CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY.
● GENERAL REVIEW OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD.
The most common and widely used geophysical survey method is the electrical resistivity
method. In groundwater exploration, depth to bedrock determination, sand and gravel
exploration etc, and the electrical resistivity method can be used to obtain quickly and
economically details about the location, depth and resistivity of subsurface formation.
The basis of the method is that when current is applied by conduction into the ground through
electrodes, any
subsurface variation in conductivity alters the current flow within the Earth and this in turn affects
the distribution of the
electric potential. The degree to which the potential at the surface is affected depends on the
size, location, shape and conductivity of the materials within the ground. It is therefore possible
to obtain information about the subsurface distribution of these materials from measurements of
the electrical potential made at the surface.
The usual practice is to pass current into the ground by means of two electrodes and to
measure the potential difference
between a second pair placed in line between them. From the values of the potential difference,
the current applied and also the electrode separation a quantity termed the apparent resistivity
can be calculated. In homogeneous ground, this is the true ground resistivity but usually it
represents a weighted average of the resistivity of all the formations through which the current
passes. It is the variation of this apparent
resistivity with change in electrode spacing and position that gives information about the
variation in subsurface layering.
● RESISTIVITY METHOD
The resistivity technique is used to investigate the subsurface electrical properties of the earth.
It involves measuring the resistance to electrical current flow between electrodes inserted into
the ground. The method is used to determine subsurface geological structures and layers,
identify groundwater-bearing formations and aquifers, detect contaminants and pollutants in soil
and groundwater, etc.
The resistivity method is based on the principle that different materials have unique electrical
resistivity values, which are measured in ohm-meters (Ωm). The method involves inserting
electrodes into the ground, injecting an electrical current between electrodes, measuring the
potential difference (voltage) between electrodes, and calculating the apparent resistivity using
Ohm's law.
There are various resistivity methods, including:
1. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
3. Dipole-Dipole
4. Pole-Pole
5. Wenner-Schlumberger
Each method has its own array configuration and application, but they all aim to provide detailed
information about the subsurface electrical properties, which can be related to geological,
hydrogeological, and environmental conditions.
● RESISTIVITY THEORY
Resistivity theory is a fundamental concept in geophysics that describes the ability of a material
to resist the flow of electric current. It is a critical parameter in electrical resistivity tomography
(ERT) and vertical electrical sounding (VES) surveys.
Resistivity (ρ) is defined as the opposition to the flow of electric current and is measured in
ohm-meters (Ωm). It is related to the conductivity (σ) of a material by the following equation:
ρ = 1/σ
The resistivity of a material depends on its intrinsic properties.
● ELECTRODE CONFIGURATION
Electrode configuration refers to the spatial arrangement of electrodes used to inject current and
measure potential differences in the subsurface. The configuration determines the sensitivity
and resolution of the survey, influencing the accuracy and reliability of the results.
The common electrode array configuration are: Schlumberger, wenner and dipole-dipole
configuration.
● SCHLUMBERGER CONFIGURATION
The Schlumberger configuration is a common electrode arrangement used in electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT) and vertical electrical sounding (VES) surveys. It is a variation of
the Wenner-Schlumberger array,with four electrodes: A, B, M, and N. Electrodes A and B are
current electrodes, placed at a distance "a" apart. Electrodes M and N are potential electrodes,
placed at a distance "a/2" from the center of the current electrode pair (A and B). The distance
between the current and potential electrodes is "a/2"
The Schlumberger configuration have an advantage of a higher resolution than the
Wenner-Schlumberger array and a better sensitivity to subsurface structures and anomalies,
with a reduced sensitivity to noise and surface features.
However, it also has some limitations; Requires more electrodes and cables than the
Wenner-Schlumberger array, it is more sensitive to electrode placement and geometry and may
require more complex data processing and inversion.
The Schlumberger configuration is commonly used in hydrogeological and environmental
surveys, where high resolution and accuracy are necessary to investigate subsurface structures
and groundwater flow.
Fig:1
The layout of Schlumberger configuration.
Fig: 2 Schematic Schlumberger electrode configuration
● WENNER CONFIGURATION
The Wenner configuration also consist of four electrodes: A, B, M, and N.
