the standard quantity known as mere'. Thus,
‘metre’ is said to be the unit of length.

S. Fundamental Fundamental Symbol

No. Physical quantity Unit
1. Length metre m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Electric current ampere A
5. Temperature kelvin K
6. Luminous intensity candela cd
7. Amount of mole mol
substance
Derived units:
Any unit which can be obtained by the combination of one or more fundamental units are called derived unit. Examples:
Area, speed, density, volume, momentum, acceleration, force etc.

S. Derived Physical Derived Unit

No. quantity
1. Area m2
2. Volume m3
3. Density kg/ m3
4. Speed m/s
5. Acceleration m/s2
6. Momentum kg m/s2
7. Force kg m/s2 or newton
8. Work kg m²/s2 or joule
9. Power kg m²/s3 watt
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
10. Charge ampere-sec or Coulomb
11. Potential joule / coulomb or volt
12. Resistance volt/ ampere or ohm

Motion
Rest:
An objects said to be at rest if it does not change its position with respect to its surroundings with the Passage of time.

Motion:
A body is said to be in motion if its position changes continuously with respect to the surroundings (or with respect to an
observer) with the passage of time.

Rest and motion are relative terms.

Types of Motion on the basis of Dimensions

One-Dimensional Motion: It is the motion in which the position of the object changes only in one direction. For
example-motion of a train along a straight line, freely falling object under gravity, etc.

Two-Dimensional Motion: It is the motion in which the position of the object changes in two directions. For example -
projectile motion.

Three-Dimensional Motion: It is the motion in which the position of the object changes in three directions. For example
- a bird flying in the sky.

Distance and Displacement Distance:

The length travelled in changing position may be expressed in terms of distance, i.e., the actual path length between two
points. Distance is a scalar quantity, which has only a magnitude with no direction. Distance measured is always +ve.

Displacement:

The direct straight line pointing from the initial point to the final point is called displacement ((change in position).
Displacement is a vector quantity, which has both magnitude and direction.

Displacement can be +ve, -ve or Zero depending on reference point. Displacement becomes zero in case of same initial
and final points.

UNIFORM & NON-UNIFORM MOTION

Uniform Motion
It is a motion in which a body moves in a straight line (rectilinear) and covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
The path of an object in uniform motion is a straight line.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Non-uniform motion
If a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving with a non-uniform motion. It is a
motion in which the velocity varies with time.

Question: An object travels 16 m in 4 s and then another 16 m in 2s. What is the average speed of the object?

Solution:
Total Distance Travelled : 16 + 16 =32 m
Total Time: 4 + 2 = 6 Sec
average Speed :Total Distance /Total Time

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Average Speed: 32/6 =5.33 ms-1

Therefore, the average speed of the object is 5.33 ms-1.

Instantaneous Speed

It is the speed at a particular time instant (t is infinitesimal small or close to zero).

Speed With Direction (Velocity)

It is defined as the ratio of change in position or displacement to the time taken.

Odometer: An odometer, or odograph, is a device that measures the distance travelled by an automobile based on the
perimeter of the wheel as the wheel rotates.

Acceleration
 Rate o of change of velocity with respect to time.

 SI unit= m/s2
 It is a vector quantity.
 The -ve acceleration is known retardation or deceleration.
 An object moving on a circular path, even with a uniform speed is always said to be accelerated as it changes its
direction every moment.
 Uniform acceleration- change in velocity by equal amounts in equal intervals of time.
 Eg- Motion of a freely falling ball.
 Non-uniform acceleration- change in velocity by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time.
 Eg-Motion of a car.

Graphical Representation of motion in a straight line

Displacement- Time Graphs

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

The slope of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity.

Velocity-Time Graphs

The slope of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration.

Acceleration-Time Graphs

Graph (a) shows an object which is either stationary or travelling at a constant velocity. Either way, the acceleration is
zero over time.

Graph (b) shows an object moving at a constant acceleration. In this case the acceleration is positive - remember that it
can also be negative.

Equations of Motion
First equation (Equation for velocity-time relation):

Final velocity

=initial velocity + acceleration x time interval

or v = u + at

Second equation (Equation for position- time relation):

Displacement = initial velocity x time interval + ½ x acceleration x time interval2

Or s = ut + ½ at2

Third equation (Equation for position- velocity relation) :

Final velocity2= initial velocity2 + 2 x acceleration x displacement

Or v2 = u2 + 2as

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Uniform Circular Motion : When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called
uniform circular motion. If an object undergoes a uniform circular motion, then its velocity changes.

Relative Motion
The motion of an object B w.r.t. object a which is moving or stationary is called as relative motion.

Projectile Motion
Projectile is the name given to a body thrown with some initial velocity in any arbitrary direction and then allowed to
move under the influence of a constant acceleration. The motion of a projectile is called projectile motion.

Example :A football kicked by the player, a stone thrown from the top of building, a bomb released from a plane.

The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory, mostly, the trajectory of a projectile is parabolic.

Maximum height (H): When a projectile moves, it covers a maximum distance in vertical direction. This maximum
distance is called the maximum height attained by the projectile.

Horizontal range (R): The horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point of landing of a projectile.

Maximum range will be at 45 degrees.

Time of flight (T): The time taken by the projectile to reach the point of landing from the point of projection.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Factopedia

An aeroplane flying at a constant speed, if it releases a bomb, the bomb moves away from the aeroplane and it will be
always vertical below the aeroplane as the horizontal component of the velocity of the bomb will be same as that of the
velocity of the aeroplane. And thus the horizontal displacement remain same at any instant of time.

If two bullets are fired horizontally simultaneously and

with different velocities from the same place, both the bullets will hit the ground simultaneously as the initial velocity in
the vertically downward direction is zero and same height has to be covered.

LAWS OF MOTION
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton's Gave 3 Law of Motion :

1. An object in motion tends to stay in motion and an object at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
2. Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

A common misconception about Newton's first law of motion is that a force is required to keep an object in motion. This
is not true.

Experiments done on air tracks (where there is a negligible friction) show that no force is required to keep an object
moving with constant velocity. We get this misconception because friction is always present in our everyday lives.

Newton's First Law Also Known As Law of Inertia :

Inertia and Mass

The inertia of at object is measured by its mass. Inertia is he natural tendency of an object to remain at rest or in motion at
a constant speed along a straight line. The mass of an object is a quantitative measure of inertia. The greater the mass,
the greater the inertia of body.

Types of Inertia

1. Inertia of rest
2. Inertia of motion
Inertia of rest: The tendency of the body to continue in state of rest even when some external unbalanced force applied
on it is called inertia of rest.

Inertia of motion: The tendency of the body to continue in its state of motion even when some external unbalanced
force is applied on it is called the inertia of rest. of motion.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied unbalanced force.

Rate of Change of Momentum a Force Applied

F= ma
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
The unit of force is (kg ms-2) or newton, which has the symbol N.

Examples:
In cricket match, while catching a fast moving ball, a fielder in the ground gradually pulls his hands backwards with the
moving ball to reduce the velocity to zero.

1. Try to move an object.

2. Pushing a car and a truck.
3. Racing Cars.
4. Rocket launch.
5. Kick the ball.
6. Car crash.
7. Two people walking.
8. Object thrown from a height.
Third Law of Motion:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Examples:

 Pulling an elastic band

 Swimming or rowing a boat
 Static friction while pushing an object
 Walking
 Standing on the ground or sitting on a chair
 The upward thrust of a rocket
 Resting against a wall or tree
 Slingshot
 Slapping
 Bouncing of ball
 Jumping on a trampoline
 Hitting off a ball by a bat
 When you run on a carpet, it moves backward
 Pushing someone or pushing something we tend to move backward
 The recoil of a gun

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
The principle of conservation of momentum states that "if there is a direction in which there is zero unbalanced force
acting on a system then the total momentum of that system in that direction is constant even if the bodies act on each
other'. Also, the total momentum of the system remains constant, if no external force acts on a system of constant
mass.

Examples Recoiling of a Gun,

Jumping before long jump.

Propulsion of jet and rockets:

Rocket moves up due to reaction of downward ejection of gas.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Examples of Conservation of Linear Momentum.

 Recoiling of a gun.
 Explosion of bomb.
 Fight of rockets and jet planes.
 A man jumping out ofa boat to the shore.
 A person on a frictionless surface.

Rocket works on the principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum. ( Momentum is vector quantity. Its S.I. Unit is
gm/s.)

FORCE
 A force is that physical quantity which tries to change or changes the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body.
 Units of force: The S.I. unit of force is newton.
 In G.G.S. system, the unit of force is dyne.
 l newton = 105 dyne
 In MKS system, the unit of force is the kilogram force (kgf).
 I kgf= 9.8 newton (or 9.8 N)

There are four basic forces in nature and they are:

(i) Gravitational Force: Everybody in the universe attracts each other, this force is known as gravitational force. This is
the weakest force among all other forces which are existing.

(ii) Weak Nuclear Force: These forces are 1025 times stronger than gravitational force.

(iii) Electromagnetic Force The electromagnetic forces are the farces between the charged particles.

When charges are at rest, then the force is called as electrostatic force.

 1011 times stronger than Gravitational forces.

(iv) Strong nuclear forces: This is the strongest force found in nature. These forces acts between the proton and the
neutron in order to bind them in the nucleus. This force is 1038 times stronger than gravitational forces, 10² times stronger
than electrostatic forces and 1013 times stronger than weak nuclear forces.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 It is the force that acts on a body when two bodies are in contact and one tries to move over another. It is of two types:
(i) Static friction (ii) Kinetic friction

 (i) Static frictional force: When there is no relative motion between the contact surfaces, frictional force is called
static frictional force.
 The maximum value of static friction is called limiting friction. (ii) Kinetic frictional force:

Once relative motion starts between the surfaces in contact, the frictional force is called as kinetic frictional force. It is
of two types:

 (a) Sliding friction

 (b) Rolling Friction

 Sliding friction: When one body slides over the surface of another body, the resistance to its motion is called as
sliding friction. It is always more than rolling friction.
 Rolling friction: When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance to its motion is termed as
rolling friction. Friction in this case is very small.
 The coefficient of rolling friction is the least and coefficient of static friction is maximum.
 Friction: A necessary Evil

Friction is necessary for doing various activities in our daily life:

 We could not hold articles such as glass tumbler and other things without friction. It becomes very difficult to hold a
greasy glass.
 We could not write with pen or pencil if there is no friction.
 Friction helps objects to move, stop or to change the direction of motion. We cannot walk without Friction.
 It causes wear and tear. For example, soles of shoes, ball bearings, steps of a stair, parts of machines etc. Friction
produces heat. When machine is operated, heat generated causes damage to the machinery.
 Factopedia : Fast moving objects such as cars, bullet trains, aeroplanes are all streamlined- designed with curved
and sloping surfaces to cut through the air and reduce drag. Boats can also be streamlined to reduce water resistance.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Motion in a Lift
 The weight of a body is simply the force exerted by earth on the body. If body is on an accelerated platform, the body
fictitious force, so the weight of the body appears changed and this new weight is called apparent weight.

