BD OOOO Learn CBSE Structure of Atom Class 11 Notes Chemistry r 5 TC Chapter 2 a OE Tt ance anvsry 19,2028 by Bhagya SCTE CEE EL BL ‘Student Nutiton How Does This Effect Studies Words by Length NeET Mca Factoring Calculator Rational Numbers COPA Caleulator To? Universite in nia To? Engineering Colleges in India To? Pharmacy Colleges in India. Structure of Atom Class 11 Notes Chemistry Chapter 2. cosing torkids + Discovery of Electon—Discharge Tube Experiment Math Riddles for Kids with Answers 1n 1879, Wiliams Crooks studied the conduction of electicty through gases at low pressure. He performed ‘General Knowledge for Kids the experiment in a discharge tube whichis a cylindrical hard glass tube about 60 em in length. is sealed atboth the ends and fit th to metal electrodes as shown in Fig 2. General Knowledge To vacuum pump Scholarships for Students NSP- National Scholarip Class 12 Maths NCERT Solutions Class 11 Maths NCERT Solutions NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Maths High voltage NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Fig. 2.1 A cathode ray discharge tube. NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths: NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Maths: The electrieal discharge through the gases eaulé be observed any at very low pressures and at very high vohage, The pressure dierent gases cule aust by evscuaion When sufcienty igh voagels peed Ng 5 negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode). These were called cathode rays or cathode nq ‘ay particles Nel Pad + Properties of Cathode Rays ee () Cathode rays travel in straight line. nq 1) Cathode ray start fom eathodeand roe tward te anode. wd (i) These rays thernselves are not visiale but sei behaviour can be observed withthe hela of certain kind ‘of materials (luorescent or phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them, NOERT Saltions for Class 11 Physic ) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles. Wren elect fel is applied onthe cathode rays NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Chemistry ith the help ofa pair of meta plates, these are found o be deflected towards the positive plate indicating the presence of negative charge. NOERT Solutions for Glass 12 PhysicsCoO00000 clectons. For this he subjected he beam of elections released inthe dscharge tube as cathode rays to influence the eerie ane magne fils. These were acting perpenccular to one anther aswell as othe path folonecby electrons According o Thomson the amount of deviation ofthe partic fem thei patn in presence of elecical and ‘magnetic fel depends unon folowing factors: (0 Greate the magntude ofthe charge on the patil, gesterishenteraction wth the electric or magnetic field and hus greater is the deflection (The mass ofthe particle — lighter the prio, grater the deestion (The deletion of election from thelr crighnalpath increases wit the increase inthe voage across the clecodes or svength ofthe magnet ld 2y carrying out accurate measurements onthe amount of deflections observed by the electrons onthe clectie fel stiength or magnets Fld stength, Thomson was able to determine the vale of e/me = 1.758820 x 10"’ C kg"! where me = Mass of the electron in kg = magaituce af enarge onthe econ in cour (0). + Charge on the Election 222 Millian devised a method known 9 olerop experimen to determine the charge onthe electrons. Charge of an electron (e) = — 1.6022 x 10° C e em, 1.6022 x 10°C 1.758820 x 10"C kg” = 9.1094 * 10! kg The mass of electtOni (m,) = + Discovery of Proton—Anode Rays In 1886, Goldstein modified the discharge tube by using a perforated cathode. On reducing the pressure, he ‘observed a new type af luminous rays passing through the holes or perforations ofthe cathode and maving Ina direction opposite tothe cathode rays. These rays were named as poslve rays or anede rays or as ‘canal ays, Anode rays are not emitte from the anode out froma space between anole and cathode. + Properties of Anode Reys () The vale of positive charge (e) on the particles constituting anode rays depends upon the natuce of the gas inthe cischarge tube. (i) The charge to mass ratio ofthe particles is found to depend on the gas from which these originate Some of the postively charges particles carry a multiple of the fundamental unt of eletical charge. () The behaviour ofthese particles inthe riagnetc or electric fields opposite to that observed for electron