METAL CASTING PROCESSES

1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable-Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent-Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Castability and Casting Economics
7. Product Design Considerations

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 Two Categories of
Casting Processes
1. Expendable-mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
▪ Advantage: more complex shapes are possible
▪ Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent-mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
▪ Advantage: higher production rates
▪ Disadvantage: geometries are limited by the need
to open the mold

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 Overview of Sand Casting

▪ Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast
▪ Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel,
and titanium
▪ Castings range in size from small to very large
▪ Production quantities from one to millions

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Sand casting for an
industrial pump. Holes
and surfaces have been
machined (courtesy of
George E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology Laboratory,
Lehigh University)

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 Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold

2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
▪ Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties

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 Making the Sand Mold

▪ The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing

sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
▪ The mold must also contain gating and riser system
▪ If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
▪ A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced

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 Sand Casting Production
Sequence
Production sequence in sand casting, including
pattern‑making and mold‑making

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 The Pattern

▪ Full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
▪ Pattern materials:
▪ Wood - common material because it is easy to
shape, but it warps
▪ Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts
longer
▪ Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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 Types of Patterns

Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid pattern, (b) split
pattern, (c) match‑plate pattern, (d) cope and drag pattern

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 Core

▪ Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part

▪ Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring
▪ The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
▪ May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets

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 Core in Mold

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible
chaplet design, (c) casting

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 Desirable Mold Properties

▪ Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion

▪ Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
▪ Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
▪ Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
▪ Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?

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 Foundry Sand

▪ Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

▪ Good refractory properties ‑ for high temperatures
▪ Small grain size for better surface finish on part
▪ Large grain size is more permeable, allowing
gases to escape during pouring
▪ Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
▪ Disadvantage: interlocking reduces
permeability

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 Binders Used with
Foundry Sand

▪ Sand is held together by a mixture of water and

bonding clay
▪ Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
▪ Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
▪ Organic resins (e.g., phenolic resins)
▪ Inorganic binders (e.g., sodium silicate and
phosphate)
▪ Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture
to increase strength and/or permeability

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 Types of Sand Mold

▪ Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water

▪ “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
▪ Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
▪ Mold is baked to improve strength
▪ Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps

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 Buoyancy in a
Sand Casting Operation

▪ During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends

to displace the core, which can cause casting to be
defective
▪ Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid
less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm − Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core

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 Other Expendable Mold
Processes

▪ Shell Molding
▪ Expanded-Polystyrene Process
▪ Investment Casting
▪ Plaster-Mold and Ceramic-Mold Casting

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 Shell Molding

Casting process in which the

mold is a thin shell of sand
held together by
thermosetting resin
Steps: (1) A metal pattern is
heated and placed over a
box containing sand mixed
with TS resin

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 Steps in Shell Molding

(2) Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern,
causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so loose uncured particles
drop away

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 Steps in Shell Molding

(4) Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete

curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from pattern

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 Steps in Shell Molding

(6) Two halves of shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or

metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished; (7) finished
casting with sprue removed

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 Shell Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish
▪ Good dimensional accuracy
▪ Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
▪ Can be mechanized for mass production
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ More expensive metal pattern
▪ Difficult to justify for small quantities
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 Expanded-Polystyrene Process

▪ Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene

foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
▪ Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative‑foam process, and full‑mold
process
▪ Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
▪ Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections

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 Steps in
Expanded-Polystyrene Process

(1) Polystyrene foam

pattern is coated with
refractory compound

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 Steps in
Expanded-Polystyrene Process
(2) Foam pattern is placed
in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the
pattern

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 Steps in
Expanded-Polystyrene Process
(3) Molten metal is poured
into the portion of the pattern
that forms the pouring cup
and sprue
As the metal enters the mold,
the polystyrene foam is
vaporized ahead of the
advancing liquid, thus filling
the mold cavity

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 Expanded-Polystyrene Process:
Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

▪ Pattern need not be removed from the mold
▪ Simplifies and speeds mold‑making, because two
mold halves are not required as in a conventional
green‑sand mold
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ A new pattern is needed for every casting
▪ Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns

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 Expanded-Polystyrene Process

▪ Applications:
▪ Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
▪ Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting
operation

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 Aluminum engine head produced by
expanded-polystyrene casting process