Let a man of weight

W= Mg be standing in a lift.

Case (a): If the lift is moving with constant velocity upwards or downwards.

Apparent weigh, W’= actual weight W

Case (b): If the lift is accelerated ie., a constant and in upward direction.

Apparent weigh, W’=W+ F0= Mg + Ma = M (g + a)

Case (c): If the lift is accelerated downward with acceleration a <g:

Apparent weight, W'= W+F0= Mg - Ma =M(g-a)

Case (d): If the lit is accelerated downward with acceleration a>g:

Apparent weigh, W'= M (g- a) is negative.

Centripetal & Centrifugal Force

When a body is in a circular motion, a force always acts on the body towards the centre of the circular path, this force is
called centripetal force.

If a body of mass m is moving on a circular path of radius R with uniform speed v, then the required

centripetal force F = mv2/r

Centrifugal Force:

The virtual force which balances the centripetal force in uniform circular motion is called as centrifugal force. It is not the
real force as it is due to the acceleration of rotating frame.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Application of centripetal and Centrifugal forces:

 Roads are banked at turns to provide the required centripetal force for taking a tum.
 The cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in a vessel about the same axis.
 The gravitational force of attraction between earth and sun acts as a centripetal force,
 The orbital motion of electrons around nucleus.
 Washing machine drier.
 Banking of road.

Rotational Motion:

 The motion of an object around a circular path, in a fixed orbit.

 A rigid body performs a pure rotational motion, if each particle of the body moves in a circle, and the centre of all the
circles lie on a straight line, called the axis of rotation.
 Examples: Motion of a ceiling fan, motion of a potter's wheel etc.

Angular Displacement ( ) : The change in position ofa particle moving in a circular path with respect to the center is
known as it's angular displacement.

Its SI unit is radian.

 Angular Velocity ( )

The rate of change of angular displacement of a

Body

Its SI unit is radian/s (or rad/s).

 Angular Acceleration( ) The rate of change of angular velocity.

 MOMENT OF INERTIA : The property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any change in its state of rest or of
rotational motion.
 Moment of inertia, I = mr² SI unit is kg m2
 Angular momentum The quantity of rotation of a body, which is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular
velocity. L = I .
 Its S.I. unit is joule-second.

TORQUE: Torque is the turning or twisting action on a body about the axis of rotation due to a force F.

= F x r, r is perpendicular distance.

Couple When two equal and parallel forces having different line of action acts on a body then it makes a couple. It has
always the unidirectional rotational effect. Couple= force x force arm
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Faetopedia:

 A handle or knob is provided at the free edge on the plank of the door as torque is maximum, when d is maximum.
Thus we can close or open the door easily by applying less force at the edge of the door.
 When we open the lid of a bottle by turning it our fingers are applying a couple to the lid.

Conservation of Angular momentum: Suppose on a system of particles of a rigid body no external force is acting
then its angular momentum remains conserved, this is. Know as conservation of angular momentum.

Factopedia:
 The angular velocity of a planet revolving in an elliptical orbit around the sun increases, when it comes near the sun
and vice-versa.
 When the planet moving along its elliptical orbit is near the sun, its moment of inertia about the axis through the sun
decreases and therefore its angular speed increases. On the other hand, when it is far away from the sun, its moment of
inertia increases and hence angular speed decreases.
 An ice skater or a ballet-dancer can increase her angular velocity by folding her arms and bringing the stretched leg
close to the other leg.
Parameter (Linear Linear Motion Rotational Motion Parameter (Rotational
Motion) Motion)
Displacement x Angular Displacement
Velocity Angular Velocity

Acceleration Angular Acceleration

Mass m I Moment of Inertia

Force F=ma Torque
Work W=[Link] Work
Linear Kinetic Energy KE= Rotational Kinetic Energy

Power P=Fv Power

Linear momentum p=mv Angular Momentum

Work
 Work is defined as the product of the force and displacement in the direction of applied force or product of
displacement and force in the direction of displacement.

W= Force X displacement in direction of force

F.S= FS cos

where is the angle between F and S.

 The SI unit of work 1s newton-metre is also called joule (J)

 1 joule = 107 erg

Work done by a force can be positive, negative or zero as the value of cos is positive, negative or zero. Work is a scalar
quantity but you can have positive & negative work.

Zero work:
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
A coolie with a luggage on his head, moving on a horizontal platform, does no work, since
the direction of force is vertically up and displacement horizontal i.e., angle 0 between
them is 90° (even though he might feel physically tired).

Positive work:
 When a horse pulls a cart, the applied force and the displacement are in the same
direction. So, work done by the horse is positive.

Negative work:
 When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the work done by the braking
force is negative. This is because the braking force and the displacement act in
opposite directions.

Energy:
 Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.
 The SI unit of energy is the joule (J) same as that of work.
 Joule is very small quantity to represent electricity hence we use kilowatt-hour (kWh).
 Thus,
1 kWh = 1kW x 1 hour = (1000 W) x (3600 s)
= (1000 J/s) x (3600 s)
= (3600000 joules) = 3.6 X 106J.
 For electrical-energy consumption in houses, factories, shops, etc., kilo watt-hour is simply called

'unit' (Commercial Unit)

 1 Unit =1 kilowatt hour.

Kinetic Energy (K.E.)

Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of motion is called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is always positive and
is a scalar.

K.E. =1/2 mv²

Potential Energy (P.E)

Potential energy is energy due to position. If a body is in a position such that if it were released it would begin to move, it
has potential energy.

P.E. = mgh

M= Mass, g= Gravity, h= height

Examples:

Energy of water in a water tank on the roof, energy of small spring in

ball-pen, Energy in An arrow and the stretched string, Energy in
Rubber band (Stretched) etc.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Gravitational Potential Energy:
 When an object is allowed to fall from higher level to a lower level it gains speed due to gravitational pull, i.e. it gains
kinetic energy.
 The magnitude of its gravitational potential energy is equivalent to the amount of work done by the weight of the
body in causing the descent.
 "If a mass m is at a height h above a lower level, the P.E. possessed by the mass is mgh.
 Since h is the height of an object above a specified level, an object below the specified level has negative potential
energy.

Work-Energy Theorem
According to the work-energy theorem, total work done on a system by forces equals to the change in kinetic energy.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

According to this law, energy can only be converted from one form to another, it can neither be created nor destroyed,
The total energy before and after the transformation always remains the same.

Transformation of Energy
The conversion of one form of energy to the other form is termed as transformation of energy. The phenomenon in which
energy is transformed from useful from to useless form is known as dissipation of energy.

Factopedia
 When a boy runs, the internal energy in his body is Converted into kinetic energy.
 When we thrown an object the muscular energy store in bur body is converted into kinetic energy.
 Electric energy into light energy -Electrical Bulb.
 Chemical energy into electrical energy-Cell.
 Electrical energy into heat energy- Heater.
 Electrical into mechanical - Electrical motor
 Mechanical into electrical - Dynamo
 Sound energy into electrical energy - Microphone

Mass-Energy equivalence Relation

According to this relation mass (m) and energy (E) are interconvertible

E= mc2

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Where, c = 3 x 108 ms-1 is the velocity of light in vacuum or air.

Power
 The time rate of doing work is defined as power (P). If equal works are done in different times, power will be
different. More quickly work is done power will be more.

Power (P) =

 The S.I. unit of power is the joule per second and is called the watt (W).
 1 H.P (Horse power) = 746 W

COLLISIONS
 Collision is an event in which two or more than two bodies interact with one another for a short time and exchange
momentum and kinetic energy.

Collisions are of two types:

 Elastic collision
 Inelastic collision

Elastic Collision
 A collision in which there is no loss of kinetic energy is called elastic or perfectly elastic collision. The basic
characteristics of perfectly elastic collision are
 Linear momentum is conserved
 Kinetic energy is conserved
 Total energy is conserved
coefficient of restitution is unity (e = 1)
Example-

(a) When a ball at a billiards table hit another ball.

(b) When you throw a ball on ground and it bounces back.

Inelastic Collision
 In an inelastic collision kinetic energy is lost during collision. The basic characteristic of an inelastic
Collision are:
 Linear momentum is conserved
 Kinetic energy is not conserved
 Total energy is conserved
 Coefficient of restitution is 0 < e < 1
 In case of perfectly inelastic collision the two bodies get stuck together and move with common velocity, that is why
for perfectly inelastic collision.

Example:

(a) Dropped ball of clay

(b) Vehicle hitting a pole or any common accident.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 The collision in one dimension is also known as head-on collision.

GRAVITATION
ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC)
Nature is made up of 4 elements plus the quintessence

 Air
 Earth
 Fire
 Water
 Quintessence-celestial realm
 All bodies move toward their natural place
 Talked about Geocentric universe.

PTOLEMY (87-170 AD)

 Wrote the Almagest which detailed a Universe that was highly complex
 Wrote of a geocentric Universe which consisted of known planets, moon, sun, and the stars.

COPERNICUS (1473-1543)
 Polish priest that taught of a heliocentric Universe
 Explained retrograde motion of Mars, and motion the inferior (inner) planets
 Strongly opposed by Catholic church which supported Ptolemaic system of the Universe.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Kepler (1571-1630)
 Johannes Kepler: Developed model of solar system now known as Kepler's 3 Laws of planetary motion.

GALILEO 1564-1642
 Constructed the first telescope that was used to view the moon and planets Believed in and taught the Copernican
heliocentric Universe.
 Was sentenced to house arrest by the Pope for espousing that view May be considered the first physicist and the
creator of the scientific method.

ISAAC NEWTON (1643-1727)

 Inspired while he was at Woolsthorpe during the black plague epidemic.
 Mythologically apple fell on his head while viewing the moon.

Gravitation
 Earth attracts every body towards itself with a force known as ‘gravity’. Due to the force of gravity the ball thrown
upwards doesn't go upwards but it falls downwards after covering some vertical distance.
 Actually, every object attracts every other object towards itself with a force. This force is called the
Gravitational Force.
 Gravitational force is one among the four fundamental forces.
 It is always attractive in nature.

Newton's universal Law of Gravitation

Newton's universal Law of Gravitation
Newton came to the conclusion that any two objects in the universe exert gravitational attraction on each other.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Any two particles of matter anywhere in the universe attract each other with a force which is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them,

Here, the constant of proportionality G is known as the universal gravitational constant. It is termed a "universal
constant" because it is thought to be the same at all places and all times.

G=6.673 x 10-11 Nm²/kg2.

The value of universal gravitational constant, G is very small hence gravitational force is very small, unless one (or both)
of the masses is huge.

Important Characteristics of Gravitational Force

 Gravitational forces are always attractive and always acts along the line joining the two masses.
 Gravitational force is a mutual force hence it is action reaction force, i.e., Fl2 = - F21
 Value of G is small, therefore, gravitational force is weaker than electrostatic and nuclear forces.
 The gravitational force between two masses isindependent of the presence of other objects and medium between the
two masses.