or cathade rays Proton ‘The smallest and lightest positive fon was obtained from hycrogen and was called proton, Mass of proton = 1.676 x10 kg Charge on a proton = (+) 1.602x10"%¢ * Neutron itis a neural particle. Rwas discovered by Chadwiek (1982), By the bombardment of thin sheets of berlin with fast moving s-paticls he observed «that highly penetrating rays consist of neural particles whlen were named neutons ‘Thomson Model of Atom Positive sphere Fig. 2.2 Thomson model of atom ()J.4. Thomsen proposed that an atom may ae regarded asa sphere of approximate radlus TCT cm carrying positive charge cue to protons and in which negatively charged electrons are embedded. {i Inthis model the atom is visualized as a pudding or cake of positive charge with electrons embedded The Budget Chronicles Live Mint [CERT Sohtions for lass 10 Science Chapter [CERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter2 Metals and Nonmetals Class 10 carbon and its compounds class 10 Periodic Classification of Elements Class 10 Life Process Glass 10 [NGERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 7 [NGERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8 [NGERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 9 [NGERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 10 [CERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 11 [CERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 12 [CERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 13 [NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 14 [CERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 15 [CERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 16COOO00000 results of scattering exper ments cacied out by Rutherford in 1911 + Rutherford a-paticle Scattering Experiment utherford in 1911, performed some scattering experments in which he Borsbarde thin fils of metals ike ol, ster platinum or copaer witha beam of fast moving apart. The thin gold falhad a circular ‘luorescent zinc subhie screen around it Whenever a-particles struck the screen atny fash of ight was produced at tha point, From these experiments, he made the following observations Very few ‘Maximum Block of lead 1 Slit Thin fil ccparticles Fig. 2.3 Rutherford's scattering experiment. () Most ofthe -paticles passed through the foil without undergoing any deflection, (A few aparticles underwent deflect'on through smal angles (i) Very few mere defected back .e, through an angle of nearly 180°. From these observations, Rutnerford drew te following conclusions: (Since most of the a-particles passed through te fll without undergoing ny deflection, there must be sufficient empty space within the acorn (A small fraction of a-particks was deflected by small angles. The positive charge has tobe concentratec in avery small volume tha epelled and deflected a few positively charged aparticles. This very smal orton ofthe atorn was called nucleus (i) The volume of nucleus is very small as compared to total volume of atom + Rutherford Nuclear Model of an Atom (0 The pasitve charge and mast ofthe mass of the atom was densely concentrated in an extremely ral [Link] very small portion ofthe ators was called nucleus by Rutherford i) The nucleus is surounced by electrons that move around the nucleus with avery high speed incl paths called obits (i) Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of atracion. + Atomic Number ‘The numberof protons present in the nucleus is equal tothe storie number (2) For example the number lof protons in the hydrogen nucleus is 7, n Sodium atom tis 11, therefor, thr atomic numbers are 1 and 111 node to keep the electrical neutrality, the number of electrans in an atomnis equalto thenumaer of protons (atomic number, 2) For example, numberof electrons in hycrogen ator and socium atom are 1 and 11 respectively ‘Atomic Numie® (2) = Num of protons inthe ruckeus of an atorn = Number of electrons in a neutral ator, + Mass Number [Number of pratons and neutrons present inthe nucleus are collectively known as nucleons, The total umber of nucleons is termed as mass nutes (8) ofthe ator, ‘Mass Number (A) = Number of protons (p)+ Number f neutrons (7 “Isotopes ‘Atoms with identical atorric number but different atornle mass number ate known 28 eotopes, Isotopes of Hydrogen ‘These thee isotopes are shown inthe f gure below:CoO00000 2 3 ty 4 a Fig. 2.4. The three isotopes of hydrogen. numbers 35 and 37. Isotopes of Chlorine: There are two isotopes of chlorine with mass ‘The two isotopes differ in their number of neutrons, having 18 and 20 neutrons, respectively. Isotopes of some common elements Characteristics of Isotopes Since the isotopes ofan elernent have the same atomic number, but different mass number, the nucle of Isotopes contain the same number of protons, but ferent number of neutrons. (Since the isotopes differ in thei torn masses al the properties of the isotopes depending upon the ase ae lifferent, i) Since, the chemical properties are mainly determines by the number of protons in the nucleus, and the herieal properties, rurze of electrons inthe ata the diferent isotopes of an element exit si For example al the isotopes of carbon anburing ve carbon dioxide “Isobars Isobars are the atoms with same mass number but different atomic number, for example, WC and HN. Another example is #2, K and SIC are typical isobars. ach ofthese have same mass number but different atomic number. + Drawbacks of Rutherford Mode! () When a body is moving in an orbit, it achieves acceleration. Thus, an electron moving around ruckus in an otitis under acceleration. According to Maxwells electotragnetic teary, charged particles when accelerated ast erit electromagnetic racitions. Therefore, an electron in an orsit will emt radiations the energy cariec by ronie mation. Its path vill Become closer to nucleus and ultimately should spa radiation comes fram el into nucleus within. 104s. But actually this does nat hapaen, ‘Thus, Rutherfords model cannot explain the stabilty of atom if the mation of electrons is described onthe bass f classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory. ( Rurherfords model does not give any idea about cistrioution of eletrons around the nucleus and about ther energies + Developments Leading tothe Bohs Model of Atorn ‘Two developrrents playes @ major olen the formulation of Bohs madel of ator, These were (Dual character ofthe electromagnetic racation which means that radiations possess both wave lke and Particle lke properties. (0) Experimental resus regarding atomic spectra which can be explained onl by assuring quantized electronic energy levels in atoms. + Natur of Electromagnetic Radiation (Electomagnetic Wave Theory) This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwellin 1864, The main points of this theory areas follows: (0 The energy is emited from any source (ike the heated rod or the lament af a bulb through which electric current s passed) continuously in the form of ragations ands calle the radiant energy (i) The radiations consist of electric and magnetic elds oscillating perpendicular to each ether and both perpendicular tothe direction of propagation ofthe radiation. (i) The radiations possess wave character and travel withthe velocity of light 3x 108 m/sec () These waves do not require ary material medium for propagation For example, rays fram the sun each Us though space which is 2 nom material medium, « Characteristics of a WaveCOO00000 Frequency: Frequency ofa wi ‘a pointinone second Its represented by v (ou) andis expressed in Hertz (H2). : Velocity: Velocity of @ wave is defined as the near distance trave ae in one second Iti represented by c and is expressed in emysec or msec Amplitude: Amplitude ofa wave isthe height ofthe crestor the depth ofthe th-ough. tis represented by V andis expressed in he units of length Wave Number: tis defined as the number of waves present in 7 metre lng, Evidently twill be equal to 1 a ofthe wavelenath. Iris rep (ead as ru bar) Electromagnetic Spectrum: When electromagreticraiations are arranged inorder ofthe increasing wavelengths or decreasing requerces, the complet spect'um abteined scaled eectoragretic. 10 107 ag" ap" 19 a0" a0" 0° aot a aot o_o | tte) (| reays Xrays JUV IR] Micro Jena] | ant | Long radio waves 1 i ado waves, —_—___]n4m) 10" 10" | 10° 7 qo! to tot a0" a0 ) "Visible spectrum —— Wavelength’ (nanometers) Fig. 2.5 (a) The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. (b) Visible spectrum. The visible region is only a small part of the entire spectrum, + Limitations of Electromagnetic Wave Theory ecesstul in exohiring properties ofl tromagnetic wave the cif et; but it could nat explain the following ne phenorencn of black body radiation, (The photo ric effect. i) The variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature v) The line spectra of atoms with eference to hysrogen + Black Body Radiation The i sorb all frequencies is called a black led black body radiation. The. exact frequency distribution pends only on its ternperature sy and the radaton emites by the erited radiation from aCOOO00000 ——> Intensity ty 000 2000 3000 ——+ Wavelength 2 (nm) Fig. 2:6 Wavelength-intensity relationship. ase of wavelength, reaches & [Ata given temperature, intensity of radiation emitted increases with de ‘maximum value ata given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further deerease of wavelength as shown in Fig 26. + Plancks Quantum Theory Te explain the phenorencn of ‘Black body radiation’ and photoelectric Max Planck 1900, put forward a theory known as Plancks Quantum Theo This theory was further extended by Einstein in 1905, The main points ofthis theory was as fous bed in te farm af small packets of energy. Each such packets of (Thera energy emitted or abse energy called a quantum. ofthe radiation ial 0 the frequet (9 The energy cf each quantum is decty ro Le, E«y or E=hy where his proportionally constant, called Planck’ constant. is value is equalto 6.626 x 10° vee, + Photoelectric Effect Hertz in 1887, discovered that when a beam of Eght of certain frequency strikes the surface of some metals elections are emitted oe "the metal surface. The phenemengn 's called photoelectric effect — Fig. 2.7 Equipment for studying the photootectric effect. Light of a particular frequency strikes a clean metal surface inside a vacuum chamber. Electrons are ejected from the metal and are counted by a detector that measures their kinetic energy. CObsenations in Photoelectric Efect () Only photons of tight of photoclectic effect. The value of vis ifferent for different metals (The kinetic energy ofthe electrons which are emitted is dtectly proportional othe frequency ofthe sitking photons an is quite independent of thelr intensity. per secand ‘rom the metal surface depends uson the intenshty led teshold frequency (v) can cause the (i) The aurnber of elections that are e) ofthe striking photons or raciations and not upon their frequency Explanation of Photoelectric Effect Einstein in (1905) was able to give an exslanation ofthe different aaints ofthe photoelectie effect using seks quanturn theory as underight, Cp ay Aro “Oy © © Ejector q 4 Photoslection seocoee Poole — wot! surface energy ofthe emitted electron. (Gi) On inereasing the intensity af tght, more electrons ae elected but the energies of the electrons are not akere. + Dual Beheviour of Electromagnetic Radiation From the study of behaviour of light, scientists came tothe conclusion that Iight and other electromagnetic radiations have dual nature These are wave nature as wel as partcle nature, Whenever radation interacts with rater it splays particle aroperties in contrast othe wavelke properties (interference and lifraction) which texhibts when propagates. Some microscope particles, lice electrons also exhibit this wave-sartcle duality + Spectrum \When a ay of whit ight passed through a prism the wave with shorter wavelength bends more than the ‘one with a longer wavelength. Since ordinary white ight consists of waves with all the wavelengths inthe visible range, aay of white ight is spread aut into a series of coloured bands caled spectrum, Thelight of red calour which has longest wavelengths devated the least whl te violet light, which has shortest ‘wavelengths deviates the most. Continuous Spectrum \When a ay af white ight analysed by passing through a prism it is observed that eps up inte seven ifferent wide bands of colours from violet to red (ike rainbow). These colours are so continuous that each lof therm merges into the next. Hence, the spectrum is called continuous spectrum, Emission Specta Emission Spectra is noticed when the radations emitted from a source are passed through a prism and then ecelved on te photographic plate. Raiations can be eritled in a number ef ways such as: ( fom sun or glowing electric bulb. (iby passing elect discharge through gas a low pressure (a) by heating a substance ta high temperature Line Spectra \When the vapours of some volatile substance are allowed to fall onthe are of @ Bunsen burner and then ‘analysed with the help of a spectroscope. Some specific coloured lines appear onthe photographic plate hich ae different for differen substances, For example, sodium ois salts emit yellow light while potassium or its salts give out violet ight ‘Absorption Spectra \When white lights passed through the vapours ofa substance and she transmitted light i then allowed to sttke a prism, dark lines appear inthe etherwise continuous spectium, The éarklines indicate thal the raciations corresponding to ther were absorbed by the substance from the whiteligt. This spectrums called absorpt on spectrum Darklines appear exactly atthe sarne positions where the ines in the emission spectra appear + Line Spectrum of Hydrogen \When electric discharge is passed through hydragen gas enclosed in discharge tube under lw pressure ‘andthe emitted light is analysed by a spectroscope, the spectrum consists of a lage number of nes which ate groupedinto diferent series. The complete spectrum is known as hycrogen spectrum, On tne basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that al series of Ines in the hydrogen saectrum could be describes bythe following exaression:COOO00000 The value 109, 677 Cm” is called’ the Rydberg constant for hydrogen. Lyman Balmer Brackett___Pfund —— ————— Ultraviolet Visible Inflared Fig. 2.8 Atomic spectrum of hydrogen. yberg in 1880, and has given a siple theoretical equation forthe calelation of wavelengths and wave rumees of the spectral ines indifferent series of hydrogen spectrum. The ecuation is known as Ryiverg formula (or equation). Ry ‘This relation is valid for hyctogen atom only. For other species, me TaRaze fh 3) vite 2s the ateie number ofthe secs. Here i= constant ead yaberg constant for ysrogen ann are integers 72>) For enyportulr ee, the vaue of iscanstant whe tht of 2 changes. Fr exer Fer yan se, 1.79284 So Foe Batner series, y= 2.19 *3,4,5.6. 5067 67.8 87.88 For Paschen seres, ny For Brackett sees, = 4. For Pjund series, 5, ‘Thus, by substituting the values ofp and ng inthe above equation, wavelengths and wave number of lferent spectra lines can be calculate. When m = 2, the expression given above i called Balmer's formula * Boh’s Model of Atorn [Niels Bohr in 1913, proposed a new model of ators on the basis of Plancks Quantum Theory The main points ofthis model ae as follows: () Inan ator, the electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain definite circular paths called ovis (i) Each orbit is associated with detnite energy and therefore these are known as energy levels cr energy shells, These are rumbered a8 9, 2,3, 4...0°K LL M,N (i) Only those energy orbits are permitted for the electron n which angular momentum of the electron is 9 ile umber multiple of 2m Angular momentum of electron (mut m= mass of the electron, van 2.44010), ‘v= tangential velocity ofthe evolving electron. Feradusof the ort hh= Planci’s constant isan integer (As long as electron is present ina particular ori, nether absorbs nor loses energy adits eneray therefore, remains constant (When energy supplied to an electron, it absorbs energy only in fed amounts as quanta and jumps to higher energy state away ftom the nucleus known as excited state. The excited state is unstable, the clecion may jump back to the lower energy state and in coing so, teri the same amount of energy (AE -6). + Achievements of Boh?'s Theory 1. Blot’ theory has explained the stably of an ator, 2. Bohr’ theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in hydrogen atom and one elsctron species. ‘The mathematical expression for the energy inthe nth orbit,CoO00000 3. It explains the ine ‘spectra of single electron tons ke He" and L* + Limitations of Boh's Mode! (The theory could nat explain the atomic spectra ofthe atoms containing more than one electron or ‘multielectron atoms, (Bohr 7s theory failed to explain the fne structure ofthe special ines (i) Boh's theory could not offer any satisfactory explanation of Zeeman effect and Stark effect. () Bohs thecry fll 1 explain the abilty of atoms to form molecule formed by chermical bonds, (9) twas notin accordance withthe Heisenbergs uncertainty prince. + Dual Beheviour of Matter (de Broglie Equation) de Broghe in 1924, proposed that mater lke radiation, should also exhibit dual behaviour Le, bath particle Tike and wave ke properties, This means that Ike photons, electrons also have momentum as Well wavelength F1om this analogy de Brogle gave the following relation between wavelength (A) and momentum (9) ofa material partite. h h mo P mass of the particle ‘Velocity of particle P = momentum of the particle This relationship has been verified by an