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 Investment Casting
(a.k.a. Lost-Wax Process)

▪ A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make the mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
▪ "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition
of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
▪ It is a precision casting process
▪ Capable of producing castings of high accuracy
and intricate detail

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 Steps in Investment Casting

(1) Wax patterns are

produced
(2) Several patterns are
attached to a sprue to
form a pattern tree

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 Steps in Investment Casting

(3) Pattern tree is coated

with a thin layer of
refractory material
(4) Full mold is formed
by covering the coated
tree with sufficient
refractory material to
make it rigid

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 Steps in Investment Casting

(5) Mold is held in an

inverted position and
heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip out
of the cavity
(6) Mold is preheated to
a high temperature, the
molten metal is poured,
and it solidifies

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 Steps in Investment Casting

(7) Mold is broken away

from the finished casting
and the parts are
separated from the sprue

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 One‑piece compressor stator with 108
separate airfoils made by investment
casting (courtesy of Alcoa Howmet)

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 Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages
▪ Advantages:
▪ Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
▪ Close dimensional control and good surface finish
▪ Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
▪ This is a net shape process - additional machining
is not normally required
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Many processing steps are required
▪ Relatively expensive process

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 Plaster-Mold Casting

▪ Similar to sand casting except mold is made of

plaster of Paris
▪ In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to
set
▪ Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
▪ Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish

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 Plaster-Mold Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages
▪ Advantages:
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Capability to make thin cross sections
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Mold must be baked to remove moisture
▪ Moisture can cause problems in casting
▪ Mold strength is lost if over-baked
▪ Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures
▪ Limited to lower melting-point alloys

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 Ceramic-Mold Casting

▪ Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is

made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
▪ Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high‑temperature alloys
▪ Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
▪ Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar

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 Permanent-Mold
Casting Processes

▪ Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:

▪ A new mold is required for every casting
▪ In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
▪ Processes include:
▪ Basic permanent mold casting
▪ Die casting
▪ Centrifugal casting

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 The Basic Permanent-Mold
Process

▪ Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing
▪ Molds used for casting lower melting-point alloys
are commonly made of steel or cast iron
▪ Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

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 Steps in
Permanent-Mold Casting
(1) Mold is preheated and coated for lubrication and heat dissipation

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 Steps in
Permanent-Mold Casting
(2) Cores (if any are used) are inserted and mold is closed;
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies

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 Steps in
Permanent-Mold Casting
(4) Mold is opened

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 Permanent-Mold Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

▪ Advantages of permanent-mold casting:

▪ Good dimensional control and surface finish
▪ Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a
finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
▪ Limitations:
▪ Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
▪ Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
▪ High cost of mold
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 Applications and Metals for
Permanent-Mold Casting

▪ Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly
▪ Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
▪ Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
▪ Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures

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 Die Casting

▪ A permanent-mold casting process in which molten

metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
▪ Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
▪ Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
▪ Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes

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 Die Casting Machines

▪ Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
▪ Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

▪ Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects

liquid metal under high pressure into the die
▪ High production rates
▪ 500 parts per hour not uncommon
▪ Applications limited to low melting‑point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
▪ Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Hot‑chamber die casting

cycle: (1) with die closed
and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into
the chamber

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

(2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure
during cooling and
solidification

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

(3) Plunger is withdrawn,

die is opened, and
casting is ejected

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Machine

▪ Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
▪ High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
▪ Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
▪ Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use on
low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Cycle

(1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Cycle

(2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification

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 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Cycle

(3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is ejected

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 Molds for Die Casting

▪ Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
▪ Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used when steel and cast iron are die casted
▪ Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
▪ Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to
prevent sticking

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A die casting that
measures about 400
mm (~16 in) diagonally
for a truck cab floor
(courtesy of George E.
Kane Manufacturing
Technology Laboratory)

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations
▪ Advantages:
▪ Economical for large production quantities
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Thin sections possible
▪ Rapid cooling means small grain size and good
strength in casting
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Generally limited to metals with low metal points
▪ Part geometry must allow removal from die

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 Squeeze Casting

▪ Combination of casting and forging in which a molten

metal is poured into a preheated lower die, and the
upper die is closed to create the mold cavity after
solidification begins
▪ Differs from usual closed-mold casting processes
in which die halves are closed before introduction
of molten metal
▪ Compared to conventional forging, pressures are
less and finer surface details can be achieved