Importance of Universal Law of Gravitation

The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to be unconnected.

 the force that binds us to the earth

 the motion of the moon around the earth
 the motion of planets around the Sun and
 the tides due to the moon and the Sun.
 the flow of rivers.

Free Fall:
The motion of a body under the influence of gravity alone is called a free fall. When a body falls freely towards the carth,
its velocity continuously increases. The acceleration developed in its motion is called acceleration due to gravity (g).

Weightlessness:
The phenomenon of "weightlessness" occurs when there is no force of support on your body.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Acceleration due to gravity of the earth
 When a body is dropped from a certain height above the ground, it begins to fall towards the earth under gravity.
 The acceleration produced in the body due to gravity is called the acceleration due to gravity.
 It is denoted by g. Its value close to the Earth's surface (ge )=9.8 m/s2.

Comparison of Earth (8e) and Moon (8M)

Variation in Gravity (g)

Value of g decreases with height & depth from earth's surface.

 g is maximum at poles.
 g is minimum at equator.
 g decreases due to rotation of earth.
 g decreases if angular speed of earth increases, and increases, if angular speed of earth decreases.

Variation in g with height or altitude:

The decrease in the value of g on going up a height 'h' above the surface of earth.

Variation in g with depth.

Thus the value of g decreases as we go down below the surface of earth.

Factopedia
 As the skydiver falls, his speed increases along with the increase in air resistance, Now this force of air resistance
increases until it reaches the magnitude of force of gravity. Once this force is more than the force of gravity then
forces are balanced and it reaches a terminal velocity. Then it no longer accelerates.
 A clock which is controlled by a pendulum when taken from the plains to a mountain it becomes slow but the wrist-
watch which is simply controlled by spring remains the same. This is due to the variation in the value of g.

Spring remains unaffected whereas the value of g decreases in the mountain and thus the time period of the pendulum
increases.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 Mass and Weight
 The quantity of matter in a body is known as the mass of the body.
 Mass is an intrinsic property of matter and does change as an object is moved from one location another.
 Weight, in contrast, is the gravitational force the earth exerts on the object and can vary, depending on how far the
object is above the earth's surface.
 The relation between weight (W) and mass (M) on Moon.

Weight of object on Moon = Its weight on the

Everything About Mass and Weight MASS

1. Mass is simply the measure of the amount of matter in a body.

2. Mass is always constant for a body and there several formulas to calculate mass. One way to calculate mass is:

Mass = Volume x Density

3. Mass is a fundamental quantity.

4. Mass only has magnitude and so, it is a scalar quantity.

5. SI unit: Kilogram (Kg).

6. Mass does not depend upon gravity and is constant everywhere.

7. It can never be zero.

8. Mass can be easily measured using any ordinary balance like beam balance, lever balance, pan balance, etc.

WEIGHT
1. Weight is the measure of the amount of force acting on a mass due to acceleration due to gravity.

2. Weight is the measure of the gravitational force acting on a body. It can be calculated using the formula

W= mass x acceleration due to gravity

3. Weight is a derived quantity.

4. Weight has both magnitude and direction (towards the centre of gravity) and so, it is a vector quantity.

5. SI unit: Newton (N)

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

6. Weight is dependent on gravity and so, it varies from place to place.

7. Weight can be zero where there is no gravity (like space).

8. Weight can be measured by a spring balance or by using its formula.

Motion of Objects Under the Influence of

Gravitational Force of The Earth
We know that an object experiences acceleration during free fall. this acceleration experienced by an object is independent
of its mass.

This means that all objects hollow or solid, big or small, should fall at the same rate. According to a story, Galileo
dropped different objects from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy to prove the same.

Escape velocity
 Escape speed is the minimum speed that should be given to the body to enable it to escape away from the
gravitational field of earth.
 If the mass of the planet is M and its radius is R, then the escape speed from its surface will be:

• Escape velocity of earth surface is 11.2 km/s.

• Escape velocity at moon surface is 2.4 km/s as the value of g on the moon is 1/6th of that on earth.

Escape velocity
** The escape velocity of a body from a planet depends upon the size (mass and radius) of the planet and hence the value
of acceleration due to gravity on its surface. It does not depend upon mass of the body. To throw an ant or an elephant out
of the gravitational field, the required velocity of projection is same.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

1. Law of Orbits (First Law): The planets in the solar system revolve in elliptical orbits around the Sun in elliptical orbits
with the Sun located at any one of the foci of the elliptical path set by the respective planet.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

2. Law of areas (Second Law): The rate of the area Swept by the position vector of the revolving planet with respect to the
Sun per unit time remains same irrespective of the position of the planets on the set elliptical path.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

* Kepler's second law follows the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

3. Law of periods (Third Law): The square of the period of revolution around the sun of a planet is proportional to the
cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit-path around the sun.

Satellites
 Just as the planets revolve around the sun, in the same way few celestial bodies revolve around these planets.
 These bodies are called 'Satellites'.
 For example moon is the natural satellite of Earth.
 Artificial satellites are launched from the Earth.
 Such satellites are used for telecommunication, weather etc. the path of these satellites are elliptical with the centre of
Earth at a focus.
Characteristics of Motion of Satellites
Orbital velocity (v0):

Let a satellite of mass m revolves around the Earth in circular orbit of radius r with speed v0. The gravitational pull
between satellite and earth provides the necessary centripetal force.

Orbital velocity (v0) = √ √

Relation between escape speed (ve) and orbital speed

(v0) : ve =2 v0
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 Value of orbital velocity does not depend on the mass of satellite but it depends on the mass and radius of the planet
around which the rotation is taking place.
 The orbital velocity for a satellite near the surface of earth is 7.92 km/sec.

 Energy of Satellite: A satellite revolving around a planet has both kinetic and potential energy.
 Kinetic Energy: The kinetic energy of the satellite is due to motion of the satellite.

 Potential energy: Potential energy of the satellite.

 The negative sign is because of zero potential energy at infinity and the satellite will never be able to escape from the
gravitational pull of the planet.
 Binding energy: The energy required to remove the satellite from its orbit to infinity is called binding energy of the
system.
 Binding energy of satellite,
 When the satellite is orbiting in its orbit, then no energy is required to keep it in its orbit.

Types of Satellites
 Geo-stationary Satellite: A satellite which appears to be stationary for a person on the surface of the Earth is
called geostationary satellite. It is also known as Communication Satellite or Synchronous Satellite.

Types of Satellites Features

 The orbit of the satellite must be circular and in the equatorial plane of the Earth.
 The angular velocity of the satellite must be in the same direction as the angular velocity of rotation of the earth i.e.,
from west to east.
 The period of revolution of the satellite must be equal to the period of rotation of earth about its i.e., 24 hours =24 x
60 x 60 = 86400 sec..
 Height from the surface of the earth is nearly 35600 km.
 The orbital velocity of this satellite is nearly 3.08 Km/sec.
 The relative velocity of geostationary satellite respect to earth is zero.
 This type of satellite is used for communication purposes. The orbit of a
 Geostationary satellite is called ‘Parking Orbit’.

Applications of Geo-stationary Satellite

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 In weather forecasting, broadcasting and in predictions of the flood and droughts.
 In telecommunication and radio transmissions.

Types of Satellites

 Polar satellite: A satellite revolves in a polar orb is called a polar satellite.

 Their time period is around 100 minutes.
 They are situated at an altitude much lower than the geostationary sațellites (500-800km).
 They are therefore capable of providing more detailed info about the clouds and storms.
 Monitoring the weather, military applications (spying) and taking image of Earth's surface.

 The motion through space in which the position of the centre of mass of the object changes is considered as
translational motion.

CENTRE OF MASS (COM).

 For a system of particles, centre of mass, is that point at which its total mass is supposed to be concentrated.

Rigid Body

 A body which does not deform on the application of whatsoever large force is called a rigid body. Ideally such type of
body will not exist but practically, large, extended object can be treated as rigid body. For example, door is a rigid
body.

Centre of Mass of Some Symmetrical Regular Shaped Objects

 When bodies are symmetrical in shape and have uniform densities then their centre of mass would lie on their
geometrical centres.
 The position of centre of mass depends on following two factors:
 The geometrical shape of the body
 The distribution of mass in the body

Solids and Fluids

 Introduction to the mechanical properties of materials-solids: how they stretch and compress, fatigue, break and shear.
 It has been observed that matter exists in nature in different forms. Some substances are rigid and have a fixed shape
like wood and stone; some substances can flow and take the shape of their b container like water, while there are
forms of matter that do not have definite shape or size such as air.
 Liquids and gases flow, and we call both fluids. Their atoms and/or molecules can move around fairly freely.
 Viscosity is the internal resistance or friction, offered to an object moving through a fluid.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Elasticity and Plasticity

Elasticity
 The property of the body by virtue of which it tends to regain its original shape and size after removing the deforming
force is called elasticity.
 If the body regains its original shape and size completely, after the removal of deforming forces, then the body is said
to be perfectly elastic.

eg, quartz and phosphor.

Plasticity
 The property of the body by virtue of which it tends to retain its deformed state after removing the deforming force is
called plasticity.
 If the body does not have any tendency to recover its original shape and size, itcis called perfectly plastic. e.g-, putty
and mud.

Factopedia
 Bridges are designed using the concept of elasticity so that it can withstand heavy load of traffic and force of strongly
blowing wind.
 The thickness of the metallic rope used in the crane in order to lift a given load is decided from the knowledge of
elastic limit of the material.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Thrust and Pressure
Force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface is called Thrust.

Effect of Thrust depends on the area on which it acts.

Example:

When you stand on loose sand, the force, that is, the weight of your body is acting on an area equal to area of your feet.
When you lie down, the same force acts on an area equal to the contact area of your whole body, which is larger than the
area of your feet. Thus, the effects of forces of the same magnitude on different areas are different. In the above cases,
thrust is the same. But effects are different. Therefore the effect of thrust depends on the area on which it acts.

The effect of thrust on sand is larger while standing than while lying. The thrust on unit area is called pressure.

In the Above Formula, If the Area is Less pressure is More, If Area is More Pressure will be less.

Like in case of sand, pressure will be more in case of standing position, instead of lying.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 In case of A Nail : The same force acting on a smaller area exerts a larger pressure, and a smaller pressure on a larger
area. This is the reason why a nail has a pointed tip, knives have sharp edges and buildings have wide foundations.

SI unit of Pressure : N/m² or Nm²

Examples of Thrust in Everyday Life:

 Camel Run in Desert Easily

 Army Tanks Weighing Thousands of Tonnes rest upon Continuous chain
 Wider Tyres of Trucks and Bikes
 Cutting Tools have sharp edges.
 Bottom of Football have spikes in bottom
 Spade use to dig the ground.
 In heavy school bags, Broad shoulder pads are given reduces the pressure on shoulder.

STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress

 The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a body is called stress. i.e.,

Types of Stress:

 Tensile Stress
 Shear Stress/ Tangential
 Hydraulic Stress

Strain
 When a deforming force is applied on a body, there is a change in the configuration of the body. The body is said to
be strained or deformed.
 The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration is called strain
 Strain being the ratio of two like quantities has no nits and dimensions. It is Dimensionless (Imp)

Type of Strain
 Longitudinal Strain
 Shearing Strain
 Volumetric Strain

Hooke's Law

 Within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain.

 ie, Stress Strain or, E = Stress/Strain

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 This cọnstant E is knọwn as modulus of elasticity of coefficient of elasticity. It depends upon the nature the
materials.

Applications of Hooke's Law:

 They are used not only in the engineering field but also used in the field of medical science.
 It is used in breathing (lungs), skin, spring beds, diving boards and cars suspension systems.
 It is used as a fundamental principle behind the manometer, spring scale and balance wheel of the clock.
 It is also used as the foundation for seismology

Brittle, Ductile and Malleable solids

 There are some materials which break as soon as stress is increased beyond the elastic limit. They are called brittle,
e.g. Glass, Ceramics.
 Materials which have large plastic range of extension are called ductile. Using this property, materials can he drawn
into thin wires, e.g. Copper, Aluminum
 Materials which can be hammered into thin sheets are called malleable. e.g. Gold, Silver, Lead.
 Metals are polycrystalline materials. They are elastic for small strains and for large strains, metals become plastic.

Fluids :
 Fluids include liquids and gases.
 They begins to flow when a shearing stress is applied. Fluids have no definite shape.
 They assume the shape of containing vessel.

Characteristics:

(i) Density

(ii) Specific Weight

(iüi) Relative Density

(iv) Specific Gravity

(v) Pressure

(vi) Compressibility

(vi) Viscosity

(viii) Surface Tension

(ix) Capillarity Rise

(x) Buoyancy

(i) Density ( )
 Mass per unit volume is defined as density.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 SI unit: Kg/m3

(ii) Specific Weight or Weight Density ( )

Weight : mg

= mg/ V;

= (m/V).g

= pg

 Specific Weight = pg
 ST Unit: N/m3
 Specific weight of pure water at 4°C is 9.81 KN/m

(iii) Relative Density

 The density of water is maximum at 4°C and is equal to 1.0 x 103 kgm-3,

(iv) Specific Gravity

It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of the given fluid to the specific weight of pure water at 4°C.

(v) Pressure : Pressure in A Fluid

 The pressure exerted by a fluid is defined as the force per unit area at a point within the fluid.
 The SI unit of pressure is Nm- and is also called Pascal (Pa).
 The other common pressure units are atmosphere and bar.
 1 atm = 1.01325 bar.

1. Atmospheric Pressure,

2. Gauge Pressure

3. Absolute Pressure

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

1. Atmospheric Pressure: Force exerted by air column on unit cross-section area of sea level is called atmospheric
pressure (P0)

 Barometer: is used to measure atmospheric pressure which was discovered by Torricelli.

Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place and at a particular place from time to time.

2. Gauge Pressure: Also called overpressure or excess pressure, is the pressure of a system above atmospheric pressure
(P-P0)

3. Absolute Pressure: Sum of atmospheric and gauge pressure is called absolute pressure.

→Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

→Pabs = P0 + hpg

More Examples:

 Passengers when travelling in an aeroplane remove ink from their fountain pen as the atmospheric pressure decreases
when the aeroplane is up in the sky.
 Bleeding from nose is caused when a person is there at higher altitudes, as the atmospheric pressure is less compared
with blood pressure. Thus the blood vessels exposed inside the nose are more likely to burst and can cause bleeding.

(vi) Compressibility:

 Compressibility is the measure of how much a given volume changes instantaneously when placed under pressure. In
better words, it is defined as a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure
change.
 SI Unit of compressibility is Meter square per Newton or m²/N

(vii) Viscosity:

 Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape or movement of neighboring portions
relative to one another.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 Viscosity denotes opposition to low.
 The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (Pl).
 Its other units are Ns m-2 or Pa s.
 The dimensions of viscosity are [ML-1T-1].
Generally thin liquids like water, alcohol etc. are less viscous than thick liquids like coal tar, blood, glycerin etc.

(viii) Surface Tension :

The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to cohesive nature of its molecules.

Examples :

 Wet Hairs
 Blade on Water
 Cream on Milk
 Spherical Shape of Water Drops
 Deo Spray
 Floating Needle (Sui)
 Clinical Test for Jaundice
 Soaps and Detergents
 Walking on Water (Small insects)

Temperature effect:

Types of Surface Tension:

Physics notes by Shubham Sir
1. Cohesive
2. Adhesvice

1. Cohesive Forces:

Forces between same atoms/molecules

Examples:

Water-Water, Miik-Milk Mercury - Mercury

2. Adhesive Forces:

Forces between different atoms/molecules

Examples:

Water-Milk, Water-Cloth, Pen-Paper, Marker-Board Kaajal / Lipstick-Skin

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

(ix) Capillarity Rise :

Capillary rise or capillarity is a phenomenon in which liquid spontaneously rises or falls in a narrow space such as a thin
tube or in the voids of a porous material. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity.

Applications :

 In pen, ink rises due to capillarity.

 In plants, the water is transferred to the leaves from the roots by capillarity.
 Cotton clothes absorb water by capillarity.
 The rise of any oil in the wick.
 Placing a straw into a glass of water.
 Dipping paper towels into water.
 The sap rising from roots in trees.

(x) Buoyancy : Buoyancy, or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or
fully immersed object.

In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid.

Magnitude of buoyant force depend on the density of fluid.

Object of less density than that of the liquid will float, and Object with more density than that of fluid will sink.

Ex : Cork (Lighter hance Float) & Iron Nail (Denser hence , Sink)

Day to Day Examples:

 Boat sailing on the river,

 Iceberg floating on water,
 A person with a life vest floating on water,
 Ship floating on the ocean,
 Helium batloon rising in the air,
 Men swimming in Swimming pool feels light
 When bucket is full of water in well it feels light and when its out it feels heavy
 We pushing a empty bottle in water, it jumps back due to buoyancy as water puts an upward force.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Pascal's Law
 pressure applied to a confined fluid at rest is transmitted equally
 Undiminished to every part of the fluid and the walls of the container.
 This principle is used in a hydraulic presses, brakes, jack or lift, etc.

Archimedes' Principle
 When a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of
fluid displaced by it.
 It has various applications like:
 Designing of Ships and Sub-Marines
 Lactometers: To Check Purity of Milk
 Hydrometer: To check Density of liquids

Oscillations, Sound And Waves

 Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears. There are other forms of energy like
mechanical energy, heat, energy, light, energy etc.
 Sound is a form of energy that we hear. A vibrating object i.e., anything that moves back and forth, to-and-fro from
side to side, in and out and up and down produces sound, as the object (vibrating) has a certain amount of energy.
 Sound requires material medium to travel like & solid, a liquid or a gas.
 If there is no medium to vibrate then no sound is possible, sound cannot travel in a vacuum.
 Air is a poor conductor of sound compared with solids and liquids.

Waves
A Wave is form of disturbance which travels through a material medium due to the repeated periodic motion of the
particles of the medium about their mean position.

*A sudden and short duration disturbance is called a Pulse

Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Waves are of two types:

(i) Mechanical Waves.

(ii) Electromagnetic Waves

1. Mechanical Waves

 A mechanical wave is a periodic disturbance which requires a material medium for its propagation.
 The properties of these waves depend on the medium so they are known as elastic Waves, such as
 Sound-Waves,
 Water Waves,
 Waves in Stretched String etc.

On the basis of motion of particles the mechanical waves are classified into two parts.

(i) Transverse Waves

(ii) Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Wave:

 When the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave, the wave is known as the transverse wave.
 For example, waves produced in a stretched string, waves on the surface liquid.
 These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.
 These waves can travel in solids and liquids only.

Longitudinal Wave:

 When the particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave then the wave is known as
the longitudinal wave.
 Particles do not move from one place to another but they simply oscillate back and forth about their position of rest,
this is how sound waves propagates
 For example Sound Wave in Ai, Waves in a solid Rod produced by scrabbing etc.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 These waves travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions.
 These waves can travel in solids, liquids and gases.

2. Electromagnetic Waves

 The waves which do not require medium for their propagation are called electromagnetic waves. Travels at a speed of
3 x 108 m/s
 This means that these waves can travel through vacuum also

For Example,

 Light Waves,
 X-rays,
 Y-rays,
 Infrared Waves.
 Radio waves,
 Microwaves, etc.

 These waves are transverse in nature.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Sound Waves
 Form of energy which produces sensation of hearing.
 Are Longitudinal Mechanical waves.
 Have low frequency and high wavelength.
 Can't travel in vacuum.
 Sair =346

Speed of Sound:
Highest Speed : in Aluminium
In Vaccum: Zero (0).

Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound

 Temperature: Speed of sound, is directly proportional to the square root of absolute temperature i.e., v T
 Pressure: The speed of sound is independent of pressure.
 Density: Speed of sound is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the gas.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Humidity: Humid air is lighter than dry air that is why speed of sound increase as humidity increases.

Basic Terms Related to Sound Waves

 frequency
 amplitude
 speed

We know that the wave is small disturbance travelling through medium. When a wave propagates in the medium, particles
of medium vibrates about their mean position. The counting or observations of these vibrations gives us some basic details
which explain the various parameters of wave. Let's learn all the parameters in detail.

Time Period (T): Time taken in one complete vibration (full cycle) is called it's time period SI unit is second (s).

Frequency (n): Frequency is defined as the number of vibrations (or oscillations) completed by a particle in one second.

Frequency (v) = 1/T

Its SI unit is hertz

Wavelength (I): The distance travelled by the wave during the time in which any one particle of the medium completes
one vibration about its mean position.

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position.

 The speed v, frequency v, and wavelength , of sound are related by the equation,
 The speed of sound depends primarily on the nature and the temperature of the transmitting medium.
 Sound properties such as pitch, loudness and quantity are determined by the corresponding wave properties.
 Loudness is a physiological response of the ear to the intensity of sound.
 The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the intensity of sound.
 Speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gas.

Characteristics of Sound Pitch

Pitch
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 It is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the frequency of an emitted sound and is the characteristic which
distinguishes a shrill (or sharp) sound from a grave (or flat) sound.
 Faster the vibration of the source, higher is the frequency and higher is the pitch.
 Similarly low pitch sound corresponds to low frequency.
 A high pitch sound is called a shrill sound (humming of a bee, sound of guitar).
 A low pitch sound is called a hoarse sound (roar of a lion, car horn, etc.)
 The pitch of female voice is higher than the pitch of male voice.

Loudness
 Loudness or softness of a sound wave is the sensation that depends upon its amplitude. The loudness of sound is a
measure of the sound energy reaching the ear per second.
 When we strike a table top with more force, it vibrates and produces loud sound waves which have more amplitude.
 The loudness depends on intensity as well as upon the sensitiveness of ear.
 Loudness of sound is co-related with the sound level measured in decible (dB),
 Sound above 80dB is unpleasant for human ear.

Reflection of sound
It is a common experience that when we shout into a well or inside an empty hall, or inside a dome, we hear our own
sound after a short time. It happens because our sound is reflected from the walls.