experiment. + Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle Ik states that. "tis impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum (or a where m o Mathematicaly, it can te given as, ; an mh i oe weta sees huey in postion and P(r V) ithe acer ome (or velocity) of the particle and h is Planck's constant. a \ Axx AP, > or AK x A(maly + Significance of Uncertainty Principle (O terules out existence of cette paths or trajectories of electrons ang other similar particles (i) The effect of Heisenbergs uncertainty principles significant only for mioscopic objects and is negligible for macroscople objects + Reasons for the Fallure of Bohr Modk () The wave character ofthe electrons not considered in Boh Model. i) According to Bohr Madel an orbit is a clearly defined path and tis path can completely be defined only if both the positon and the velocity ofthe electron are known exactly atthe sare time, This isnot possible according tothe Heisenberg uncertainty principle * Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom ‘uarturn mechanics: Quantum mechanis is a thecretical slence that deals with the study of the motions ofthe rniroscopie objects that have beth ebservable wave hke and particle ike properties. Important Featutes of Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom (The energy of electrons in atom is quantized ie, can only have certain values (i The exstence of quantized electronic energy levels a direct result ofthe wave Ike properties of elecvons (i) Both the exact position and exact velsity of an electron in an atom cannat be determined sirutaneousy, (v) An atomio orbitathas wave function @, There are many oritasin an atom, Electron occupy an stomic otbital which has definite energy. An orbital cannot have more than two elections. The oritals are flee in Inereasing order of energy. Allthe information about the electron in an stom is stored in orbital wave function, (9) The prodabilty of finding election ata point within an atem is propertionalta square of arbital wave function ie, lat that point. tis known as probabilty censity and is aways postive From the value ofp? at cfferent points within atom. it is possible to predict the region around the nucteusrumaes. These are used to get complete infermation about electron ke, ts lecatlon, energy sain ete Principal Quantum Numer (n) Its the most important quanturn number since it els the principal energy levelor shel to which the electron belongs. ig denoted bythe letter V and can have any integral value except zea, ie, = 1,22, Boon ‘The various principal energy shels ate also designated by the letters, KL, M,N, 0, ete Starting from the nucleus. ‘The principal quantum number gives us the following information: (glues the average distance of the electron fram the nucleus. (i) ltcomaetely determines the energy of the electran in hydrogen atarn and hydragen lke particles, (i) The maximum numberof electrons presentin any principal shells given by 2n® where nis the nurnber of the principal shell ‘Azimuthal or Subsidiary or Orbital Angular Quantum Number () Its found that the spectra ofthe elements contain not only the mainlines but there are mary fine ines also present. This number helps to explain the fine lines ofthe spectrum. ‘The azimuthal quantum rumber gives the following information () The numberof subshells present in the main shell (The angular marnentum of the electron present in any subshel (in) The relative energies of various subshels, () The shapes ofthe various subshells present within the same principal sel, ‘This quantum nuriber is denoted by the liter T. Fora given value of it can have ary value ranging from 0 ton=[Link], For the Tst shel), n= 1, ean have only one value Le, 1= 0 Forn=2, the possible value of Lean be O and 1. Subshells corresponding to diferent values ofl are represented by the following symbols vaheof1012345 Notation for subshell sp dF gh Magnetic Orit Quantum Number (m or mit) ‘The magnetic orbital quanturn number determines the numer of preferred erientallons ofthe electrons present in a suoshell Since each orientation corespands to an otal therefore the magnetic orbital {quantum number determines the numberof exbitals present in any suashell ‘The magnetic quantum umber is denoted by ktter mor ri ané fora given vale of tan have al the values ranging from ~ Ito + | including zero. ‘Thus, for energy value of Lm has 21+ 1 values Fer examae, For|=4 (s-subshel, mi can have only one valve