It is a simple and widely used array.
Electrodes A and B are current electrodes, placed at a distance "a" apart. Electrodes M and N
are potential electrodes, placed at a distance "a" from the current electrodes (A and B), and the
distance between the current and potential electrodes is equal (a).
The Wenner configuration is simple and easy to implement, and is robust and less sensitive to
noise and surface features, it also provides a good balance between depth of investigation and
resolution
However, it has lower resolution compared to other arrays (e.g., Schlumberger), and is less
sensitive to subsurface structures and anomalies. It may not be suitable for complex or deep
investigations.
Overall, the Wenner configuration is a reliable and widely used array, offering a good balance
between simplicity and effectiveness.
● DIPOLE-DIPOLE SPREAD
The dipole-dipole spread as an electrode configuration is more complicated than the Wenner
and Schlumberger configuration with two current dipoles (A-B and C-D) ans two potential
dipoles (M-N and E-F)
The electrodes are arranged in a specific pattern, current dipoles (A-B and C-D) are placed
parallel to each other, with a distance "a" between them and potential dipoles (M-N and E-F) are
placed parallel to each other, with a distance "a" between them. The current and potential
dipoles are perpendicular to each other
The dipole-dipole configuration offers higher resolution and sensitivity to subsurface structures
compared to the Wenner and Schlumberger arrays and is better suited for imaging steeply
dipping structures and faults, but it requires more electrodes and cables than other arrays and is
more sensitive to noise and electrode placement errors. The data processing and inversion can
be more complex.
● FIELD TECHNIQUES
The two major types of resistivity survey are the horizontal profiling and the vertical electrical
sounding (VES).
1. Horizontal profiling:
Horizontal profiling is a field technique used to collect data along a horizontal line or profile. This
involves deploying electrodes along a straight line or profile, typically using a fixed electrode
spacing, measuring the resistivity or voltage values at each electrode station along the profile,
plotting the data as a 2D profile, showing the resistivity or voltage values versus distance along
the profile.
Horizontal profiling is used to map lateral variations in subsurface resistivity or conductivity and
identify horizontal structures, such as layers, faults, or channels. It can also monitor changes in
subsurface conditions over a large area. It is relatively useful to supplement vertical electrical
sounding (VES) data with lateral information.
2. Vertical Electrical Sounding
Electrical Sounding (VES), involves injecting electrical current into the ground and measuring
the resulting potential differences to determine subsurface resistivity distribution. This technique
requires careful field procedures to ensure accurate and reliable data acquisition.
First, the survey area is selected based on the research objectives, and the appropriate
electrode configuration is chosen. For VES, a specialized electrode array is used, typically
consisting of a central current electrode surrounded by multiple potential electrodes at
increasing distances.
The electrodes are then deployed in the field, ensuring good contact with the ground. The
current source is connected to the current electrode, and the potential electrodes are connected
to a voltage measuring device. The current is injected into the ground, and the potential
differences are measured between the potential electrodes, typically starting from the closest
electrode and moving outward.
The measurements are taken in a sequence of electrode pairs, with the current and potential
electrodes switched to minimize errors. The data are recorded for each electrode separation,
and the survey is repeated for multiple locations to cover the entire survey area.
For VES, the electrode array is typically expanded incrementally, increasing the distance
between the current and potential electrodes to investigate deeper subsurface regions. The data
are then processed and inverted to produce a resistivity model of the subsurface, providing
insights into geological structures, aquifers, and other subsurface features.
Throughout the survey, careful attention is paid to potential sources of error, such as electrode
polarization, contact resistance, and noise interference. Quality control measures implemented
to ensure accurate and reliable data, including repeat measurements and data validation.
In a vertical electrical sounding (VES), apparent resistivity measurements are made at different
electrode spacings, centered about a common point. As the electrode array size increases, we
‘sound’ to greater depths. The Schlumberger array is commonly used for VES, keeping the
potential electrode dipole (M and N) fixed and moving the current electrode dipole (A and B).