When sound waves strike a surface, they return of back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called reflection of
sound

Laws of Reflection of sound

 Angle of incidence is equal the angle of reflection r.

 The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal all lie in the same plane.

Echo
The Phenomenon of hearing back our own sound is called an echo. It is due to successive reflection from the surfaces of
obstacles. Time for echo to reach = 0.1 s.

Conditions for the formation of Echoes

 The minimum distance between the source of sound and the reflecting body should be 17.2 metres.
 The wavelength of sound should be less than the height of the reflecting body.
 The intensity of sound should be sufficient so that it can be heard after reflection.

Speaking tube or megaphone: You must have seen in fairs or tourist spots, people using megaphones addressing a
group of people. Megaphone is simply a horn-shaped tube. The sound waves are prevented from spreading out by
successive reflections and are confined to the air in the tube. For the same reason, loud speakers also have horn-shaped.

Reverberation

Persistence of sound after its production is stopped, is called reverberation. When a sound is produced in a big hall, its
waves reflect from the walls and travel back and forth. Due to this, energy does not reduce and the sound persist.

Use of Reverberation of Sound:

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Megaphones, Shehanais, Trumpets, Horns
 Stethoscope (Used by doctors to hear lungs sound and heartbeat)
 Curved dome of concert halls

Range of Hearing:

On the basis of frequency range:

(a) Infrasonic Waves : <20 Hz (Hertz)

Eg. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Elephants, Hippopotamus & whales

(b) Audible sound waves - 20Hz-20,000Hz]

Eg. Sensitive to Human Ear.

(c) Ultrasonic Waves- > 20,000Hz

Eg. Creatures like Dog, Cat, Bat, Mosquito can detect these waves. Bats can not only detect but also produce ultrasonic
sound waves.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Applications Of Ultrasound:
 Cleaning Hard to Reach Parts. They are used for cleaning Hard to reach places.
 Detecting Cracks in Metal Blocks. Metal blocks are used in building bridges, machines etc.
 Echocardiography (ECG)
 Breaking Kidney Stones.
 Ultrasound Scanners to detect any abnormality in various body organs.
 Ultrasonography is also used for examination of the foetus during pregnancy to detect congenial defects and growth
abnormalities.
 SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) Sonar is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance,
direction and speed of underwater objects.
 Sonar consists of a transmitter and a detector.

HOW DO WE HEAR?

 We are able to hear with the help of an extremely sensitive device called the ear. It allows us to convert pressure
variations in air with audible frequencies into electric signals that travel to the brain via the auditory nerve

 The outer ear is called "pinna”. It collects the sound from the surroundings. The collected sound passes through the
auditory canal,
 At the end of the auditory canal there is a thin membrane called the ear drum or tympanic membrane.
 When a compression of the medium reaches the eardrum the pressure on the outside of the membrane increases and
forces the eardrum inward. Similarly, the eardrum moves outward when a rarefaction reaches it.
 In this way the eardrum vibrates.
 The vibrations are amplified several times by three bones (the hammer, anvil and stirrup) in the middle ear.
 The middle ear transmits the amplified pressure variations received from the sound wave to the inner ear. In the inner
car, the pressure variations are turned into electrical signals by the cochlea.
 These electrical signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve, and the brain interprets them as sound.

PERIODIC MOTION:
 A motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time, is called Periodic motion.
 The fixed interval of time after which motion repeats itself is called Time period.
 Eg- Revolution of Earth around Sun, Rotation of Earth on its axis:

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Oscillatory Motion
 Motion in which an object moves back & forth repeatedly about a fixed position is called oscillatory motion.
 Eg- Motion of Loaded spring & Simple Pendulum.

*All oscillatory motions are periodic motions but all periodic motions are not oscillatory.

Example:-

 Oscillating pendulum.
 The vibration of the eardrum.
 The motion of a spring.
 Swing in the park.

SIMPLE PENDULUM:

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 It consists of a small metal ball suspended by a long thread from rigid support, such that the bob is free to swing back
and forth.
 The distance of pendulum from its mean position is called its displacement.
 The maximum displacement of the pendulum on either side of its mean position is called its amplitude.
 Time period is the time taken by the pendulum to complete one full oscillation.

 Frequency is the no of full oscillations completed by the pendulum in one second.

 Second Pendulum is one whose time period is 2 seconds.

 I is the length of thread.

 A pendulum clock goes slow in summer and fast in winter.

Electricity
 It is something that a body attains when it loses or gains the electrons.
 Similar charges repel each other while opposite charges attract each other.
 Charge is a scalar quantity & its SI unit is Coulomb (C).
 Electricity is associated with the charge.
 The proton possesses positive charge (+e) and
 electron possesses an equal negative charge (-e), where, e = 1.6x 10-19c
 Conductors are those substances which allow passage ofelectrical charge to flow through them and have very low
electrical resistance.
 Metals like silver, iron, copper are conductors.
 Human body and Earth act like a conductor.
 Siver is the bestconductor.
 Insulators are those substance which do not allow passage of charge through themselves.
 Er: Rubber, wood, mica, glass, ebonite are insulators.
 Semieonductors are materials which allow the electricab charges to flow better than Insulators, but less than
Conductots
 Examples are Silicon and Gefmanium
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 Electronic condition in a semi -conductor takes place due to both electrons and holes.
 Electric current alwavs flows from the point of high potential.
 The potential difference between two Conductors is equal to the work done in conducting unit positive charges from
one Conductor to the other Conductors through a metallic.
 The flow of charges is called the current and it is the rate at which electric charges pass through a Conductor.
 The charges flows from high potential energy to low potential energy.
 A closed loop of current is called an electric circuit.
 The unit for Current is Ampere [A].
 It is Scalar quantity.
 The obstruction offered to flow of current by the conducting wire is called its resistance in passage of electricity.
 The unit of resistance is Ohm.
 The resistance varies in different materials.
 For example :
 Low Resistance: Gold Silver & Copper, which means that current can flow easily through these materials.
 High Resistance: Glass, plastics and wood which means that current cannot pass through these materials easily.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

It is observed that the

 Ammeter reading decreases to one-half when the length of the wire is doubled.
 The amnmeter reading is increased when a thicker wire of the same material and of the same length is used in the
circuit.
 A change in ammeter reading is observed when a wire of different material of the same length and the Same area of
cross-section is used.
 On applying Ohrn's law, we find that

Resistance of the Conductor Depends

(i) on its length,

(ii) on its area of cross-section, and

(iii) on the nature of its material.

Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a uhiform metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length (/)
and inversely proportional to the area of cross- Section (A).

Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

 Hans Christian Oersted, one of the leading scientists accidently discovered that a compass needle got deflected when
an electric current passed through a metallic wire placed nearby.
 Through this obseryation oersted showed that Hectricity and magnetism were related phenomena.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Magnetic Field:

Region around a magnet in which its force can be detected is known as magnetic field.

It has both magnitude and direction.

Properties of Magnetic Fiela Lịnes (MFL):

 They are directed from north pole to south pole outside the magnet and vice-versa inside the magnet.
 MFL are closed and curved.
 They never intersect
 The degree of closeness of the field lines gives its relative strength.
 If the MFL are close, the field is stronger, if field lines are far apart, magnetic field is weak.

Magnetic Field of Earth

 The Earth itself behaves as a magnet which causes a freely suspended magnet(or magnetic needle) to point always in
a particular direction: north & south.
 The shape of the earth's magnetic field resembles that of an imaginary bar magnet of length one-fifth of earth's
diameter buried at its center.
 The axis of earth's magnetic field is inclined at an angle of about 15° with the geographical axis.
 The earth's magnetism is due to the magnetic effect of current (which is flowing in the liquid core at the centre of the
earth). Thus, earth is a huge electromagnet.

Magnetic Field due to a Current-Carrying Conductor

Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 MFL are concentric circles.
 Magnitude of magnetic field increases if current is increased.
 Magnitude of magnetic field decreases as we move away from centre.

Right Hand Thumb Rule:

 If a current cafrying conductor is imagined to be held in right hand such that thumb points in direction of currents,
then curled fingers of hand indicate the direction of magnetic field.
 If current flows in upward direction then direction will be anticlockwise.

Magnetic field due to current through a circular loop

 Every point on the wire carrying current give rise to the magnetic field, appearing as a straight line at the centre of
loop.
 By applying Right hand thumb rule, can find the direction of magnetic field at every section of the wire.

Magnetic field due to current carrying Solenoid

Solenoid: A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 When electric current flows through a solenoid, magnetic field is set up around it similar to that of a bar magnet.
 One end of a solenoid acts as a north pole and other as south pole.
 Magnetic field is represented by straight magnet field lines parallel and very close to each other.
 Magnetic field inside a long solenoid decreases as we move towards the ends of solenoid because magnetic field lines
near the ends of solenoid start spreading out.

Electromagnet:
 An electromagnet is a magnet consisting of a long coil of insulated copper wire wrapped around a soft iron core that is
magnetised only when electric current is passed through the coil.

Factors Affecting the e Strength of an Electromagnet:

 The no. of turns in coil: Directly proportional.
 The current flowving in coil: : Directly proportional.
 The length of air gap between its poles: Inversel proportional.

This is a Maglev train (Megnatic leviation train) which does not need wheels. It floats above its track by strong
magnatic forces produced by computer-controlled electromagnets.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Magnetism in Human Beings
 Extremely weak electric currents are produced in the human body by the movement ofcharged particles called ions.
These are called jomie Currents.
 When the weak ionic currents flow along the nerve cells, they produce magnetic field in our body. For example, when
we try to touch something with our hand, our nerves carry electric impulse to the appropriate muscles. And this
electric impulse creates a temporary magnetism in the body.
 The magnetism produced in the human body is very, very weak as compared to the earth's magnetism. The two main
organs of the human body where the magnetic field produced is quite significant are the heart ard the brain.

Force on a current carrying conductor

 Electric current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic field.
 The field so produced exerts a force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the conductor.
 French scientist Andre Marie Ampere (I775-1836) suggested that the magnet must also exert an equal and opposite
force on the current carrying conductor.

Fleming's Left Hand Rule

 Stretch the left hand 'such that the thumb, the first finger and the ceptral fingeg are mutually perpendicular to each
other.
 If the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field and central finger points in the direction of current then the
thumb will point in the direction of force.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Electric Motor
 An Electric motor is a rotating device that converts

electrical energy into mechanical energy.

 It works on the basis of rule suggested by

Marie Ampere and Fleming's Left hand rule.

 Principle: It is based on the principle that when

rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed through it, two equal and opposite forces act on the coil
which rotates it continuously.

Transformer:
 A transformer isa device used in the power transmission ofelectric energy. The transmission current is AC. It is
commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits.
The transformer works on the basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.
 There are primarily tvo types of Transformer based on the operating voltage. The following are some of them:

1. Step Up Transformer

2. Step Down Transformer

[Link] Up Transformer : A transformer that increases the voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary
winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer.

