Current topics in façade technology development include energy, user comfort, indi-
vidual façade expression (11) as well as adaption of existing façades. These topics
are all driven by the search for new solutions to create façades for varying functions,
climatic circumstances and geographic locations (12). The authors expect two major
trends to develop: further emphasis on technical developments with improved design
tools, manufacturing methods and system variants, as well as simplifying the façade by
integrating components and functions into façades that might be complex to design
but easy to manage.
However, exclusiveness does not exist in façade technology: there are no definite
right or wrong solutions. Façades always result from individual creative conceptions,
designed for a specific place, context and architectural concept. This book should be
viewed as a guide to analyse, consider and develop. It challenges the reader to stay
informed about new as well as conventional topics, to learn by observing, inquiring and
visiting construction sites.
11 12
Institute of the Arab World, Paris, Juscelino Kubitschek Complex,
Jean Nouvel, 1989 Belo Horizonte, Oscar Niemeyer, 1951
South façade of the Institute of the Arab World with a techni- North façade of a residential high-rise building from the fifties
cal interpretation of the Arabic sun screen as an integrated- with sun protection lamellas which can be adjusted for each
pane system. The blinds open and close depending on the flat individually. Lamellas of varying incline create a textured
angle of the sun. surface that changes the building’s appearance – from a
design point of view, a very modern façade.
I NTRODUCTION 13
2 | From Wall to Façade
Solid wall construction
The form and function of present-day wall and façade construc- People who lived in cold climates and populations who had
tions are the result of a long process of development, which is adopted a settled mode of life preferred wall constructions that
closely related to the history of humanity. Starting from the two were as solid as possible (1, 4). Such walls are built up either of
original basic forms of human existence – the settled and the no- readily available building materials or of elements made suitable
madic – and the functional, technical and design-related require- for the purpose by simple processes, such as naturally occurring
ments resulting from these conditions, we can outline the result- stones, squared stone or fired bricks. The objective was to build
ing forms walls and façades take and their further development. a wall that would stand up to climatic influences while still keep-
Depending on climatic conditions and the various life styles and ing the building method as uncomplicated as possible. Though
dwelling styles that grew out of them, two essentially different the construction and finishing of such solid structures has natur
basic principles for the construction of the outer envelope of a ally developed in line with advances in technology – present-
dwelling place came into use: solid walls fixed to one particular day solid walls are either built up of structural units with both
spot and designed for permanence on the one hand, and more loadbearing and thermal insulation properties or are provided
flexible, less permanent façades – typically represented by tents with elements for this purpose – the basic principle r emains
for mobile use – on the other. unchanged.
The survey of the development trajectory given here follows
not so much cultural or historical as construction trends against Warm façade, cold façade
a background of structural and functional relationships. Thus, the Two different types of solid wall construction may currently be
development is not chronological but one in which the succes- distinguished: warm façades (2), where the insulating layer is
sive steps of the construction developments involved to bring mounted directly on the outside or the inside of the façade con-
out the interdependencies and relationships inherent in them, struction, and cold façades (3, 5) where the insulating layer is
as well as the underlying logic. The resulting overview of the separated from the climatic protection layer by a layer of air. The
phenomenon of the façade should be seen as a snapshot from latter principle allows the insulating layer to dry out if water pen-
current perspectives that understandably focuses on present- etrates into the façade as a result of damage to the protective
day developments but not limiting itself entirely to them. layer.
1 2 3
Solid wall Warm façade Cold façade
Solid wall constructed from monolithic Warm façades have a thermal insulation Cold façades are characterised by the
or composite elements, with or without layer applied directly to the surface of presence of a cavity, ventilated inter-
a separate layer to provide climatic the building. If the insulating layer is nally, between the outer layer that offers
protection (here in the form of exterior applied on the outside, it also has to protection against the weather and the
rendering). be water-resistant to ensure that the thermal insulation layer.
insulating properties are not lost due to
weathering. If the insulating layer is on
the inside, the ability of the solid wall
to store heat will no longer actively
influence the interior environment.
14 F R O M W A L L TO FA Ç A D E
4
Marketplace in Siena, 13th century
Solid masonry wall as a loadbearing and space-
enclosing structure.
Port Event Center, Düsseldorf,
Norbert Wansleben, 2002
The cold façade of the ground floor of an office
building in the port of Düsseldorf. The transpar-
ent outer layer that offers protection against
climatic influences allows the skeleton of the
building, the ventilated cavity and the thermal
insulation layer to be seen.
F R O M W A L L TO FA Ç A D E 15
Solid wall construction
Openings were originally made in the walls to allow smoke to Driven by the wish to admit even more light into the interior of
escape (6). At a later stage in the development, the openings the building, the amount of masonry used in the wall was gradu-
were enlarged to let light in. The method used initially to solve ally reduced (8). As the Romanesque style of architecture was
the problem of the weakening of the fabric of the solid wall by succeeded by the Gothic, the previously almost monolithic walls
the creation of openings in it was to use horizontal beams as were progressively replaced by filigree structures that may be
lintels. regarded as precursors of the skeletons used in present-day
In Gothic architecture, the amount of solid masonry used in building techniques. The roofs were shell constructions with
the wall was gradually reduced to allow large areas of glass to cross-wise support, resting on pillars and loadbearing walls (7).
be incorporated into the walls, with the aid of constructive tech- This allowed the vertical forces to be concentrated at a number
niques of which the ingenuity is still impressive today. of predetermined positions, from where these forces were trans-
ferred to the ground. This made it possible to create large open-
ings in the relatively unstressed parts of the walls. Since the
transfer of loads also leads to lateral forces in this system, these
lateral forces also have to be transferred to the ground by means
of suitable ties or external buttresses.
Dissolution of masonry in a church window
The introduction of large windows in churches
and cathedrals went hand in hand with a reduc-
tion in the area of masonry. The glass was
divided into small panes, mounted in window-
frames.
16 F R O M W A L L TO FA Ç A D E
7
Cathedral of Amiens, 1220-1269
The space was opened up by dividing the
structure into loadbearing and covering elements.
Large areas no longer had any loadbearing
function, thus allowing windows to be created
in them.
Merchants’ houses in Antwerp, 16th century
As the merchant classes increased in stature,
building methods permitting large areas of glaz-
ing in façades also came to be used for profane
purposes, as in these historic merchants’ houses
surrounding the marketplace in Antwerp.
F R O M W A L L TO FA Ç A D E 17
Bridging the gap
Since the use of lintels to span large openings in walls (9) very
soon reached its structural limits, the next stage in the develop-
ment was the use of arches for this purpose. In Gothic archi-
tecture, these arches became pointed since this form is more
capable of bearing the weight of the wall lying above. Present-
day building styles continue to use lintels – made of steel or
reinforced concrete – to span openings in solid walls (10).
Openings in walls
Openings in a solid wall allow fresh air and light
access to a building.
10
Bridging the gap
Openings in solid walls were initially spanned
with wooden lintels. Arches were later intro-
duced, since they made it possible to bridge wid-
er gaps. In the Gothic style, these arches were
pointed to allow them to bear greater weights of
masonry above them. Modern architecture would
conventionally make use of concealed loadbear-
ing elements to span openings.
18 F R O M W A L L TO FA Ç A D E