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me/jntua

IC engines And Stages of Combustion in IC

engines

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 The internal combustion of an engine is

considered to be the heart of the automobile.

 They are defined as any engine that uses an

explosive combustion of fuel and air to push a
piston within a cylinder. Forming the repeating
cycle known as the strokes.

 Intake, Compression, Power Stroke, and Exhaust

are the four actions of one stroke.

 The difference between the two cycle and four

cycle engine is the number of strokes it uses to
start the fuel reaction of internal combustion.

 Diesel engines unlike gasoline do not need spark

plugs to ignite the fuel. Instead it uses
compression but undergoes the same principle of
a stroke.
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 This starts at the

highest point known
as top dead center
and ends at bottom
dead center

 The intake stroke

allows the piston to
suck fuel and air into
the combustion
chamber through the
intake valve port.

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 Compression starts at
bottom dead center
and ends at top dead
center.

 The second motion of

the stroke takes all
the fuel and air that
was stored and
compresses it into
one tenth its original
sizes. Making the
air/fuel mixture
increase in
temperature
preparing it for the
next stage in its
combustion cycle.
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The power stroke
starts as soon as
the piston reaches
top dead center
allowing the spark
plug to ignite.

 This electric
current created by
the spark plug
ignites the fuel and
air mixture
sending the piston
back down the
cylinder with a
pressure reaching
high as 600 PSI.
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The final stage of
the stroke releases
all the burned fuel
through the
exhaust valve.

 As the piston
moves from bottom
dead center to top
dead center it takes
all the burned fuel
and pushes it out
of the cylinder,
preparing it for the
next cycle of
strokes.
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Diesel engines work on the same principle

as the two and four stroke engines. They do
not need a spark plug to ignite the fuel.
During the intake stroke, air does not mixed
with the fuel in the cylinder. Instead as the
air reaches high enough compression Fuel
is then sprayed into the cylinder creating
ignition. This pushes the piston down the
cylinder at a pressure of 500 PSI, starting
the stroke all over again.

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 Unit-II

Air Compressors

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 Pneumatics: A system which uses compressed air

is called pneumatics.
 It deals with the study of behaviour & application
of compressed air
 A basic pneumatic system consist of a source of
compressed air, control valves, pipelines & pipe
fittings and pneumatic accessories like filter,
regulator and lubricator

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 For operating pneumatic tools such as drills,

screw drivers, hammers, chiessels
 For pneumatic cranes
 For pneumatic brakes of automobiles, railways
and presses
 For agricultural accessories such as dusters and
sprayers
 For drive of CNC machine tools
 For pneumatic conveying of materials
 For pneumatic gauging, inspection and low cost
automation systems

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 An air compressor is a mechanical device

that increases the pressure of air by
reducing volume.
 Air is compressible, the compressor reduces
the volume of air and induces pressure in
the air
 An air compressor converts electrical
energy into kinetic energy in the form of the
air

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 Air compressors are classified according to

method of energy transfer and pressure
generation i.e. positive displacement and
dynamic compressors
 Positive displacement compressors work on
the principle of increasing the pressure of
air by reducing the volume of air in an
enclosed chamber

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 A reciprocating air compressor consist of a

piston which is enclosed within a cylinder and
equipped with suction and discharge valve
 The piston receives power from electric motor or
IC engine.

 Reciprocating air compressors are positive

displacement type of air compressors.
 These are piston & diaphragm type, vane type,
gear type, screw type compressors.

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 Simple in design
 Lower initial cost
 Easy to install
 Higher effeiciency

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 Number of moving parts are more

 Higher maintenance cost
 Heavy foundation is required as it has
vibration problem
 Cannot run at full capacity

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 The rotor is mounted eccentric in a casing.

 The vanes slides radially in and out of the rotor.
 As the rotor rotates at higher speed, centrifugal
force throws the vanes outward keeping the end
of vane in contact with the stator ring.
 As the rotor turns, compression is achieved as
the volume goes from a maximum at intake port
to minimum at the exhaust port.
 An oil is injected into the air intake and along the
stator walls to cool the air and lubricate bearing
and vanes and to provide a seal between the
vane and stator wall to reduce internal leakage.
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 As the rotor turns, compression is achieved as

the volume goes from a maximum at intake port
to minimum at the exhaust port.
 An oil is injected into the air intake and along the
stator walls to cool the air and lubricate bearing
and vanes and to provide a seal between the
vane and stator wall to reduce internal leakage.