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 Semisolid Metal Casting

▪ Family of net-shape and near net-shape processes

performed on metal alloys at temperatures between
liquidus and solidus
▪ Thus, the alloy is a mixture of solid and molten
metals during casting (mushy state)
▪ To flow properly, the mixture must consist of solid
metal globules in a liquid
▪ Achieved by stirring the mixture to prevent
dendrite formation

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 Semi-Solid Metal Casting:
Advantages

▪ Complex part geometries

▪ Thin part walls possible
▪ Close tolerances
▪ Zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the
casting

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 Centrifugal Casting

▪ Family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
▪ The group includes:
▪ True centrifugal casting
▪ Semicentrifugal casting
▪ Centrifuge casting

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 True Centrifugal Casting

▪ Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce

a tubular part
▪ In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
▪ Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
▪ Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

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 True Centrifugal Casting

Setup for true centrifugal casting

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 Semicentrifugal Casting

▪ Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings

rather than tubular parts
▪ Molds use risers at center to supply feed metal
▪ Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
▪ Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
▪ Examples: wheels and pulleys

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 Semicentrifugal Casting

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 Centrifuge Casting

▪ Mold is designed with part cavities located away from

axis of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force
▪ Used for smaller parts
▪ Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

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 Centrifuge Casting

(a) The process and (b) one of the parts cast

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 Furnaces for Casting Processes

▪ Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

▪ Cupolas
▪ Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
▪ Crucible furnaces
▪ Electric‑arc furnaces
▪ Induction furnaces

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 Cupolas

▪ Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping

spout near base
▪ Used only for cast irons
▪ Although other furnaces are also used, the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas
▪ The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
alloying elements (if used), is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height
of cupola

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Cupola for
melting cast iron

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 Direct Fuel‑Fired Furnaces

▪ Small open‑hearth in which charge is heated by

natural gas fuel burners located on side of furnace
▪ Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
▪ At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
▪ Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper‑base alloys and aluminum

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 Crucible Furnaces

▪ Metal is melted without direct contact with burning

fuel mixture
▪ Sometimes called indirect fuel‑fired furnaces
▪ Container (crucible) is made of refractory material
or high‑temperature steel alloy
▪ Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum
▪ Three types used in foundries: (a) lift‑out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting

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 Three Types of
Crucible Furnaces
(a) Lift‑out crucible, (b) stationary pot - molten metal must be
ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace

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 Electric‑Arc Furnaces

▪ Charge is melted by heat from an electric arc

▪ High power consumption
▪ Electric‑arc furnaces can be designed for high
melting capacity
▪ Used primarily for melting steel

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 Induction Furnaces

▪ Uses alternating current passing through a coil to

develop magnetic field in metal
▪ Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
▪ Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing
action
▪ Since metal does not contact heating elements,
environment can be closely controlled to produce
molten metals of high quality and purity
▪ Common alloys: steel, cast iron, and aluminum

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 Induction Furnace

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 Ladles

Two common types of ladles to transfer molten metals to molds: (a)

crane ladle, and (b) two‑man ladle

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 Additional Steps After
Solidification

▪ Trimming
▪ Removing the core
▪ Surface cleaning
▪ Inspection
▪ Repair, if required
▪ Heat treatment

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 Trimming

▪ Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting‑line flash,

fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
▪ For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken off
▪ Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack‑sawing,
band‑sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used

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 Removing the Core

▪ If cores have been used, they must be removed

▪ Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
▪ In some cases, they are removed by shaking the
casting, either manually or mechanically
▪ In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
▪ Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

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 Surface Cleaning and Inspection

▪ Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise

enhancing appearance of surface
▪ Cleaning methods: tumbling, air‑blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
▪ Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting
▪ Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence

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 Heat Treatment

▪ Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties

▪ Reasons for heat treating a casting:
▪ For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
▪ To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service

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 Casting Quality

▪ There are numerous opportunities for things to go

wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
▪ The defects can be classified as follows:
▪ General defects common to all casting processes
▪ Defects related to sand casting process

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 General Defects:
Misrun

A casting that has

solidified before
completely filling mold
cavity

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 General Defects:
Cold Shut

Two portions of metal

flow together but there
is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 General Defects:
Cold Shot

