EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
AND COORDINATION
CRM MODULE
Revision 1.1 RTC (December 2017) ©Ryanair Training Dept.
COMMUNICATION AND COORDINATION
CRM MODULE
FLIGHT TRAINING DEPARTMENT REV 1.0
INTRODUCTION
Crew Resource Management (CRM) is the application of human factors knowledge and skills to the conduct
of flight operations, with the objective of efficiently using all available resources (equipment, systems and
people) to achieve safe flight operations. This CRM module will refresh the concept of effective
communication and coordination inside and outside of the flight deck, which is a vitally important element
of CRM that will help to ensure that a flight is completed safely and efficiently.
Communication and the aim of effective communication
People are constantly communicating either as a social tool or as part of an operational task. Both are
important, as social interaction builds good CRM and operational communications are vital to the safe
conduct of the flight. About 90% of our time is spent communicating either to ourselves, with other people
or to machines.
Attempting not to communicate can send messages to the people around us. Even our absence causes
people to form opinions about why we are not there, whether that was our intent or not.
There are many different types of communication which can be defined differently depending on the context
in question. A computer company may view communication in a different way to a politician, however, for
our purposes it can be defined as:
“The transfer of information, by speech, visual signals, writing or behaviour, such that the receiver shares
the same meaning.”
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There is a distinct difference between information and meaning. For communication to be effective, both
sender and receiver should understand the same meaning from a message. For this to occur the language
used should be understood by both parties and the message passed in such a way that the information is
clear, free from interference and ambiguity.
Culture and religion colour every aspect of our lives, and as a result, communication skills are interpreted
differently depending on our back ground, experience, status and beliefs. We must remain sensitive to others
beliefs and be aware that our messages could be interpreted differently, by people from a different
country/background/religion.
SOPs and standard callouts are one way in which we aid effective communication by providing clear guidance
on what crews are supposed to say in a particular situation. This ensures that the language used by crews,
no matter where they are from, is the same which in turn reduces ambiguity.
One-Way/Two-Way Communication
Communication can be one-way or two-way depending on the situation and the intent/content of the
message. One-way communication involves information being sent, perhaps to more than one receiver,
containing information that does not require a response.
A good example of one-way communication could be a red traffic light. The message is to stop, sent by a
visual signal, but it does not require you to send a reply.
In aviation there are many forms of one way communication such as ATIS/Volmet broadcasts, Notams,
Metars, TAFs etc.
Two-way communication necessitates a reply from the receiver in some form to ensure that the message
has been received and understood. This could be an ATC clearance that requires a read back from the pilot.
This read back makes up the feedback loop which is discussed later in this document.
Methods of Communication
Interpersonal communication is the communication between people, the main purpose of which is to pass
messages. We need to communicate many different things such as:
Feelings “I’m not happy with this approach”
Ideas or proposals “How about this way?”
Feedback “Checked, Roger”
Information “QNH 1008”
In any case we need to communicate the subject of the message effectively using two distinct skills: Verbal
and Non-Verbal. In order to fully understand how best to communicate we need to be aware of the most
effective skills to use and what their limitations are.
The diagram below shows how effective each communication skill is. This is measured from the receivers’
perspective by what is perceived and understood from the particular method used.
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We can see that the largest element is Non-Verbal communication, which accounts for 55% of the message.
Sometimes called body language; eye contact, how we stand, what gestures and facial expressions we make
contain over half of the information we get from a message. This means that the majority of our inter-
personal communication relies heavily on non-verbal channels.
Verbal communication has two distinct elements, the words we use and how we say them. The majority,
some 38%, is made up of pitch, pace, tone, emphasis etc. Speaking very quickly can give the impression of
urgency, but it could also increase the possibility of miscommunication as the receiver may miss some of the
words you use. Indeed speaking loudly might be understood as a sign of aggression or anger.
The last 7% is the actual words we use when speaking or indeed writing. Selecting the appropriate words to
say can change the meaning of a message, or, leave the receiver with insufficient information to decode the
meaning. This can lead to assumptions which might be different from that intended by the sender.
Written words can also have different elements in the page layout, font size and shape, and the use of bold
lettering to place emphasis where required.
It is important to realise that on the flight deck we are restricted by many different things that reduce our
non-verbal communication significantly. It is therefore vital that we use our verbal communication skills to
effectively communicate to everyone involved in our operation.
Non-Verbal Communication Skills
Non-Verbal communication is so powerful that we can often send messages using these skills alone. In
aviation we have a whole set of universal signals given by ground crew to aircraft on the ground.
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Non-Verbal communication skills are varied, however, we can simplify them with the acronym PEOPLE:
Postures/Gestures
This could involve many different shapes made with your hands, movements of your arms and legs, or even
how you hold your head and shoulders. In the picture we can see a variety of different postures which could
convey a different message.
Closed/Open Posture
A closed posture is one in which the vulnerable parts of the body are covered, such as the throat, abdomen
or genitals. This can be exhibited standing or sitting, by wearing closed coats/jackets, crossing arms and legs,
or holding bags in front of your body. An important element of this is your hands. Showing the back of your
hands, or making a fist, could display aggression to another person. Equally holding them behind your back
could suggest the concealment of something or the resistance to closer contact.