[Link] Down Transformer : A Step Down Transformer is the one which reduces the output voltage that means it
functions for converting high voltage with low current into a low voltage with high current.

Energy Losses in a Transformer

We used an ideal transformer in the previous equations (without any energy losses). However, some energy losses do
occur in actual transformer for the following reasons:

 Flux Leakage: Because some flux leaks from the core, not all flux generated by the primary coil make it to the
secondary coil. This occurs as a result of the core's inadequate design or the presence of air holes in the core. It is
possible to lower it by wrapping the primary and secondary coils oyer each other. It can also be lowered if the core is
well-designed.
 Windings Resistance: Because the wire used for the windings has some electrical resistance, energy is wasted as a
result of the heat generated in the windings. These are mitigated in high current, low voltage windings by utilizing
thick wire with a high conductive substance.
 Eddy Currents: The alternating magnetic flux creates eddy currents in the iron core, resulting in energy losses
through heating. By using a laminated core, the impact is decreased.
 Hysteresis Loss: In each AC cycle, the alternating magnetic field reverses the mnagnetization of the core. The loss
of energy in the core occurs as heat owing to hysteresis loss, which is minimized by employing a magnetic material
with a low hysteresis loss.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Light
 Luminous Objects: Those who have their own light. Ex-Sun, Other stars, Electric Bulb, Candle, Tubelight, Torch,
Fire,
 Non-Luminous Obiects : Those who don't have their own light. Ex Table, Clay, Chair, Planets, Wall, Book, Bed,
Mirror.
 It is radiation which makes our eyes able to see objec
 Its speed is 3 x 108 m/s.
 It is the form of energy.
 It is a transverse wave.
 It takes 8 min 19s to reach on the Earth from the Sun,
 Light reflected from Moon takes 1.28 Sec to reach Earth
 It represents the phenomenon of reflection, refraction interference, differaction, scattering & polarisation

Nature of Light
 There are wo theories about the nature of light: wave theory of light and particle theory of light,
 According to Wave theory : Light consists of electromagnetic waves which do not require a maicrial medium (like
solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation.
 According toee thears Light is composed of particles which travel in a straight line at very high speed.
 Physics experiments over the past hundred years or so have demonstrated that light has a dual nature (double nature)
light exhibits the properties of both waves and particles (depending on the situation it is in).

Reflection of Light

 The refurn oflight into the sañe medium after striking a surfacejs called reflection.
 Silver : Best Reffector of Light.

Type of Mirrors:
1- Plane

2- Spherical Mirrors

Laws of Reflection

 There are two laws of reflection

 The angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie in the same plane at point of incidence.

Reflection from Plane Mirror

•i) Image size =object size

•ii) Image distance =object distance

iii) Image is always laterally inverted (or sideways reversed).

iv) Image is always virtual. It cannot be received on a screen.

v) The image formed in a plane mirror is erect. It is the same side up as the object.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Uses of Mirrors
 Plane mirrors: Looking Glass, Bathroom Mirror, Dressing Mirror, Barber Shops, Making Periscope &
Kaleidoscope.
 Concave Mirror: Shaving mirrors, Used Doctors, Shades of Table Lamp, For Sear Lights.
 Convex Mirror: Back View mirrors in vehicles, in Street Lamps, Shop Security Mircor etc.

Focat Length (f),

R= Radius of Curvature

u=object distance,

p= image distance

f=focal length of the mirror

Magnification (m):

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Image formation by a concave mirror for different positions of the object

Image formation by a convex mirror for different positions of the object

Refraction of Light

 When a ray of light passes from one medium to other, it bends frorn its path. This phenomenon of bending of light ray
is called as refraction of light.
 When a ray of light travels from one mediun to another the wavelength and velocity of light changes, but the
frequency does not change.

Laws of Refraction
There are two laws of re fraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point, of incidence all lie on the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of theangle of incidence to the sine of the añgle ofrefraction isa constant for a given medium.

where, 1 2 is called refractive index of second medium with resct te firstmedjur Y

Refractive Index : (nm)

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Factopedia

 The ability of a medium to refract light is also expressed in terms of its optical density.
 Optical density has adefinite connotation.
 It is not the same as hass density.
 We have been using the terms "rarer medium' and denser medium' in this Chapter. It actually
 means 'optically rarer medium' and 'optically denser medium', respectively.
 When can we say that a medium is optically denser than the other? In comparing two media, the one with the larger
refractive index isoptically denser medium than the other. The other medium of lower refractive index is optically
rarer. The speed of light is higher in a rarer medium than a denser medium. Thus, a ray of light travelling from a rarer
medium to a denser medium slows down and bends towards the normal. When it travels from a denser medium to a
rarer medium, it speeds up and bends away from the normal.

Lenses
A lens is a uniform refracting medium bounded by two spherical suraces or one spherical and one plane surface.

Lenses are mainly of two types

1. Convex lens
2. Concave lens

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Image Formed by a Convex Lens

Image Formed by a Concave Lens

Note : Concave lens will always give a virtual, erect and diminished image, irrespective of
the position of the object.

Power of Lens
It is the reciprocal of focal length of lens. It is measured in metre.

P= Power

F= Focal Length in Metre

The SI unit of power of a lens is 'dioptre'. It is denoted by the letter D.

If f is expressed in metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres.

Thus, I dioptre is the power ofa lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m-l.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
You may note that the power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negativé.

Human Eye
The human eye is roughly spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.

The various parts of eye and their fugctions:

 Retina: It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on which image is formed. It contains rods and cones.
 Cornea: It is a thin membrane which coves the eyetrail. It acts like a lens which refracts the light entering the eye.
 Aqueous humour: It is fluid which fills the space between cornea and eye lens.
 Eye lens: It is a convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like material. Ts curvatue can be adjusted with the
help of ciliaty muscles.

 Pupil: It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. It appears black because light falling on it
goes into the eye and does not come back.
 Ciliary muscles: These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens and can modify the shape of eye lens which
leads to the variation in focal lengths.
 Iris: It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of the pupil.
 Optical nerve: These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in the form of electrical signals.
 Blind spot: A small area of the retina insensitive to light where the optic nerve leaves the eye

Functions of IRIS and Pupil

 The iris controls the amount of light entering the cyes. If the amount of light received by the eyelarge (as during thc
day time), then the iris contracts the pupil (makes the pupil small) and reduces the amount of light entering the eye.
 If the amount of light received by the eye is small (as in a dark room or during night), the iris expands the pupil
(makes the pupil large) so that more light may enter the eyes.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Rods are the rod-shaped cells present in the retina of an cyelwhich aro sengitiye to dim light.
 Cones are the cohe-shaped oells present in the retina of an eye which are sensitive to bright light (or normal light).
 Cone cells cause the sensation of colour of objects is our eyes. They do not function in dim light.

Power of Accommodation :
 The ability of an eye to focus the distant objects aswell as the nearby objects on the retina by changing the focal
length (or converging power) of its lens is called accommodation.
 A normal eye has a power of accommodation which enables objects as far as infinity and as close as 25 cm to be
focused on the retina.

The point farthest from the eye at which an object can be seen distinctly, is called far point.

The defects s of vision are also known as defects of eye. There are few common defects of vision (or defects of eye).
These are :
1. Myopia (Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness).
2. Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness or Far-sightedness).
3. Presbyopia.
4. Cataract.
5. Astigmatism.

1. Myopia :
 A defect of v vision due to which a person cannot see the distant objects clearly (though he can see the nearby objects
clearly).
 The defect of eye called myopia (or short- sightedness) is caused:
 due to high converging power of eye-lens (because of its short focal length), or
 due to eye-ball being too long.
 Concave lens in used to currect Myopia.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

2. Hypermetropia
A defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the nearby objects clearly (though he can see the distant objects
clearly).
The defect of eye called hypermetropia (or long- sightedness) is caused:
(i) due to low converging power of eye-lens (because of its large focal length), or
(ii) due to eye-ball being too short.
Convex Lens is used to correct Hypermetropia.

 It is also possible that the same person has both the defects of vision myopia as well as hypermetropia.

 person suffering from myopia as well as hypermetropia uses speetacles having bifocal lenses in which upper part
consists ofa concave lens (to correct myopia) used for distant vision and the lower part consists of a convex lens (to
correct hypermetropia) used for reading purposes.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

3. Presbyopia
 A defect of vision due to which an old person cannot see the nearby objects clearly due to loss of power of
accommodation of the eye.
 An old person having presbyopia cannot read a book or newspaper comfortably and clearly withous spectacles.
 Presbyopia occurs in old age due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishine flexibility of the
eye-lens.
 Presbyopia defect is corrected in the same way as hypermetropia by using spectacles having convey lenses

4. Cataract
A cataract is a cloudy area in the lens of your eye (the clear part
of the eye that helps to focus light).
Cataracts are very common as you get older. In fact, more than
half of all Americans age 80 or older eith
have cataracts or have had surgery to get ridof cataracts.

5. Astigmatism
 It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person cannot see (focus) simultaneously horizontal and vertical
lines both.
 Cylindrical lens is use to correct astigmatism.

Vision By Both Eyes

Prism
Prism is a uniform transparent refracting medium bounded by plane surfaces inclined at some angles forming a triangular
shape.

Angle of Deviation

The angle subtended between the incident ray and emergent ray, is called angle of deviation (d).

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
 The splitting up of white light into seven colours on passing through a transparent medium like a glass prism is called
dispersion of light.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 White light is a mixture of seven colours.

Primary Colours :

Red, Blue and Green are known as the three primary colours.
Those are often regarded as basic colours in nature.
By mixing these colours in different proportions,
all other colours may be obtained.

When a beam of white light is passed through a glass prism, it is split up into a band of colours called spectrum. This is
called dispersion of white light.

Rainbow
A rainbow is beautiful natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused by the dispersion of sunlight
by water droplets present in the atmosphere.

The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the sunlight then reflect it internally and finally refract
it again when it comes out of the rain drops. Due to the dispersion of sunlight and internal reflection by the water droplets
we see the rainbow colours.
The first glass prism disperses (splits) white light into seven colours. The second glass prism (which has been placed
upside down) recombines the seven colours of spectrum to give back white light.
Recombination of Spectrum Colours to give white light

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Application of Refraction
 Twinkling Of Stars
 Rivers Appear Shallow
 Coin In A Beaker Filled With Water Appears Raised
 Pencil In The Beaker Appear Brolen.
 Fish Inside Water Tank
 Lemon Inside Glass Of Water
 At Sunset And Sunrise, Due To Refraction, Sun Appears Above Horizon, While It Is Actually Below Horizon.
 Writing On A Paper Appears Lifted When A Glass Slab Is Placed Over The Paper.
 Advanced Sunrise & Advanced Sunset.
 Letter's Under Thick Glass Slab Appeared Raised.
Application of Total Internal Reflection
 Mirage Formation In Desert
 Brilliance Of Diamond
 Optical Fibres
 Loom In Cold Countries
 Test Tube Filled With Water
 Prisms Designed To Bend Light By 90 Or By 180° Male Use Of Total Internal Reflection.
 Spackling Of Diamond Is Due To Multiple Total Internal Reflection Taking Place Inside The Diamond.
 The Air Bubbles In Glass Paper Weight Appear Silvery White Due To Total Internal Reflection.
 Endoscopy : Watching internal Organs Of The Body.

