Module 6.
Flow through pipes
Lesson 18
DETERMINATION OF PIPE DIAMETER, DETERMINATION OF
DISCHARGE, FRICTION FACTOR, CRITICAL VELOCITY
18.1 Piping Systems
a. Pipes connected in series
Fig. 18.1 Pipes connected in series
b. Pipes connected in Parallel
Fig. 18.2 Pipes connected in parallel
18.2 Dupit�s Equation for Equivalent Pipe
Equivalent pipe
If several pipes of different lengths and diameter are connected in series, it can be
replaced by single pipe called as equivalent pipe. This equivalent pipe of same
diameter will have the same loss head and discharge which several pipes connected
in series will have.
Fig. 18.3 Pipes of different lengths and diameters connected in series
Equivalent diameter
The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is the equivalent diameter series or
compound pipe.
Fig. 18.4 Equivalent pipe
Equivalent length
The length of equivalent pipe which has the same head loss & discharge that of
series or compound pipe.
Assumption for analysis
Neglect the minor losses (frictional loss) and consider only the major head losses
(friction loss) since hminor << hmajor
(iv)
On equating (iii) & (iv):
(v)
Eq. (v) is known as Dupits eq. for equivalent pipe.
Case1. Sometimes length of equivalent pipe is taken to be equal to the length of
compound pipe i.e.
Le = L1+ L2+ L3+ L4+.
In such cases diameter of equivalent pipe Deq, can be calculated from Dupit�s
equation.
Case2. Sometimes value of equivalent diameter is given & length of equivalent
pipe requires replace compound pipe has to be determined by Dupit�s equation.
18.3 Numericals
Q 1. Three pipes are connected in series
Pipe Length (m) Diameter (cm)
l1 1000 50
l2 750 40
l3 500 30
(a) Calculate equivalent diameter considering the length equivalent pipe to be
equal in that of compound pipe.
(b) Determine the length of equivalent pipe for an equivalent diameter of 40
cm.
Solution
(a)
(b)
Q 2. Consider pipe 1, 2, 3 connected in series of length l1, l2, l3 respectively.
D1, D2, D3 with a diameter of pipe 1, 2, 3.
Pipe Length (m) Diameter (cm)
l1 1500 60
l2 750 50
l3 450 40
(a) Determine the eq. length for an eq. diameter of 50 cm.
(b) Determine the eq. diameter if the length of eq. pipe is equal to the length of
compound pipe.
Solution
(a)
(b)
Module 6. Flow through pipes
Lesson 16
HEAD LOSS IN FLUID FLOW: MINOR HEAD LOSS
16.1 Introduction
As discussed in the earlier lecture, minor losses include head loss or pressure
drop due to pipe fittings, entrance and exit of pipe, sudden contraction or
expansion etc. These are considered as minor because pressure drop is small
compared to the major or frictional head loss. Minor Head losses are:
1. Head loss at the entrance of pipe
2. Head loss at the exit of pipe
3. Head loss due to obstruction in pipe
4. Head loss due to sudden contraction in pipe
5. Head loss due to sudden expansion in pipe
6. Head loss due to pipe fittings
16.2 Head Loss at the Entrance of Pipe (hen)
Point A shows the place where liquid is entering the piping system from the
tank (Fig. 16.1).
Fig. 16.1 Head loss at the entrance of pipe
The head loss due to entrance is given as:
16.3 Head Loss at Exit from Pipe (hex)
Head loss at the pipe exit (point A) where liquid gets freely discharged into
atmosphere is given as:
Fig. 16.2 Head loss at exit from pipe
Where,
V = velocity
16.4 Head Loss Due to Obstruction in Pipe (hobs)
If an irregular obstruction is placed in the pipe it will cause pressure drop.
Figure 16.3 shows an irregular object placed in the path of flow.
Fig. 16.3 Head loss due to obstruction in pipe
16.5 Head Loss Due to Sudden Contraction in Pipe (hc)
After sudden contraction the streamlines contract to pass through a minimum
cross sectional area (Ac) and the fluid stream widens to fill the pipe. This
minimum cross section is known as vena contracta and Ac is the area of cross
section at vena contracta.