Metal splatters during

pouring and solid
globules form and
become entrapped in
casting

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 General Defects:
Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or
internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage
that restricts amount of
molten metal available in
last region to freeze

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Sand Blow

Balloon‑shaped gas
cavity caused by
release of mold gases
during pouring

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Pin Holes

Formation of many small gas

cavities at or slightly below
surface of casting

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal

is high, it may penetrate into
sand mold or core, causing
casting surface to consist of
a mixture of sand grains and
metal

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Sand Casting Defects:
Mold Shift

A step in the cast

product at parting line
caused by sidewise
relative displacement
of cope and drag

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Foundry Inspection Methods

▪ Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as

misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
▪ Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances
have been met
▪ Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Castability

▪ Ease with which a cast part can be produced

▪ Depends on:
1. Part design
2. Casting metal
3. Proper selection of casting process to
economically satisfy production requirements

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Casting Metals

▪ Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather

than pure metals
▪ Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
▪ Casting alloys can be classified as:
▪ Ferrous
▪ Nonferrous

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
Cast Iron

▪ Most important of all casting alloys

▪ Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of
all other metals combined
▪ Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
▪ Typical pouring temperatures ~ 1400°C (2500°F),
depending on composition

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Ferrous Casting Alloys:
Steel

▪ The mechanical properties of steel make it an

attractive engineering material
▪ The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
▪ Difficulties when casting steel:
▪ Pouring temperature is high ~ 1650°C (3000°F)
▪ At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so
molten metal must be isolated from air
▪ Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Aluminum Alloys

▪ Generally considered to be very castable

▪ Low pouring temperatures due to low melting
temperature
▪ Pure aluminum Tm = 660°C (1220°F)
▪ Properties:
▪ Light weight
▪ Range of strength properties by heat treatment
▪ Easy to machine

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Copper Alloys

▪ Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

▪ Properties:
▪ Corrosion resistance
▪ Attractive appearance
▪ Good bearing qualities
▪ Limitation: high cost of copper
▪ Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Zinc Alloys

▪ Very castable, commonly used in die casting

▪ Low pouring temperatures due to low melting
temperature
▪ Pure zinc Tm = 419°C (786°F)
▪ Good fluidity for ease of casting
▪ Properties:
▪ Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Casting Economics

▪ Concerned with determining final cost of a cast product

and comparing costs of alternative casting processes
▪ Casting requires a sequence of steps:
1. Fabricate the mold
2. Heat the metal
3. Force the metal into cavity
4. Allow metal to cool and solidify
5. Remove casting from mold
6. Trim away gating system and other operations
©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Casting Economics

▪ Each step has a cost

▪ Step 1 – Fabricating the mold:
▪ Expendable-mold processes
▪ Mold cost is a component in the total cost of
each casting produced
▪ Permanent-mold processes
▪ Mold cost is divided by total number of castings
produced

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Casting Economics

▪ Total cost per casting is the sum of the unit costs of

all of the steps in the casting operation plus the costs
of starting material, power for heating, and tooling:

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Product Design Considerations

▪ Geometric simplicity
▪ Although casting can be used to produce complex
part geometries, simplifying the part design usually
improves castability
▪ Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
▪ Simplifies mold‑making
▪ Reduces the need for cores
▪ Improves the strength of the casting

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Product Design Considerations

▪ Corners on the casting

▪ Sharp corners and angles should be avoided
▪ They are sources of stress concentrations and
may cause hot tearing and cracks
▪ Generous fillets should be designed on inside
corners and sharp edges should be blended

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Product Design Considerations

▪ Draft Guidelines
▪ In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates
removal of pattern from mold
▪ Draft = 1° for sand casting
▪ In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in
removal of the part from the mold
▪ Draft = 2° to 3° for permanent mold processes
▪ Similar tapers should be allowed for solid cores

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Draft

Design change to eliminate need for using a core: (a)

original design, and (b) redesign

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Product Design Considerations

▪ Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish

▪ Dimensional accuracy and finish vary significantly,
depending on process
▪ Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand
casting
▪ Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die
casting and investment casting

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
 Product Design Considerations

▪ Machining Allowances
▪ Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part features
▪ Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those surfaces
where machining is necessary
▪ Typical machining allowances for sand castings
range between 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e