This is a popular choice because the fixed potential electrode dipole means that not only the
measurements are relatively insensitive to lateral variation in resistivity but also, from a practical
standpoint, surveys can be completed more efficiently as only one of the dipoles is moved for
each measurement. The disadvantage is that for small MN spacings, the signals (potential
differences) can be relatively weak and thus high-sensitivity instrumentation may be required.
VES surveys require just four electrodes, each with a suitable cable to connect to the
instrument. For a Schlumberger array VES, the spacing AB is normally increased in a
logarithmic sequence (i.e., the logarithm of the spacing AB is increased linearly in each step).
The results are often presented as a plot of the logarithm of apparent resistivity versus the
logarithm of AB/2. Using data modeling tools, these data are analyzed in order to recover a 1-D
resistivity structure (defined as a series of layer thicknesses and associated resistivity) that is
consistent with the measured response.
● METHODOLOGY AND DATA ACQUISITION
MATERIALS AND METHODS.
The materials employed for this research work include: ABEM TERRAMETER SAS 300 and its
accessories,hammer for driving the electrodes into the ground for proper electrical contact,
measuring tape and a Global positioning system (GPS) for taking the coordinate (longitude,
latitude and altitude).
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) Schlumberger array configuration was employed in this
research work. Four
electrodes are positioned symmetrically along a straight line, the current electrodes on the
outside and the potential electrodes on the inside. To change the depth range of the
measurements, the current electrodes are displaced outwards while the potential electrodes in
general are left
at the same position. When the ratio of the distance between the current electrodes to that
between the potential electrodes becomes too large, the potential electrodes must also be
displaced outwards otherwise the potential difference becomes too small to be measured with
sufficient accuracy. Measurements of current and potential electrode positions are marked such
that AB/2 ˃˃ MN/2. Where AB/2 = Current electrode spacing and MN/2 = Potential electrode
spacing.
The sounding data presented as sounding curves were obtained by plotting apparent resistivity
against AB/2. The WINRESIST software was then used to obtain the n-layer model curve for the
Schlumberger sounding curves. This software automatically interprets the Schlumberger
sounding curves. The plotted curves reveal the number of layers, thickness, depth and the
average resistivity for
each layer at different VES points automatically. The SURFER 2012 software was then used to
produce iso-resistivity contour maps from the obtained data. The VES plots along the various
profiles generate the geoelectric sections from where the resistivity variation with depth and
thickness was obtained.
● FIELD EQUIPMENT
Field equipment for Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) survey includes:
1. Resistivity meter: Measures voltage and current to calculate resistivity (Terrameter)
2. Electrodes: Made of steel, copper, or stainless steel, these are inserted into the ground to
inject current and measure voltage.
3. Electrode cables: Connect electrodes to the resistivity meter.
4. Current source: Provides electric current for the survey (battery).
5. Voltage measurement device: (voltage meter).
6. GPS device: for survey of location and electrode positioning.
7. Electrode hammer: Used to insert electrodes into the ground.
8. Cable tester: Verifies cable connections and integrity.
9. Field computer: for data analysis and interpretation in the field.
10. Power source: Generator.
Fig: 3 cables and reels, resistivity meter, electrode and cable.
● FIELD OPERATIONAL DIFFICULTIES AND PRECAUTIONS
Some of the difficulties experienced during the field work;
– Terrain challenges (steep slopes, rugged terrain). This can be minimized by using specialized
equipment (e.g., portable systems, cable reels).
– Weather conditions (extreme temperatures, heavy rain, strong winds)
We schedule surveys during favorable weather conditions and use weather-resistant equipment
and protective covers.
– Electrode placement difficulties (hard soil, rocky terrain). We can use adapted electrodes and
employ specialized insertion tools (hammer or drill) to minimize the problem.
● PRECAUTIONS
Some of the precautions taken while on the field;
1. It was ensured that appropriate clothing such as gloves, safety gear and safety glasses
were worn.
2. Electrodes were carefully handled to avoid damage or injury.
3. Regularly test cables for damage or faults.
4. Weather preparedness. We monitor weather conditions and adjust the survey schedule
accordingly.
5. We constantly assess terrain difficulties and adjust electrode placement accordingly.
6. A first aid kit was put in place in case of accidents.