NOTES #1

Earth is the only place in the known universe confirmed to host life and is the only one known for sure to
have liquid water in the surface. These are reasons why planet earth is a unique one: (1) It has liquid water;
(2) Plate Tectonics; and (3) It has atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of the sun’s rays.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has a large amount of liquid water. About 70% of the
surface of the Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because of this, Earth is sometimes called “blue
planet.” Planet Earth is habitable because it has the right distance from the sun. It is kept warm by an
insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical ingredients for life including water and carbon. It can
provide water, oxygen, useful biological products for human, and has suitable weather and climate.
Earth, Venus, and Mars may have similarities: (1) They all are terrestrial planets, made of solid rocks and
silicates; (2) They all have an atmosphere; (3) They all almost have the same time to rotate on their axes; (4)
Earth and Mars both have water; (5) They all have carbon dioxide; and (6 All have landforms. Earth, Venus,
and Mars have differences: (1) Venus has no water; (2) Venus and Mars don’t have oxygen; and (3) Earth
has life forms.

1. Planet Earth is considered habitable because of the following reasons: (1) it has the right distance
from the sun; (2) it is protected from harmful solar radiation by its magnetic field; (3) it is kept warm
by an insulating atmosphere; and (4) it has the right amount of ingredients for life, including water
and carbon.
2. Earth is different from other planets in a way that it is the only planet with liquid water on the
surface.
a. Earth, Venus, and Mars may have similarities: (1) They all are terrestrial planets, made of solid
rocks and silicates; (2) They all have an atmosphere; (3) They all almost have the same time to
rotate on their axes; (4) Earth and Mars both have water; (5) They all have carbon dioxide; and (6)
All have landforms.
a. Earth, Venus, and Mars have differences: (1) Venus has no water; (2) Venus and Mars don’t have
oxygen; and (3) Earth has life forms.
NOTES #2

Subsystems of the Earth

The four subsystems of the Earth are:

1. Atmosphere – the gaseous layer above the Earth’s surface primarily composed of different gases such
as nitrogen and oxygen.
2. Biosphere – the zone of the Earth where all forms of life exist. This serves as the ecosystem of all
living and non- living organisms.
3. Geosphere – the solid part of the Earth that consists the entire planet from the center of the core to
the outer crust. It includes core, mantle, and crust of the Earth.
4. Hydrosphere – the water part of the Earth that includes oceans and glaciers.

The four subsystems of the Earth are:

1. Atmosphere – it is the gaseous layer above the Earth’s surface, primarily composed of 78% nitrogen and
21% oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and other inert gases
made the remaining 1%. The atmosphere supports life because animals and oxygen, and plants need
both carbon dioxide and oxygen. In addition, the atmosphere supports life indirectly by regulating
climate. Air acts as both a blanket and a filter, retaining heat at night and shielding from direct solar
radiation during the day.
2. Biosphere – the zone of Earth where all forms of life exist: in the sea, on land, and in water. It is
sometimes called as the large ecosystem. This is the zone that life inhabits. Biosphere is a very thin layer
of the earth’s surface.
3. Geosphere – the solid Earth, consisting of the entire planet from the center of the core to the outer
crust. It includes the core, mantle, and crust of the Earth.
4. Hydrosphere – the water part of the Earth which circulates among oceans, continents, glaciers, and
atmosphere. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth and contain 97.5% of its water.
Earth is a complex system made up of many smaller systems through which matter and energy are
continuously cycled. Energy and matter flow through Earth’s spheres: geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and biosphere. Energy flows through the atmosphere mostly by convection. How does matter and energy
flow across the four subsystems of the Earth? The Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose
boundaries matter and energy flows, the atmosphere (air), biosphere (living things), hydrosphere (water),
and geosphere (land). The atmosphere provides the geosphere with heat and energy needed for rock
breakdown and erosion. The biosphere receives gases, heat, and sunlight (energy) from the atmosphere. It
receives water from the hydrosphere and a living medium from the geosphere.
NOTES #3

What are Minerals?

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Mineralogists use the criteria to determine whether a material
is classified as a mineral or not.

Characteristics of Minerals
1. naturally occurring- a product of Earth’s natural processes
2. inorganic- it must be product of Earth’s physical processes.
3. homogeneous solid- minerals should have definite volume and rigid shape 4. definite chemical
composition—represented by a chemical formula
5. orderly crystalline structure- atoms of minerals are arranged in an orderly and repeating pattern
Properties of Minerals
To identify minerals, mineralogists observe the following properties:
a. Color - mineral’s color may change depending on the surface.
b. Streak - color of mineral in powdered form.
c. Hardness - minerals resistance to scratching

Mohs Scale of Hardness (Diamond is the Hardest with a scale of 10)

10 - Diamond
9 - Corundum
8 - Topaz
7 - Quartz
6 - Orthoclase
5 - Apatite
4 - Fluorite
3 - Calcite
2 - Gypsum
1 - Talc

d. Cleavage - mineral’s resistance to being broken and fracture

e. Crystalline structure or habit
f. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency - ability to allow light to pass through it. This is affected by
chemical makeup of the mineral sample. g. Luster - how light is reflected off a surface
h. Tenacity - describes the minerals reaction to stress. Brittleness- a mineral turns into
powder
Malleability a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer.
Ductility- A mineral can be stretched into wire.
Flexible but inelastic-Minerals are bent but they remain in the new position.
Flexible and elastic- Minerals are bent, and they bring back to their original position.
Sectility- ability of minerals to be sliced by a knife.
NOTES #4

Petrology is the scientific study of rocks. Rocks are combined aggregation of minerals. Petrologist
classified rocks based on how they were formed. In general, rocks are classified as igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rock.
Earth is a solid rock to a depth of 2,900 kilometers, where mantle meets the liquid outer core. A rock is a
naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals. The aggregate minerals forming the rocks
are held together by chemical bonds. Grains can be different in color, texture, and sizes. Geologists then
group rocks into three categories based on how the rocks form: igneous sedimentary and metamorphic
rock. Petrology is the scientific study of rocks. Petrologists classify rocks based on how they were
formed.

Three types of Rocks

Igneous- formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material that originates deep
within the earth.
Two types of igneous rock:
A. Extrusive/Volcanic rock - forms when magma makes its way to Earth’s surface as lava and then
cools. The crystals are very small (fine grained) since the cooling process is fast.

B. Intrusive/Plutonic - It cools slowly beneath the Earth surface and are created by magma. The
intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained). Igneous rocks are classified based on
1. Composition
FELSIC - light in color; feldspar and silicates
MAFIC - dark in color; made up of magnesium and iron
INTERMEDIATE – between mafic and felsic
ULTRAMAFIC - very dark color
2. Texture- overall appearance of rock
Aphanistic - fine grained
Phaneritic- coarse grained
Porphyritic- large crystals with small crystals
Glassy- non-ordered solid from rapid quenching Pyroclastic-
composite of ejected fragments Examples:
Obsidian, pumice, basalt, granite, diorite, gabbro

Sedimentary rocks provide information about surface conditions that existed in the Earth’s past.
● Particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of materials called sediments, accumulate in
layers and over long period of time harden into rocks.
● Compaction-due to increase of pressure of layered sediments it bind together to form the sedimentary
rocks.
Three types of sedimentary rocks
a.
Clastic Sedimentary rock - formed from accumulation of clasts: little pieces of broken rocks and shells.
Examples: conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale
b.
Chemical - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.
Example: Halite - formed when a body of seawater becomes closed off and evaporates.
c.
Organic - rocks formed from the accumulation of animal debris
Example: Coal - composed of organic matter in the form of plants fragments.
Metamorphic - forms from pre-existing rocks: either metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary

Examples: Quartzite, marble, slate, phyllite

Metamorphism - transformation of one rock type into another.
2 types of metamorphism
1. R egional-due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the crust
2. C ontact-mainly by heat due to contact with magma

Classification:
A. Texture - refers to the size arrangement ad grains within the rock.
B. Foliation - any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the rock.
*foliated - appeared banded or layered, contains crystals Example: mica
Non-foliated - made up of only few
Minerals

NOTES #5
 Weathering is an important process in the formation of soil. Soil is a mixture of grains, organic matter,
H2O, and gas.

Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered rocks due to different agents like water, wind, and
glacier that causes transportation of the material to where they are deposited. Plants, animals, and
humans play an important role in the erosional process.
There are four types of weathering:

 Chemical weathering
 Physical weathering
 Biological weathering
 Mechanical weathering

Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change
in its composition. In this process, the size and shape of rocks changes and this occurs because of the
following factors shown in the table below.

Factors Description
Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form mountain range.
Pressure After the granite ascends and cools, the overlying rocks and
sediments may erode. At the point when the pressure diminishes,
the rock expands, cools, and became brittle and fractured.

Rocks expand and are fractured when expose to high temperature.

Temperature However, if the temperature drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it
also expands and causes fracture.
Frost Generally, rocks have fracture in its surface and when water
Wedging accumulates in the crack and at that point freezes, the ice expands
and breaks the rock apart.
The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact and friction. This
Abrasion primarily occurs during collision of rocks, sand, and silt due to
current or waves along a stream or seashore causing sharp edges
and corners to wear off and become rounded.

Organic The roots grow causing penetration into the crack, expand, and in
Activity the long run, break the rock.
Human Activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding forests and
Activities cultivating land contribute to physical weathering.
Burrowing Animals like rats, rabbits and squirrels excavate into the ground to
Animals create a space for habitation.

In chemical weathering, there are changes in the composition of rocks due to the chemical reactions
presented below.

Chemical Description
Reactions
Dissolution It occurs in specific minerals which are dissolved in water. Examples
of these minerals are Halite (NaCl) and Calcite (CaCO 3). The
 formation of stalactites and stalagmites in caves are brought about
by this chemical reaction.
Rock-forming minerals like amphibole, pyroxene, and feldspar react
Hydrolysis
with water and form different kinds of clay minerals.
Oxidation It is the response of oxygen with minerals. If the iron oxidizes, the
mineral in rocks decomposes. Rusting is an example of this chemical
reaction.