DATA CAPTURING

USING
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
P K PARIDA
SCIENTIST
ODISHA SPACE APPLICATIONS CENTRE
(ORSAC)
 What is Photogrammetry?

Photogrammetry

Photo : Light Gram : To draw Metron : To measure

.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 2

What is Photogrammetry?
• Photogrammetric surveying or photogrammetry is the
branch of surveying in which maps are prepared from
photo-graphs taken from ground or air stations.
• With the advancement of the photogrammetric techniques,
photographs are being used for generation of resource
maps in 2D and 3D.
• Is the science of making measurements from photographs,
especially for recovering the exact positions of surface
points.
• Used to recover the motion pathways of designated
reference points located on any moving object, on its
components and in the immediately adjacent environment.
• Photogrammetry may employ high-speed imaging and
remote sensing in order to detect, measure and record
complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields.
Broadly Photogrammetry Requires:
• Planning & taking the photographs
• Processing the photographs
• Measuring the photographs & Reducing the measurement to produce
end results.
Field Application of Photogrammetry :
• Used to conduct topographical survey or engineering surveys.
• Suitable for mountainous and hilly terrain with little vegetation
• Used for geological mapping which includes identification of land
forms, rock type & rock structures.
• Used for projects demanding higher accuracy, since it provides
accurate measurement.
• Used in urban and regional planning applications.
• Used mostly in Planning/designing in transport planning, bridge,
pipeline, hydropower, urban planning, security and strategic planning,
disaster management, natural resources management, city models,
conservation of archaeological sites etc.
• Used for generation of 3D Datasets like Digital Elevation Model /
Digital Surface Model.
 Why Photogrammetry??
• Very precise

• Time effective

• Cost effective

• Based on well established and tested algorithms

• Less manual effort

• Corrects all sorts of distortions

• Providesa reasonable geometric modeling alternative when little is known

about the geometric nature of the image data.
7
Why Photogrammetry??
• Provide an integrated solution for multiple images or
photographs simultaneously

• Achieve a reasonable accuracy without a great number of GCPs.

• Create a three-dimensional stereo model or to extract the

elevation information

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 8

Types of Photogrammetry
•Based on Camera Position
• Terrestrial
• Aerial
• Satellite

•Based on Application
• Interpretative
• Metric

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 9

Close Range/ Terrestrial
photogrammetry

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 10

Photo Theodolite
Aerial Photogrammetry

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 11

Branches & Stages of Photogrammetry

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 16

Branches & Stages of Photogrammetry
GRAPHICAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:

In the beginning, photogrammetric restitution was achieved by graphical

constructions on a drawing board following the principles of descriptive
geometry. The camera served as a photographic theodolite. Large image
formats provided higher accuracy. This technique was widely used in
architectural photogrammetry by the Royal Prussian Photogrammetric
Institution in Berlin, founded in 1885 in order to preserve cultural
monument.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 17

Branches & Stages of Photogrammetry
ANALOGUE PHOTOGRAMMETRY:

In analogue photogrammetry, the imaging geometry is reconstructed through

optical or mechanical devices. Two images can be oriented in such a way, that a
three-dimensional model of the object is formed. A human operator can move a
floating mark in this model and control this movement under stereoscopic vision.
This enables to map directly structural lines of the object as well as contour lines.
Through progress in optics and mechanics analogue photogrammetric instruments
have been improved step by step in the course of many de-cades, and thus reached
very high accuracy. During this stages of development photo-grammetry has been a
technique to avoid calculations. The stereophotogrammetric plot of the bust of
Queen Nofretete at the Egyptian Museum in Berlin is a typical example for the
application of analogue techniques in close-range photogrammetry [Wölpert 1969].
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 18
 Analogue Photogrammetry

The main product during this phase was topographic maps.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 19
Branches & Stages of Photogrammetry
ANALYTICAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:

Through the evolution of computers it became possible to develop the so-

called analytical plotters. In such photogrammetric systems the relations
between image points and object points are described through numerical
calculations based on the collinearity equations. This offers high accuracy,
great flexibility and efficiency, in particular since the systems support the
operator during the orientation and restitution processes. Furthermore the
results may be directly transferred into CAD systems [Albertz and
Wiedemann 1995]. It is evident, that because of these advantages the
analytical plotter replaced the analogue instruments more and more.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 20

 Analytical Photogrammetry

Outputs of analytical photogrammetry can be topographic maps, but can also

be digital products, such as digital maps and DEMs

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 21

Branches & Stages of Photogrammetry
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:

The measurement of image coordinates in scanned images on the screen is

the first step towards digital photogrammetry. Through the application of
digital image data photogram-metry becomes a special field of digital image
processing, providing still more flexibility and an enormous potential for
automation. Digital stereophotogrammetric systems are already on the
market or under development [Ebner et al., 1991]. Research activities at
many institutions are devoted to the automation of orientation and
photogrammetric restitution. How-ever, the already operational
stereoscopic systems are well suited for aerial photogrammetry but not for
close range application.
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 22
Digital Photogrammetry

The output products are in

digital form, such as digital
maps, DEMs, and digital
orthophotos saved on
computer storage media

23
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
 Relief Displacement
• Itis the shift or displacement in the photographic position of an
image caused by relief of the object i.e elevation above or below a
selected datum

• Even though relief displacement constitutes a source of errors in

measuring horizontal distances on vertical aerial photographs, it
helps in determining the height of objects (or difference in elevation
between objects) and viewing in 3- dimension by viewing
stereoscopic pairs of aerial vertical photographs.