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 It is dynamic compressor.
 It consist of a rotating impeller which rotates at
higher speed (upto 60000 rpm)
 An impeller fitted inside casing force the air to
the rim of impeller, increasing velocity of air.

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Principle
It works on the principle of heat
engines which converts chemical
energy of fuel in thermal energy for
the generation of steam.

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1-2 isentropic pump

2-3 constant pressure heat addition
3-4 isentropic turbine
4-1 constant pressure heat rejection
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 Wnet=Wturbine-Wpump
 Heat supplied = Qin-Qout
 Thermal efficiency,
thermal efficiency = work done
heat suppiled
hth=Wnet/Qin

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 This cycle follows the idea of the Carnot cycle but

can be practically implemented.
 1-2 isentropic pump
 2-3 constant pressure heat addition
 3-4 isentropic turbine
 4-1 constant pressure heat rejection

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Unit IV – Steam Nozzles

• A steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross –
section, which converts heat energy of steam into
kinetic energy.
• During the first part of the nozzle, the steam
increases in velocity. But later the steam gains
more in volume than velocity.
• Since the mass of steam, passing through any
section of the nozzle is constant the variation of
steam pressure in nozzle depends on the velocity,
specific volume , fraction of steam.
• A well designed nozzle produces a jet of steam
with very high velocity.
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• The steam enters the nozzle with high pressure,

but with negligible velocity. In the converging
portion there is a drop in steam pressure with a
rise in velocity. There is also a drop in enthalpy or
total heat of steam.
• This drop in heat is also converted into kinetic
energy.
• The steam leaves the nozzle with high velocity
and small pressure. The pressure at which the
steam leaves the nozzle is known as back
pressure.
• There is no heat supplied or rejected in a nozzle.
Hence the flow is considered to be isentropic and
corresponding expansion is isentropic expansion.

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Steam Turbines
• Steam turbine is a device which is used to convert
kinetic energy of steam into mechanical energy.
• In this, enthalpy of steam is first converted into
kinetic energy in nozzle or blade passages
• The high velocity steam impinges on the curved
blades and its direction of flow is changed.
• This causes a change of momentum and thus
force developed drives the turbine shaft
• The steam turbine has been used as a prime
mover in all steam power plants.

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• Now – a days, single steam turbine of 1000MW

capacity is built in many countries.
• In large sizes, it is used for driving electric
generator. In small sizes, it is used to drive
pumps, fans, compressors
• Classification of steam turbines
Steam turbines are classified as follows
On the basis of method of steam expansion
1) Impulse turbine, 2) Reaction turbine, 3)
Combination of impulse and reaction turbine
On the basis of number of stages
1) Single stage 2) Multi - stage

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• On the basis of
steam flow
directions
Axial turbine
2)Radial
turbine 3)
Tangential
turbine 4)
Mixed flow

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• In reaction turbine there is no sudden pressure drop.

There is a gradual pressure drop and takes place
continuously over the fixed and moving blades.
• A number of moving blades are fitted to the rotating
shaft. Fixed blades are provided in between such pairs
of moving blades
• The function of fixed blades is that they guide the
steam as well as allow it to expand in a larger velocity.
It is similar to that of nozzles as in impulse turbine
• The moving blade serves the following functions
• It converts the kinetic energy into useful mechanical
energy
• The steam expands in moving blades and gives reaction
to the moving blades
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Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

It consists of nozzles and moving blades It consists of fixed and moving blades
Pressure drop occurs in nozzles and not in Pressure drop occurs in nozzles and
moving blades moving blades
Steam strikes the blades with kinetic Steam passes over the blades with
energy pressure and kinetic energy
Blades are of symmetrical type Blades are of varying cross section
Power developed is less Power developed is more
It occupies less space for the same power It occupies more space for the same
power output
Velocity of turbine is high Velocity of turbine is more
Efficiency is less Efficiency is more
Blade manufacturing is simple as they are Blade manufacturing is difficult as it is of
of symmetrical cross section varying cross section

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Compounding of turbines
• If expansion of steam from boiler pressure to
condenser pressure is carried out in a single stage
impulse turbine i.e. in one nozzle and set of moving
blades, the rotational speed of the rotor will be very
high. Around 30000 RPM. This will cause damage to
the rotating parts. Hence to prevent this ,the energy of
steam is absorbed in stages. This is known as
compounding of steam turbines.