At Section 1- At section 2-2� At section 3-3�
1� vena contracta
Diameter of Pipe = d1 = d2 = d2
Area of pipe = A1 = Ac = A2
Flow velocities = V1 = Vc = V2
Fig. 16.4 Sudden contraction and formation of vena contracta
Formation of eddies takes place between the vena contract and pipe wall.
Head loss due to sudden contraction=head loss upto vena contracta + head loss
due to sudden enlargement.
�������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������������� ���������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
���������������������� ���(i)
Velocities of flow at vena contracta=VC
Cross sectional area of vena contracta = Ac
Velocities of flow at section 2-2� = V2
Cross Sectional area at section 2-2� = A2
� �����������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������� ��������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������� ���(ii)
Where Cc�= Coefficient of contraction
From equation (i) and (ii)
Where kc = Contraction loss coefficient
In general value of Kc may be taken as 0.5
16.6 Head Loss Due to Sudden Expansion in Pipe (he)
For fig 16.5 we have the following assumption:
At Section 1- At section 2-
1� 2�
Diameter of = d1 = d2
Pipe
Area of pipe = A1 = A2
Flow = V1 = V2
velocities
Pressure = p1 = P2
Fig. 16.5 Sudden enlargement
Due to sudden enlargement turbulent eddies are formed at the corner of the
enlargement of the pipe section. The formation of eddies cause loss of energy in
form of heat to the surrounding. Let Pe be the pressure of the eddying fluid he be
the head loss due to enlargement.
Applying Bernoulli�s theorem across section 1-1� and 2-2�.
Since Z1 = Z2
����������� � �����������
����������������������������������
����������������������������������
����������������������������������
������� ���������������������������
����������������������������������
����������������������������������
����������������������������������
�������������������������� ���(i)
Net force acting between section 1-1� and 2-2�
Since mean pressure due to the formation of eddies (Pe) is approximately equal
to the inlet pressure (P1),
F =
(P1 �P2)A2�� ������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������� ��������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
����������������������� ���(ii)
Let Q be the discharge m3/sec through the pipe.
Change of momentum of liquid pressure
from continuity equation Q=A2V2
���� = ρA2V2 (V2 �
V1)� ����������������������
�������������������������
���������������������� ��
�������������������������
�������������������������
�������������������������
�������������������������
��� ��������� ���(iii)
Since net force = change of momentum of liquid per second
from equation (ii) and (iii)
(p1 � p2) = ρ
(V2 �V1V2) ��������������������������
2
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������� �����������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
�������������������������������
��������������������������� ���(iv
)
from equation (i) and (iv)
16.7 Head Loss Due to Pipe Fittings (hpf)
Various pipe fittings like bend, elbow, tee etc also contribute to pressure drop.
The head loss due to pipe fittings is given by the following equation:
KL= Friction loss co-efficient/ loss co-efficient, depend on the shape, size
and type of pipe fittings.
TYPE KL
Globe Valve 10
Gate valve(wide 0.2
open)
45� Elbow 0.4
Bend 2.2
16.8 Numericals
Q 1. The velocity of water flowing through a 12 cm diameter pipe was
found to be 3.5 m/s. The flow path in pipe is destructed by an iron plate of 8
cm diameter. Calculate, the loss of head due to obstruction if co-efficient of
contraction Cc = 0.75.
Solution:
Q 2. At a sudden enlargement of water line from diameter of 200 mm to
350 mm, volumetric flow rate 0.5 m3 /s. Determine the head loss due to
sudden enlargement.
Solution:
D1 = 200 mm; D2 = 350 mm; Q = 0.5 m3/s
Q 3. A horizontal water pipe has an abrupt enlargement such that the
diameters of small and large cross-section are 250 mm and 450 mm
respectively. The volumetric flow rate in pipe is 0.3 m 3/s. Find the head loss
due to abrupt enlargement.
Solution:
Q 4. At a sudden contraction of water line from diameter of 350 mm to 250
mm and volumetric flow rate 0.03 m 3/s. Determine the head loss due to
contraction. Consider co-efficient of contraction as 0.58.
Solution:
Q 5. The dimension of 350 mm diameter horizontal pipe is suddenly
reduced to diameter of 150 mm. If water is flowing at a rate of 0.05
m3/s and co-efficient of contraction is 0.48 then determine head loss
between two sections of the pipe.
Solution: