CHAPTER 5
MOTIVATION
JOB PERFORMANCE
• It is a given requirement in any organization. It is possible, however, if the following conditions are met: The
capacity to perform. The opportunity to perform. The willingness to perform.
DETERMINANTS OF JOB PERFORMANCE
• The capacity to perform
- the degree to which the employee possesses skills, abilities, knowledge, and experiences relevant to his
job
• The opportunity to perform
- depend on the work environment provided to the employee. It is also diminished by lack of
equipment, lack of funds, and insufficient authority
• The willingness to perform
- the degree in which an employee desires and is willing to exert effort to achieve the goals
assigned to him. It is also called motivation
MOTIVATION
• the process of activating behavior sustaining it, and directing it toward a particular goal. It moves people to act
and accomplish.
• In the workplace, motivation may be more specifically defined as the set of internal and external forces that
cause a worker or employee to choose a course of action and engage in a certain behavior.
KEY ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION
1. Intensity
- refers to the level of effort provided by the employee in the attempt to achieve the goal assigned to him
2. Direction
- relates to what an individual chooses to do when he is confronted with a number of possible choices
3. Persistence
- is a dimension of motivation which measures how long a person can maintain effort to achieve
organization’s goals.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
▪ CONTENT THEORIES
- EXPECTANCY THEORY
- EQUITY THEORY
- GOAL SETTING THEORY
▪ PROCESS THEORIES
- HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
- ERG THEORY
- ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
- TWO FACTOR THEORY
HEIRARCHY NEEDS THEORY: by Abraham Maslow
• Physiological needs
• which include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
• Safety needs
• which include security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
• Social needs
• which include affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
• Esteem needs
• which include internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external esteem
factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
• Self-actualization
• refers to the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, which includes growth, achieving one ' s
potential, and self-fulfillment.
ERG THEORY: by Clayton Aldefer
• Existence
- this refers to needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions
• Relatedness
- this refers to the needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships
• Growth
- this refers to the needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.
ACQUIRE NEED THEORY: by David L. McClelland
• Need for achievement
- this refers to the desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master
complex tasks;
• Need for affiliation
- which refers to the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others
• Need for power
- which refers to the desire to control others. to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others
TWO FACTOR THEORY: by Frederick Herzberg
Frederick Hezberg developed his two-factor theory that identifies job context as a source of job dissatisfaction
and job content as the source of job satisfaction.
The factors associated with job context are called hygiene factors which include the following:
▪ organizational policies ▪ status.
▪ quality of supervision ▪ security
▪ working conditions
▪ base wage or salary
▪ relationship with peers
▪ relationship with subordinates
EXPECTANCY THEORY: by Victor Vroom
Vroom elaborated by explaining that motivation is a product of the following factors:
The three factors are useful in deriving motivation.
• Valence
- how much one wants a reward;
• Expectancy
- one ' s estimate of the probability that effort will result in successful performance
• Instrumentality
- one ' s estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward.
❖ The formula is as follows: Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation
EQUITY THEORY: by J. Stacey Adams
It assumes that employees are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.
Two types of inequity:
1. over rewarded;
2. under rewarded
Employees who feel over-rewarded will think there is an imbalance in their relationship with their employer.
They will seek to restore the balance through any of the following:
- they might work harder;
- they might discount the value of the rewards;
- they could try to convince other employees to ask for more rewards;
- and they might choose someone else for comparison purposes.
When employees feel under rewarded, they will seek to reduce their feelings of inequity through any of the
following:
- they might lower the quality or quantity of their productivity;
- they could inflate the perceived value of the rewards received;
- they could find someone else to compare themselves;
- they could bargain for more rewards; and
- they might quit.
GOAL SETTING THEORY: by Edwin Locke
the theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback lead to higher performance.
Edwin A. Locke and his associates ' findings about goals include the following:
- Specific goals lead to a higher performance than generalized goals.
- Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal difficulty.
- For goals to improve performance, they must be accepted by the worker
- goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance.
- Goals should be linked to feedback.
MOTIVATIONAL METHODS AND PROGRAMS
• Motivation Through Job Design
Three concepts are important in designing jobs. They consist of the following:
1. JOB ENRICHMENT
- refers to the practice of building motivating factors like responsibility, achievement and
recognition into job content.
An enriched job has any or all of the following characteristics:
- Direct feedback - Unique experience
- Client relationships - Direct communication authority
- New learning - Control over resources
- Control over method - Personal accountability
- Control over scheduling
2. JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
- refers to the method of job design that focuses on the task and interpersonal demands of a
job
Five core job characteristics of special importance to job design:
- Skill variety - Autonomy
- Task identity - Feedback
- Task significance
3. JOB CRAFTING
- refers to the physical and mental changes workers make in the task or relationship aspect of
their jobs.
The common types of job crafting are:
- changing the number and type of job tasks;
- changing the interaction with others on the job; and
- changing one ' s view of the job.
• Organizational Behavior Modification
The typical OB Mod program consists of a five-step problem solving model.
1) Identifying critical behaviors that make a significant impact on the employee ' s job performance;
2) Developing baseline data which is obtained by determining the number of times the identified
behavior is occurring under present conditions;
3) Identifying behavioral consequences of performance;
4) Developing and implementing an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors
and weaken undesirable behaviors; and
5) Evaluating performance improvement.
• Motivation Through Recognition and Pride
For a better understanding and implementation of reward and recognition programs, the following points
must be considered:
1) Feedback is an essential part of recognition;
2) Praise is one of the most powerful forms of recognition;
3) Reward and recognition programs should be limited to organizational goals;
4) Identification of the type of rewards and recognition that the workers will value; and
5) It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of the reward and recognition program.
Pride is also a motivator, but one that is intrinsic. Workers who achieve outstanding performance experience the
emotion of pride.
• Motivation through Financial Incentives.
monetary rewards paid to employees because of the output they produce, skills, knowledge, and competencies
or a combination of these factors
1) TIME RATES
- type of monetary reward uses the number of hours worked as a means of determining
rewards.
2) PAYMENT BY RESULTS
- links pay to the quantity of the individual' s output
3) PERFORMANCE RELATED PAY
- considers results or output plus actual behavior in the job. Most often, rewards consist of a lump
sum, or a bonus as a percentage of basic salary, with quality of performance determining the
magnitude of the percentage increase, or alternatively accelerated movement up a pay scale
4) PROFIT RELATED PAY
- an organization wide scheme where pay is linked to company profits. Profit related pay takes
the form of direct cash outlay, or allocation of stock options.
5) SKILLS/COMPETENCIES
- known as competency based or knowledge-based pay, this is a pay plan that sets pay levels on
the basis of how many employees have or how many jobs they can do
6) CAFETERIA/ FLEXIBLE BENEFITS SYSTEM
- a benefit plan that allows each employee to put together a benefit package individually tailored
to his or her own needs and situation.