ie, ‘This meane that s-subshell has enly one exentaan in space. In ather words, e-subshell has only one onital called eorital Spin Quantum Number (Sor ers} This uanturn number helps to explain the magnetic properties of the substances. A spinning electron behaves Ike a micromnagnet witha definite magnetic moment. If an orbital contains two electrons, the two ‘magnetic moments oppase and canceleach other + Shapes of soitals orbitals present inthe -subshell For this subshell1 = O and l= 0, Thus, orbital with only one lorentation has a spherical shape with unforin electron deny along all the tee axes ‘The probabil of Is electron is found to be maxirnum near the nucleus and decreases withthe increase in the distance from the nucleus. In2s electron, the probability is also maximurn near the nucleus and decreases to zero probabilly The spherical empty shel for 2s electron is called nodal surface or siraly ode. + Shapes of porbitale portals are present in the psubshell for which 1 and m ean have three possible otentations ~1, 0+COOO00000 y x x x Zz z uv kh B Goneral shape of porbital ‘Shapes of 2p,,2p, and 2p, orbitals. Fig. 2.10 From the dum-bel pictures, itis quite obvious that unlke s-rbital, 2 p-orbitalis directional in nature and hence it influences the shapes ofthe molecules inthe formation of which it participates. + Shapes of d-orbitale Gerbils are present in ¢-suashel for which = 2 and | =-2,-1,0,+7 ané +2. This means that there are {ve orientations leading to five ctferentordtas These five orientations are designated as dy d,., dy d.2 and d_2. However, they have the same energy ie., are in degeneracy state and are known as degenerate orbitals. The first three orbitals have clover leaf shape and lie in different planes which are xy, yz and zx planes respectively. The ds_,2 orbital is also clover leaf shaped but its lobes are directed along the X and Y-axis. + Aufbau Principle The ori ple states: Inthe ground state ofthe atoms, the araitals ae filed in order of their increasing In other wards, electrons fist ccupy the lowest energy crbital available to thern and enter into higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are fled ‘The order in which the energies ofthe oxilals increase and hence the order in which the orbitals are fled is as allows 15,25, 29,3, 99,45, 3, 49,55, 5 The order may be rersembered by using th 65,39, 6p. 75,56, 79 method given in fig.2.17 Fig. 2.11 + Pauli Exclusion Principle ‘According to ts anne, na two electrans in an atorn can have the sare set of fur quantum aumbers Paull exclusion principle can also be stated as-Only two electrons may exist inthe sarre orbital anc thes clecrons must have opposite spinsCOOO00000 Ihe distibuten of electrons into orbitals of an atm cle its electronic configuration The ea configuration of elitferent atoms canbe rereserted in two ways Forename @) ¢ pa... notation (ii) Orbital diagram A P d For example: The electronic configuration of hydrogen—1s!. aff is) + Causes of Stabilty of Completely Filled and Hal Filled Subshells ‘The completely filed and haf filed subshel's ae stable cue tothe folowing reasons: Pitt htt titi tit exchange by electron 1 exchange by electron 3 TTT sats exchange by electron 2 1 exchange by electron 4 — — Fig. 2.12 Possible exchange for a d* configuration. ‘Symmetrical distribution of electrons: The completely filed or half filed subshells have symmetrical lstroution of electrons in ther and are therefore more stable 2. The stabilizing effet arises wher fetal ofa suashel, These electrons tend to exchange their positions + two of mere electrons with same spin are present inthe degerrate numberof exchanges that ‘andthe energy released cue to thelr exchange is called exchange e can takes place is maximum when the susshellis ether half filed ox completely files “AS 2 result the exchange energy is maximum and so s tre stabiloe om peer % & wee bapa sree noe se ereapee. unas by ba x 8 om bea som moon pee me om bye ne eae ae bareenree 7 om Rom bapa =z Bo beeyenrat mY aw beteaeet am Be apap ee ot me eyes 2 te me pepe? a mo bee spun ayes =o: aegis = & ter peaeranee 2 8 ba Groene 23 seewe = ieewcy x a BP Pe eo fo: SMS Sau Rise sue 2 yes. wee ore mae ot sf oe 2 in nh any 932 oe ine tae 08 mises se om ” eat te 22 ise: meyers z iirseuen we nye Baek me ywseae ee eae So Class 11 Chemistry Notes 5CoO00000 G [Link] Student Education Loan LA REE RESOURCES NCERT SOLUTIONS (QUICK RESOURCESCOOO00000