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Types of compounding
• Velocity compounding
• Pressure compounding
• Pressure velocity compounding
Velocity Compounding

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• Advantages
Initial cost is less
Less space is required
The system is highly reliable and easy to start
Disadvantages
Frictional losses are high due to high initial velocity.
Hence efficiency is low
The ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity is not
optimum for all wheels. It also reduces the efficiency
The power developed in last rows is only a fraction of the
power developed in the first row. But, still the space
requirement of all the stages is the same.

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• Pressure Compounding
In this method, a number of simple impulse
turbines are arranged in series.
It consists of one set of nozzles and one row of
moving blades.
The exhaust from each row of moving blades enters
the succeeding set of nozzles
Velocity of steam increases when it passes through
the nozzles and pressure drops.
Both velocity and pressure of steam decreases as it
passes through moving blades
The pressure is reduced in each stage, hence it is
called pressure compounding

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• Pressure Velocity Compounding

This method is a combination of pressure and velocity
compounding.
The total pressure drop is carried out inn two stages and
velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded
Pressure is dropped in stages through nozzles
Velocity compounding is done by using a fixed blade
between every two moving blades
High pressure steam expands through first nozzles, enters
the first row of moving blades. In the nozzle the
pressure decreases and velocity increases. In the
moving blades the velocity is converted into work but
pressure remains constant

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• Then steam enters the fixed blades and its direction changes.
There is no change in velocity and pressure in the fixed
blades. The steam then enters the second moving blades
where the velocity is again converted into work.
• Then steam enters the second set of nozzles where pressure is
again decreased and the process of doing work in two sets of
moving blades with a guide blade is continued.
• Thus the total pressure drop is obtained in nozzle sets and
velocity changes takes place through moving blades.
• This turbine combines the advantage of pressure and velocity
compounding. Since there is a large pressure drop in each
stage, less number of stages are used.
• This method is used in Curtis and Moore turbines.

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REFRIGERATION AND AIR

CONDITIONING

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Refrigeration

 It is defined as the process of providing

and maintaining a temperature well
below that of surrounding atmosphere.
 In other words refrigeration is the process
of cooling substance.

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Terminologies of Refrigeration
Refrigerating Effect (N): It is defined as the
quantity of heat extracted from a cold body or
space to be cooled in a given time.
N= Heat extracted from the cold space
Time taken
Specific Heat of water and ice : It is the quantity of
heat required to raise or lower the temperature of
one kg of water (or ice), through one kelvin or (10
c) in one second.
Specific heat of water, Cpw = 4.19 kJ/kg K
Specific heat of ice, Cpice = 2.1 kJ/kg K.

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Terminologies of Refrigeration
Capacity of a Refrigeration Unit :
 Capacity of a refrigerating machines are expressed by their
cooling capacity.
 The standard unit used for expressing the capacity of
refrigerating machine is ton of refrigeration.

 One ton of refrigeration is defined as, “the quantity of heat

abstracted (refrigerating effect) to freeze one ton of water
into one ton of ice in a duration of 24 hours at 0o c”.

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Terminologies of Refrigeration
Co efficient of Performance: It is defined as the ratio
of heat extracted in a given time (refrigerating
effect) to the work input.
Co efficient of performance = Heat extracted in evaporator
Work Input
Co efficient of performance = Refrigerating Effect
Work Input
Co efficient of performance = N
W
The COP is always greater than 1 for VCR system and
known as theoretical coefficient of performance.