An open posture is one that demonstrates a positive attitude. A raised head, open arms, and bags held at
the side show a friendly intent to others. An open posture, when used in conjunction with other Non-Verbal
skills, invites further conversation or closer contact and facilitates communication and CRM.
Eye contact is an important element of non-verbal communication that is thought to have a large influence
on social behaviour. During social interaction, eye contact shows confidence, engages the other
person/persons and directs communication to specific parties.
Avoiding eye contact in social situations can help to maintain a persons’ privacy, such as passing a stranger
in the street. Engaging another with your eyes can mean anything from attraction, interest, or the intent to
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start a conversation. It is important for us to realise that this powerful element of communication is very
rarely used in the flight deck due to the fact we are seated facing forwards, monitoring instruments and
manipulating the controls or systems.
Orientation
As previously mentioned, our flight deck where we spend the majority of our working life, is very restrictive
in the way we are seated and the procedures we have to follow. One of the most significant barriers to
Pilot/Cabin Crew communications is the locked cockpit door. This eliminates any visual contact when
communicating, hence we must rely solely on verbal communication. This has been a major problem in a
number of accidents, where the Cabin Crew felt unable to communicate with the Pilots.
Proximity
How close we are to other people when talking can affect their perception of us and our message. People
have a certain distance around them, which they are comfortable with people entering depending on their
familiarity with that person.
The diagram, designed by Edward T. Hall, shows these areas and defines them by distance.
Public Space 12’-26’: This is a comfortable distance when addressing a large audience, such as giving a lesson
to students, or speaking at a conference.
Social Space 4’-12’: Suitable for talking to newly formed groups or new acquaintances. This is the case when
operating with an unfamiliar crew.
Personal Space 1.5’-4’: This area is reserved for friends and groups we are familiar with.
Intimate Space <1.5’: Usually only very close friends, lovers, or family members enter this zone.
With this in mind, we can begin to understand that our familiarity with a person dictates how close we would
like them to be. Of course everyone is different, but the basic principle applies. If a stranger enters our
personal space, it can cause us to become uncomfortable or even aggressive. The aircraft is a unique
environment in which we are forced close to strangers on a regular basis.
Looks/Appearance
Effective communication begins with a first impression. Consider the statement that: First impressions take
seconds to make, yet years to change. That impression is formed in the first 30 seconds of meeting a new
person, even without speaking, how we look instantly affects another’s perception of us. We are all well-
schooled in how to make a good first impression at an interview. Working relationships are just as important,
if not more so in aviation, as the safe operation of the aircraft depends on the co-operation of all team
members. It is important that we make a good first impression when meeting our crew during the briefing,
to establish roles and build a rapport, in order to facilitate good CRM.
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Expressions
Facial expressions are closely tied to our emotions and therefore facial expressions are often involuntary, as
it is nearly impossible to avoid displaying what we are feeling. When communicating, our facial expressions
can affect the feelings of the other person towards us and change the way they perceive the message. It has
been shown that voluntarily assuming a facial expression, can actually cause you to feel that emotion (Schnall
& Laird, 2003).
Verbal Communication Skills
As we have previously touched upon, verbal communication is our primary tool in aviation, due to the
restrictions on our Non-Verbal communication. Verbal communication makes up only 45% of what is
received by the other person. With this in mind we must ensure that our verbal communication skills are
effective to ensure our messages are understood correctly.
There are 5 skills:
Inquiry, Advocacy, Listening, Critique and Conflict Resolution.
Inquiry
Inquiry is particularly important when you are uncertain of the communicators meaning. Ask questions to
clarify the intent of the message and to encourage the sender to consider more information.
1+1=>2
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The benefit of a team environment is that, when working effectively, the collective decision is better than
the sum of its parts. In other words 1+1= greater than 2. Inquiry can aid this process by encouraging all
members to seek out more information or consider avenues that otherwise, would have been omitted.
Advocacy
Advocacy is similar to inquiry, with one very important difference. The point of inquiry is to understand the
other person’s perspective, whereas advocacy is the act of stating your position on the proposed course of
action. Advocacy is particularly important in our operation in the prevention of Undesired Aircraft States, in
particular high energy approaches. The principal area we are concerned with is the 500 continue/Go around
call.
Our TEM philosophy: Anticipate the threat, Recognise the error and Recover to safe flight.
The following are statistics from the 2010 safety survey:
“Have you ever called 500 Go Around?”
Out of those that said yes:
3% The Captain was PF and continued
2% The First Officer was PF and continued
These statistics show that even though the SOPs are very clear, people are still disregarding the landing gate
and/or demonstrating poor communication by not listening to their colleagues.
Listening
Listening is responsible for 45% of communication failures in commercial aviation. People assume that to
listen is an inherited skill, and that it occurs automatically when communicating. However listening is an
active process that involves concentrated effort to understand the speaker’s perspective.
40% of our day is devoted to listening. Research has shown most people retain only 25% of what they hear.