Application of Scattering of Light

 Red Colour : Least Scattered (Thats Why- Danger Signals Are Of Red Colour).
 Violet Colour : Most Scattered
 Blue Colour Of Sky IL Dug Tb Scattering Of Light
 The Brilliant Red Colour Of Rising And Setting Sun Is Due To
 Clouds Appear White Due To Scattering of Light.
 Sea And Oceans Appeared Blue Due To Scattering Of Light.
 In The Absence Of Atmosphere, There Would Be No Scattering Of Light And Sky Will Be Black
 Sky Appears Black To Astronauts Prom Space Because There Is No Atmosphere In Space And Therefore, No
Scattering Of Light Takes Place.

Applications of Polarisation
 Polaroids Are Used In Trains & Aeroplanes.
 Polaroid Glasses Are Used To Watch 3d Movies.
 Light Of Car Approaching From Other Side.
 Polaroid Are Used in Windscreens & Headlights Of Car / Vehicle To Cut Off The Dazzling
Application of Dispersion of Light
 The Rainbow is The Perfect Example Of Dispersion.
 Prism
 Compact Disk (Cd)
 Transmission Grating
 Dispersion Of Light Through The Soap Bubbles

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Example's Of Doppler's Effect
 By police to check over speeding of vehicles. (CAPF 2020)
 At airport to guide the aircraft.
 To study heart beats and blood flow in different parts of the body
 The frequency of a whistling engine heard by a person standing on the platform appears to increase, when the engine
is approaching the platform, and it appears to decrease when the engine is moving away from the platform.
 The pitch of the horn of a motor car, appears to increase, when the motorist approaches the policeman, and it appears
to decrease when the motorist is moving away from the policeman.
 An astrophysicist applies the principle of Doppler's effect to measure the velocities of planet and stars.
 Doppler's effect is used to study heart beats & blood flow in different parts of body.
 In Military to detect enemy aircraft.

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

 Heat is a form of energy which is responsible for the change in thermal condition of a body. It is also described as
energy flow due to difference in temperature The branch of science which deals with the conversion of heat into
mechanical work and vice-versa is Thermodynamics.
HEAT
 Heat or thermal energy is the sum of all types of kinetic energies (translational, vibrational, rotational) of all the
molecules of the body.
 The SI unit of heat energy is joule (J), CGS unit of heat energy is Calorie.
 "One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of one gram of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C."
 1 Calorie = 4.186 joule
TEMPERATURE
 Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is a Scaler Quantity.
 Thermal Equilibrium - Heat Gained - Heat Lost...
 When two bodies are in contact, heat always flows from a higher temperature to the lower temperature.
 Thermometer is used to measure the temperature of body.
 Clinical thermometer is used to measure our body temperature. The range of this thermometer is from 35°C to
42°[Link] normal temperature of human body is 37°C or 98.4°F
 Mercury (Hg) is used for general purpose thermometer. [Freezing Point (Hg)= -38.8°C & Boiling Point
(Hg)= 356.7°C]
 To measure temperature above 800°C, we use Pyrometer.
Absolute Temperature
The lowest temperature of-273.16° C at which a gas is supposed to have zero volume and zero pressure and at which
entire molecular motion stops is called absolute zero temperature.
A new scale of temperature starting with -273.16°C by Lord Kelvin as zero. This called Kelvin scale or absolute scale of
temperature. T(K) = t°C+273.16

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Temperature Scale
In order to measure the temperature, two-points are fixed, the lower fixed point is ice point and upper fixed point is
boiling point of water.
Celsius Scale (°C): This scale was designed by Andre Celsius in 1710. In this scale the melting point of ice is taken as
0°C and the boiling point of water is taken as 100°C and the space between the two points is divided into 100 equal parts.
Fahrenheit Scale (°F): This scale was designed by Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1717. In this scale the melting point of ice is
taken as 32°F and the boiling point of water is taken as 212°F and the space between the points is divided equally into 180
parts.
Kelvin Scale (K): This was designed by Kelvin. In this scale the melting point of ice is taken as 273K and boiling point
of water is taken as 373K and the space between the points is divided equally into 100 parts.
Relation between various temperature scales
( )
 0
-40 , is the temperature at which Celsius & Fahrenheit thermometer read same.
 574,25°, Fahrenheit& Kelvin read same.
 Specific Heat(C): The amount of feat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance by 1°C.
 Mercury has low specific heat,

Triple point of water

The state at which three phases of water-ice, liquid water and water vapour are equally stable and co- exist in equilibrium.
It is unique because it occurs at a specific temperature of 273.16 K and a specific pressure of 0.46 cm of Hg column.

Behaviour of Water
Almost all liquids expand with increase in temperature but when temperature of water is increased from 0°C to 4°C, its
volume decreases.
If the temperature is increased above 4°C, its volume starts increasing.
Clearly density of water is maximum at 4°C.

Humidity
Absolute Humidity : It is the amount of water vapour present in a unit volume of air.
Hygrometer is used to measure the humidity in air.
Relative humidity: It is defined l as the ratio of the amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air at a given
temperature to the amount of water vapour required 10 saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature.

The relative humidity during rainy season increases and the rate of vaporisation decreases. This is why clothes dry earlier
in winter than in rainy season.

Heat Flow from high temp. to low temperature.

There are 3 types of heat flow.
1- Conduction,
2- Convection,
3- Radiation

1. Conduction: Process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of an object is known as
Conduction. In solids generally ,heat is transferred by the process of Conduction.
Materials which/allow heat to pass through them are known as Conductors.
Example: Aluminum, Iron, and Copper.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Material which do not allow. heat to pass through then known as insulators
Example: Plastic, Wood, etc.

Convection:
In convection heat is carried from one place to another by actual movement of liquids and gases.
In liquids and gases the heat is transferred by convection.

Radiation:
Transfer of heat by radiation does not require any medium. It can take place whether a medium is present or not.
Dark coloured objects absorb radiation better than the light - coloured objects.
Thermal Expansion: Increase in body dimensions due to Increase in temperature.
Increase in Length is called - Linear Expansion.
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of lg of a substance through 1° is called Specific Heat
Capacity of the substance.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

List of Scientific Instruments & Their Uses

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 Invention and Discovery
Inventions/ Discoveries Scientist / Persons
Archimedean Screw Archimedes
Atom Neils bohr
Atomic number Mosley
Atomic Physics Enrico fermi
Atomic Structure Bhor and rutherford
Atomic Theory Dalton
Automatic Gearbox Herman Fottinger
Adding Machine Pascal
Aeroplane Wright Brothers
Bomb Edward teller
Boson SN bose
Boyle’s Law Boyle
Brallie Louis barille
Breaking up the nucleus of an atom Rutherford
Chemotherapy Paul Ehrlich
Chloroform James Harrison and James Young Simps
Cholera Bacillus Robert Koch
Cinematography Thomas Alva Edison
Classical Field Theory Michal Faraday
Computer Charles Babbage
Cosmic Rays RA Millikan
Crescograph JC Bose
Crystal Dynamics CV Raman
Electrons JJ Thomson
Solar System Copernicus
Specific Gravity Archimides
Dynamite Alfred B. Nobel
Dynamo Michal Faraday
Effect of Pressure on Trough Bodies Meghnad Saha
Electric Battery Alessandro Volta Heitz
Electrical Waves Heitz
Electricity Faraday
Electromagnet William Sturgeon
Electromagnetic field James Clerk Maxwell
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Electromagnetic Theory Maxwell
Electron Joseph J. Thomson
Electron Theory Bohr
Electric Measurement Thomas Alva Edition
Electric Motor(AC) Gauss
Fundamental Laws of Electric Attraction Nikola Tesla
Helium gas Coulomb
Hovercraft Andre-Marie-Ampere
Hydrogen Lockyer
Hydrophobia Christopher Cockere
Insulin Cavendish
Laughing Gas Louis Pasteur
Law of Electrolysis F. Banting
Law of gases Priestley
Law of gases Faraday
Law of Electrical Resistance Gay Lussac
Law of Gravitation Ohm
Law of Heredity Newton
Laws of Inheritance Gregory Mandel
Law of Motion Laws of Multiple Gregory Mandel
Proportion
Laws of Natural Selections Newton
Mathematical Astro-physics Dalton
Measurement of electrical energy Darwin
Mechanical Equivalent of heat Chandrasekhar
Mercury thermometer Joule, James Prescoft
Microphone Joules
Lift(Elevators) Farenheit
Lightning Conductors Jhann Phillips Reis, Alexander Graham
Bell, Elisha Gray, Amos [Link], and
Thomas Edition
Liquid Oxygen Otis Benjamin Franklin
Locomotive Dewar Richard Trevithick
Motion of the plantes Johannes Kepler
Motor car(petrol) Karl Butler
Movie projector Thomas Alva Edison
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Neon gas Ramsay, Travers
Neutron James Chadwick
Modern telescope Edwin Hubble
Molecular biology Francis Crick
Molecular scattering of light in fluid Ramanathan
Montessori method Maria Montessori
Newtonian revolution Isaac newton
Nuclear fussion Otto Hahn, bohr and fermi
Nylon Dr. Wallace H. Carothers
Origin of species Charies Darwin
Oxygen Priestly
paints Shalimar
Penicillin Alexander fleming
Periodic Law Mendeleef
Periodic Table of Elements Dmitri Mendleev
Quantum theory Max plank
Razor (safety) K.G. Gillete
Rabies Vaccine Louis Pasteur
Radio G. Marconi
Radar Dr. A. H. Taylor and L. C. Young
Positive electrons Anderson
Principle for lever (S.P. Gravity) Archimedes
Printing for the Blind Braille
Quanta Max planck
Quantum Cosmology Stephen Hawking
Quantum electrodynamics Richard Feynman
Quantum mechanics Max Born
Radio Transmitter Alexanderson
Radioactive dating Willard Libby
Radioactivity Marie curie
Radioactivity of Uranium Henry Becquerel
Radium Madame Curie
Raman Effect C. V. Raman
Refrigerator James Harrison, Alexander Catlin
Rubber (vulcanized) Charles Goodyear
Seismograph Roberts Mallet
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Sewing Machine Thomas Saint
Sextant Hadley
Ship (Steam) J.C. Perier
Ship (Turbine) Sir Charles Parsons
Spectroscopy Gustav Kirchhoff
Steam Engine James Watt
Steam engine (Condenser) James Watt
Steam engine (piston) Thomas Newcome
Steam turbine Parsons
Structure of DNA James Watson
Structure of the atom Ernest Rutherford
Submarine David Bushnell
Telescope Galileo
Television Baird
Theory of Evolution Darwin
Theory of Relativity Einstein
Thermometer Galileo Gallei
Transformer Michael faraday
Transistor Bardeen, Shockley, Brattain
Uranium Fusion Oho Hahn
Theory of the Atom John Dalton
Thermodynamics Ludwig Botzmann
Vaccination Edward jenner
x-ray Roentgen

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

 Sources of Energy
 A source of energy is one which can provide adequate amount of energy in a convenient form over a long period of
time.
1. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy
2. Renewable Sources of Energy
1. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy:
 Those sources of energy which have accumulated in nature over a very, very long time and cannot be quickly replaced
when exhausted are called non- renewable sources of energy.
 Non-renewable sources of energy are dug out from the earth.
 They are also called conventional sources of energy.
 They are also known as exhaustible sources of energy.
 The non-renewable sources of energy are : Fossil fuels (Coal, Petroleum and Natural gas), and Nuclear fuels (such as
Uranium).

2. Renewable Sources of Energy:

Those sources of energy which are being produced continuously in nature and are inexhaustible, are called renewable
sources of energy
 They are also called non-conventional sources of energy.
 They are also known as inexhaustible sources of energy or Alternate Sources of energy.
 The renewable sources of energy are : Hydro-energy (Energy from flowing, water); Wind energy; Solar energy;
Energy from sea(Tidal energy, Sea-wave energy and Ocean thermal energy) Geothermal energy ; Biomass energy
(Energy from bi-fuels such as Wood, Biogas and Alcohol); and Hydrogen.

Fuels:
 The materials which are burnt to produce heat energy are known as fuels.
 Examples of fuels are: Wood, Coal, Cooking gas (LPG), Kerosene, Diesel and Petrol.
 The amount of heat produced by burning 1 gram of a fuel completely is called its calorific value".
 The common unit of measuring calorific value is kilojoules per gram (kJ/g).
 The minimum temperature to which a fuel must be heated so that it may catch fire and start burning, is known as its
ignition temperature.
Fuel Calorific Value
1. Dung Cakes (Uple) 6 to 8 kJ/g
2. Wood 17 kJ/g
3. Coal 25 to 30 kJ/g
4. Charcoal 33 kJ/g
5. Alcohol (Ethanol) 30 kJ/g
6. Diesel (and Fuel oil) 45 kJ/g
7. Kerosene Oil 48 kJ/g
8. Petrol 50 kJ/g
9. Biogas 35 to 40 kJ/g
10. Natural gas (LPG) 33 to 50 kJ/g
11. Cooking gas (LPG) 50 kJ/g
12. Methane 55 kJ/g
13. Hydrogen gas 150 kJ/g

Features of Ideal or Good fuel :

 It should have a high calorific value.
 It should burn without giving out any smoke or harmful gases. That is, an ideal fuel (or good fuel) that which do.
 It should have a phoper ignition temperature.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 It should be cheap and easily available.
 It should be easy to handle, safe to transport, and Convenient to store.
 It should not leave much ash behind after burning.
 It should burn ‘smoothly.

Conventional Sources of energy:

 The traditional sources of energy which are familiar to most people are called conventional sources of energy.

FOSSILFUELS:
 A natural fuel formed deep under the earth from the pre-historic remains of living organisms (like plant and animals)
is called a fossil fuel.
 Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.
 They are dug out from the earth.
 Besides being used directly in homes, transport vehicles and industry, fossil fuels are the major source of energy for
generating electricity in power plants.

Coal :
 Coal is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon hydrogen and oxygen, and some free carbon. Small amounts of
nitrogen and sulphur compounds are absorb present in coal.
 A lot of heat is produced during the burning which makes it a good fuel.
 Coke is 98% carbon. Coke is a better fuel than coal because it produces more heat (than an equal mass of coal), and it
does not produce smoke while burning
 Bituminous is the very common variety of coal.

Uses of Coal :
 Coal is used as : a fuel for heating purposes in homes and in industry. In thermal power plants for generating
electricity. Coal is used to make coke. And this coke is then used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals.
 Coal is used in the manufacture of fuel gases like coal gas. Coal is used in the manufacture of petrol and synthetic
natural gas.

Petroleum :
 The crude oil petroleum is a complex mixture of several solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons mixed with water, salt
and earth particles.
 The fractional distillation of petroleum gives us the following fractions which can be used as fuels: Petroleum gas,
Petrol (or Gasoline), Diesel, Kerosene and Fuel oil.
 Fuel oil is a better fuel than coal because fuel oil burns completely and does not leave any residue.

Petroleum Gas:
 The main constituent of petroleum gas is butane
 The petroleum gas which has been liquefied under pressure is called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
 Liquefied petroleum gas (or LPG) consists mainly of butane (along with smaller amounts of propane and ethane)
which has been liquefied by applying pressure.
 LPG is very dangerous, because if it leaks, it can cause terrible fires and devastating explosions To avoid this, Ethyl
Mercaptan is added to the gas, which possesses that strong odor of rotten cabbages.

Advantages :
 LPG has a high calorific value. So, it is a good fuel.
 The calorific value of LPG is about 50 kJ/g. That is, when 1 gram of LPG burns in a gas stove, it produces 50
kilojoules of heat energy.
 LPG burns with a smokeless flame and so does not cause air pollution.
 LPG does not produce any poisonous gases on burning.
 LPG is easy to handle and convenient to store.
 LPG is a very neat and clean domestic fuel.

Thermal Power Plants:

 A power plant in which the heat required to make steam to drive turbines (to make electricity) is obtained by burning
fuels (coal, oil or gas) is called thermal power plant.
 Pollution Caused by Fossil Fuels :
 The burning of fossil fuels produces acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
 The burning of fossil fuels produces large amount of carbon dioxide which goes into air.
 The burning of fossil fuels (especially coal) produces smoke which pollutes the air.
 The burning of coal leaves behind a lot of ash.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

 Those sources of energy which are not based on the burning of fossil fuels or the splitting of atoms of nuclear fuels,
are called alternative sources of energy (or non-conventional sources of energy).
 The scientists have started showing renewed interest in exploring and using the alternative sources of energy due to
two reasons :
(i) because the fossil fuels and nuclear fuels in the earth are limited which may not last for long.
(ii) because of the undesirable effects of pollution both from the burning of fossil fuels and from the radioactive nuclear
wastes of nuclear power plants.

Hydro Power:
 A hydro-power plant converts the potential energy of water stored in the reservoir of a tall dam into electric energy.

Wind Energy :
 Moving air is called wind. Wind has energy. The energy possessed by wind is due to its high speed (or motion). So,
the wind possesses kinetic energy.

Solar Energy:
 The energy obtained from the sun is called solar energy.
 Uses of Solar Cells
 Solar cells are used for providing electricity in artificial satellites and space probes.
 Solar cells are used for providing electricity to remote, inaccessible and isolated places where normal electricity
transmission lines do not exist.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Biomass Energy :
 Biomass includes wood, agricultural wastes (crop residues) and cow-dung.
 Biogas is used as a fuel for cooking food.
 Biogas is also used for lighting.
 Biogas is used as a fuel to run engines. At many places, the engines of water pumping sets used for irrigation are run
on biogas, instead of diesel.
 Biogas is used for generating electricity.

Energy from Sea:

 The energy from the sea can be obtained mainly in three forms:
 Tidal energy, Wave energy, Ocean thermal energy.

 Tidal energy : Due to the gravitational pull of the moon, tides happen near seashores. Water rushes up near the
seashore during high tide and goes down during low tide. Dams are built near seashores to collect the water which
comes during a high tide. When the water runs back to the ocean, the flow of water can be utilized to generate
electricity.

 Wave Energy: One idea is to set-up floating generators in the sea. These would move up and down with the sea-
waves. This movement would drive the generators to produce electricity.
 Another idea is to let the sea-waves move up and down inside large tubes. As the waves move up, the air the tubes is
compressed. This compressed air can then be used to turn a turbine of a generator to produce electricity.

 Ocean Thermal Energy: The energy available due to the difference in the temperature of water at the surface of
the ocean and at deeper levels is called ocean thermal energy (OTE).
 The devices used to harness ocean thermal energy are called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion powerplants (or
OTEC power plants). A temperature difference of 20°C (or more) between the surface ocean and deeper water is
needed for operating OTEC power plants.

Geothermal Energy:
 Geothermal energy is the heat energy from hot rocks present inside the earth.
 One of the few sources of energy that do not come directly or indirectly from solar energy (or sun's energy)

Nuclear Energy :
 The energy released during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy.
 Two types of nuclear reactions :
(i) Nuclear fission,
(ii) Nuclear fusion
 The nuclear energy is released mainly in the form of heat.

Nuclear Fission :
 The process in which the heavy nucleus of a radioactive atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium) splits up into
smaller nuclei when bombarded with low energy neutrons, is called nuclear fission.

 The energy produced during nuclear fission reactions is used for generating electricity at nuclear power plants.
 The highly destructive nuclear bomb (or atom bomb) is based on the nuclear fission reactions of uranium- 235 or
plutonium-239.
Physics notes by Shubham Sir
Nuclear Fusion :
 The process in which two nuclei of light elements (like that of hydrogen) combine to form a heavy nucleus (like that
of helium), is called nuclear fusion.

 The conditions needed for carrying out nuclear fusion process are 'millions of degrees of temperature" and ‘millions
of Pascal’s of pressure'.
 The Source of Sun's Energy (Nuclear Fusion).

Advantages of Nuclear Energy :

 The advantages of nuclear energy are that : it produces a large amount of useful energy from a very small amount of a
nuclear fuel (like uranium-235).
 Once the nuclear fuel (like uranium-235) is loaded into the reactor, the nuclear power plant can go on producing
electricity for two to three years at a stretch. There is no need for putting in nuclear fuel again and again.
 It does not produce gases like carbon dioxide which contribute to greenhouse effect or sulphur dioxide which causes
acid rain.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy:

 The disadvantages of nuclear energy are that:
 The waste products of nuclear fission reactions (produced at nuclear power plants) are radioactive which keep on
emitting harmful nuclear radiations for thousands of years.
 So it is very difficult to store or dispose of nuclear wastes safely. Improper nuclear waste storage or disposal can
pollute the environment.
 There is the risk of accidents in nuclear reactors (especially the old nuclear reactors). Such accidents lead to the
leakage of radioactive materials which can cause serious damage to the plants, animals (including human beings) and
the environment.
 The high cost of installation of nuclear power plants and the limited availability of uranium fuel make the large scale
use of nuclear energy prohibitive.

MATTERIN OUR SURROUNDINGS

 The universe is made up of matter and energy.
 Matter: Matter describes the physical things around us the earth, the air we breathe, the pencil with which we write,
etc.
 Matter can be classified in a number of ways. Ancient Indian philosophers said that all the matter (padarth), living or
non-liying, was made up of five basic elements (Panch Tatva ):
1. Air (Vayuy)
2. Earth (Prithv)
3. Fire (Agni)
4. Sky (Akash)
5. Water (Jal)
 Modern day scientists classify matter in two ways : on the basis of its physical properties and on the basis of its
chemical properties.

Physics notes by Shubham Sir

Physics notes by Shubham Sir