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Applications of Refrigeration
 In chemical industries, for separating and liquefying
the gases.
 In manufacturing and storing ice.
 For the preservation of perishable food items in cold
storages.
 For cooling water.
 For controlling humidity of air manufacture and heat
treatment of steels.
 For chilling the oil to remove wax in oil refineries.
 For the preservation of tablets and medicines in
pharmaceutical industries.
 For the preservation of blood tissues etc.,
 For comfort air conditioning the hospitals, theatres,
etc.,
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Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

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S – entropy means transformation, increases with increase in temperature

and decreases with decrease in temperature
ᵹ Q = T ds h
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Refrigerants

Refrigerant: Any substance that absorbs heat

through expansion and vaporisation process and
loses heat due to condensation is a refrigeration
process is called refrigerant.
Some examples of refrigerants are,
 Air
Ammonia (NH3)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
 Freon – 12
Methyl Chloride
 Methylene chloride.

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Selecting Refrigerants
►Refrigerant selection is based on several
factors:
►Performance: provides adequate cooling
capacity cost-effectively.
►Safety: avoids hazards (i.e., toxicity).
►Environmental impact: minimizes harm to
stratospheric ozone layer and reduces
negative impact to global climate change.

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Vapour Absorption Refrigerationsystem

In this system compression process of vapour

compression cycle is eliminated. Instead of that
the following three processes are carried out.
1. Absorbing ammonia vapour into water.
2. Pumping this solution to a high pressure cycle
3. Producing ammonia vapours from ammonia solution
by heating.

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Vapour Absorption Refrigeration

system - Construction
Construction:
 The vapour absorption system consists of a
condenser, an expansion valve and an
evaporator.
 They perform the same as they do in vapour
compression method.
 In addition to these, this system has an absorber,
a heat exchanger, an analyser and a rectifier.

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Comparison between Vapour compression & Vapour Absorption
refrigeration systems
[Link]. Vapour Compression System Vapour Absorption System

1 This system has more wear and Only moving part in this system is
tear and produces more noise an aqua pump. Hence the quieter
due to the moving parts of the in operation and less wear and
compressor. tear
2. Electric power is needed to Waste of exhaust steam may be
drive the system used. No need of electric power
3. COP is more COP is less
4. At partial loads performance is At partial loads performance is not
poor. affected.
5. Mechanical energy is supplied Heat energy is utilised
through compressor
6. Energy supplied is ¼ to ½ of Energy supplied is about one and
the refrigerating effect (less) half times the refrigerating effect
(more)

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Comparison between Vapour compression &

Vapour Absorption refrigeration systems

[Link]. Vapour Compression System Vapour Absorption System

7. Charging of the refrigerating to Charging of refrigerant is difficult

the system is easy

8. Preventive measure is needed, Liquid refrigerant has no bad

since liquid refrigerant effect on the system.
accumulated in the cylinder
may damage to the cylinder

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AIR CONDITIONING

AIR CONDITIONING:

Air Conditioning is the process

of conditioning the air according to the
human comfort, irrespective of external
conditions.

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AIR CONDITIONING

Applications of Air Conditioning

 Used in offices, hotels, buses, cars.,etc
 Used in industries having tool room
machines.
 Used in textile industries to control
moisture.
 Used in printing press.
 Used in Food industries, Chemical plants.

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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning systems are classified as

1) According to the purpose
a) Comfort Air conditioning.
b) Industrial Air conditioning.
2) According to Season of the year
a) Summer Air conditioning.
b) Winter Air conditioning.
c) Year round Air conditioning.

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TERMINOLOGIES

1)Dry air: The atmospheric air which no

water vapour is called dry air.
2)Psychrometry: Psychrometry is the study
of the properties of atmospheric air.
3)Temperature: The degree of hotness
(or) Coldness is called the temperature.
4)Moisture: Moisture is the water vapour
present in the air.

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TERMINOLOGIES
Humidity: mass of water vapor present in 1kg
of dry air
Absolute humidity: mass of water vapor
present in 1cu.m of dry air
5) Relative humidity: Relative humidity is the
ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given
volume to the mass of water vapour actually
can withhold by the same volume.
6) Dry bulb temperature: The temperature of air
measured by the ordinary thermometer is
called dry bulb temperature:
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TERMINOLOGIES
7) Wet bulb Temperature: The temperature of
air measured by the thermometer when it is
covered by the wet cloth is known as wet bulb
Temperature.
8) Dew point Temperature:The temperature at

which the water vapour starts condensing is

called dew pointTemperature
9)Wet bulb depression: (DBT- WBT) indicates
relative humidity
10) Dew point depression: (DBT- DPT)
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