This occurs due to the fact that we speak at a rate of 125words per minute, yet our brain has the capacity to
listen at 900 words per minute. The excess capacity is spent thinking about what you are going to say in
response, wandering off to other trains of thought or tuning out completely. All of this distracts you from
listening to what the person is actually saying.
Critique
An analysis of events, that allows a person to consider how the operation could be improved
Critique is a useful tool, used to improve the crew performance, by a subjective analysis of the past, present
or future. Critique should be impersonal and factual to avoid conflict. It is key to involve all crew members in
the critique process. Everyone will have their own opinion, formed from their perception of the task or course
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of events. We must remain receptive to others views and encourage all to participate to ensure all options
and ideas are considered.
It is important to realise that critique is not an occasional tool to be used only after a simulator assessment
or a diversion, but a continuous process that starts at the pre-flight preparation stage and finishes after the
post flight debriefing.
Evaluation in the PIOSEE process is an ideal time to encourage critique, to analyse the decision you have
made. Effective evaluation, at an appropriate time can avoid poor decisions exposing the crew to further
threats and errors.
Conflict Resolution
There are many different kinds of conflict, for example; social, political and religious. Each type has its own
advantages and disadvantages. It is critical to remember that conflict can be constructive, but can very
quickly cause a breakdown in communication and CRM if not dealt with effectively.
When dealing with conflict there are a number of different styles that people exhibit, depending on whether
they are self-orientated or show concern for others:
Avoidance - Avoiding conflict results from having little regard for personal or team goals. The aim is to avoid
confrontation at any cost.
Yielding – A high concern for others, little regard for their own goals/opinions. They accept another’s idea
over their own, even though it may not be the best option.
Competitive – Exhibits little concern for others and enjoys exerting power. Actively seeks conflict (This is
obviously a highly undesirable trait in airline crew)
Cooperation – The most effective method, (Sternberg & Dobson, 1987; Jarboe & Witteman, 1996). Showing
concern for others and oneself maximises the possibility of the best decision to be reached, for the benefit
of all concerned.
Conciliation – A mixture of Yielding and Cooperation, a high regard for fairness results in a compromise being
sought.
The primary objective when faced with conflict is to establish the correct course of action by establishing
WHAT is right, not WHO is right.
The image below shows a simple model of Two-Way communication. Principally it involves four main
elements. A sender, a channel of transmission, a receiver and a feedback loop.
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The sender wishes to send a message to another person. The message is encoded into a specific language
depending on the speaker, audience and situation. That message is then passed via the communication skills,
Verbal, Non-Verbal, or a combination of both. The receiver decodes the message to establish the meaning.
As two-way communication necessitates a reply, the receiver then transmits a reply to the original sender.
The feedback loop is critical to effective communications especially between pilots and ATC. In this instance
the sender is the ATC controller, the channel is verbal and the receiver is the Pilots. Reading back a clearance
or message to the controller constitutes feedback, which is vital to ensure the clearance has been received
and understood correctly.
The table below shows that 80% of communications used incorrect phraseology, i.e. the wrong words.
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The importance of using correct phraseology when transmitting a request or read back, cannot be
over emphasised.
Barriers to Communication
There are many barriers to communication, many of which depend upon the situation and mode of
communication. In airline operations there are specific difficulties we must be aware of and combat against.
Problems can occur in every step of the communication process:
1. Sender – Occur when the sender creates unclear or ambiguous messages (Language)
2. Channel – Background noise, interference
3. Receiver – Expectation, assumption, emotional bias. Physical restrictions like the oxygen masks,
headsets etc.
Feedback suffers from the same problems, as it is the communication process in reverse.
The aviation community is becoming ever more varied, with pilots from all over the world flying in airlines,
from a country other than their own. Ryanair has a particularly diverse workforce and consequently, a unique
challenge with language barriers. SOP’s are a tool we use, in order to ensure that communications regarding
operationally critical items, are easily understood by all pilots.
The above problems exist when transmitting messages between people, however, other problems arise
when there is very little or no communication. Lack of communication is responsible for 33% of
communication related errors. This can be the case for a number of different reasons. An inexperienced First
Officer may be reluctant to communicate to the captain because of doubt in himself, or the atmosphere in
the cockpit. Cabin Crew may be unwilling to interrupt the flight crew for similar reasons.
These problems can be overcome by an appropriately structured and presented pre-flight briefing. This may
be the first time you have met a particular crew and so it is very important to establish the atmosphere,
introduce yourself and involve all crewmembers to set the foundation for effective CRM throughout your
duties.
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Communication with other operational personnel and ground services
You should be aware that the aviation “team” includes more than just flight crew, cabin crew and air
traffic control. It includes everyone involved with our operation. Dispatchers, pushback crew,
Operations and Maintenance staff are all closely linked to the safety and efficiency of our operation.
You should be aware that English is not everyone's first language, maintain standard phraseology
wherever possible to ensure that messages are fully understood.
It is essential that you communicate effectively with everyone
involved our operation as this will ensure that the operation is
as safe and efficient as it possibly can be.
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