• Relief
displacement on aerial vertical photographs also allows us to
make topographic maps.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 30

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 32
 Type of Coordinate System
• Pixel Coordinate System
• The file coordinates of a digital
image are defined in a pixel
coordinate system.

• A pixel coordinate system is

usually a coordinate system
with its origin in the upper-left
corner of the image,

• the x-axis pointing to the right,

the y-axis pointing downward,
and the units in pixels, as
shown by axes c and r

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 35

 Type of Coordinate System
• Image Coordinate System
• An image coordinate system or an image plane coordinate
system is usually defined as a two-dimensional (2D) coordinate
system occurring on the image plane with its origin at the
image center.

• The origin of the image coordinate system is also referred to as

the principal point.

• On aerial photographs, the principal point is defined as the

intersection of opposite fiducial marks as illustrated by axes x
and y.

• Image coordinates are used to describe positions on the film

plane. Image coordinate units are usually millimeters or
microns.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 36

 Type of Coordinate System
• Image Space Coordinate System
• An image space coordinate system is identical
to an image coordinate system, except that it
adds a third axis (z) to indicate elevation.

• The origin of the image space coordinate

system is defined at the perspective center S.

• The perspective center is commonly the lens

of the camera as it existed when the
photograph was captured.

• Its x-axis and y-axis are parallel to the x-axis

and y-axis in the image plane coordinate
system. The z-axis is the optical axis,
therefore the z value of an image point in the
image space coordinate system is usually
equal to -f (the focal length of the camera).

• Image space coordinates are used to describe

positions inside the camera and usually use
units in millimeters or microns.P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 37
 Type of Coordinate System
•Ground Coordinate System
• A ground coordinate system is usually
defined as a 3D coordinate system
that utilizes a known geographic map
projection.

• Ground coordinates (X,Y,Z) are

usually expressed in feet or meters.

• The Z value is elevation above mean

sea level for a given vertical datum.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 38

 Type of Coordinate System
• Ground Coordinate System
• Geocentric Coordinate System
•A geocentric coordinate
system has its origin at the
center of the Earth ellipsoid.

• The Z-axis equals the

rotational axis of the Earth,
and

• the X-axis passes through the

Greenwich meridian.

• The Y-axis is perpendicular to

both the Z-axis and X-axis,
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 39
 Ortho Photos
• Anorthophoto is a photo reproduction
that has been corrected for tilt,
topographic displacement, and
sometimes camera lens distortion.

• Orthophotos are produced from

stereoscopic pairs of aerial
photographs by a process called
differential rectification so that the
resulting photographic images are in a
correct orthographic position.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 40

 Ortho Photos
• Orthophoto are “best of both worlds”

• Orthophoto are used as best base map for GIS

• Orthophoto doesn’t have contour and so don’t convey topographic

information

• Butif contours information is overprinted on it is is known as “topographic

orthophotomap”

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 41

Ortho Photos

42
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
Ortho Photos

43
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
 Orthorectification

• Orthorectification generates planimetrically

true orthoimages in which the displacement of
objects due to sensor or camera orientation,
terrain relief, and other errors associated with
image acquisition and processing has been
removed.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 44

 Orthorectification
• Workflow of Photogrammetry
• Orientation
• Interior Orientation
• Exterior Orientation
• Relative Orientation
• Absolute Orientation
• Block Adjustment/ Bundle Block Adjustment
• DEM Generation
• DEM Editing
• Orthophoto Generation

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 45

Orthorectification- Interior Orientation

• Interior
orientation defines the internal geometry of a camera or
sensor as it existed at the time of image capture

• Interiororientation is primarily used to transform the image

pixel coordinate system or other image coordinate measurement
system to the image space coordinate system.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 46

Orthorectification- Interior Orientation

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 47

 Orthorectification- Interior Orientation

• The measured image coordinates of the fiducial marks are

referenced to a pixel or file coordinate system.

• Thepixel coordinate system has an x coordinate (column) and a

y coordinate (row).

• The origin of the pixel coordinate system is the upper left corner
of the image having a row and column value of 0 and 0.

• Using a 2D affine transformation, the relationship between the

pixel coordinate system and the image space coordinate system
is defined

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 48

 Orthorectification- Exterior Orientation
• Objective of EO is to establish a relationship between the digital image
(pixel) co-ordinate system and the real world (latitude and longitude) co-
ordinate system.

• It
defines the position and angular orientation of the camera that captured
an image.

• The variables defining the position and orientation of an image are referred
to as the elements of exterior orientation.

• Theelements of exterior orientation define the characteristics associated

with an image at the time of exposure or capture.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 49

 Orthorectification- Exterior Orientation
• Thepositional elements of exterior orientation include Xo, Yo, and Zo. They
define the position of the perspective center (O) with respect to the ground
space coordinate system (X, Y, and Z).

• Zo
is commonly referred to as the height of the camera above sea level,
which is commonly defined by a datum.

• Threerotation angles are commonly used to define angular orientation.

They are omega (ω), phi (ϕ), and kappa (κ).

• Rotationsare defined as being positive if they are counterclockwise when

viewed from the positive end of their respective axis.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 50

 Orthorectification- Exterior Orientation

• The aircraft carries a camera or scanner and one or more GPS

receivers tied to an inertial navigation system.

• As each frame is exposed precise information is captured (or

calculated in post processing) on the x, y, z and roll, pitch, yaw of
the aircraft

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 51

Orthorectification- Exterior Orientation

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 52

Rational Polynomial Functions
• Aerialphotograph made with a framing camera captures each
location in the image at same time from a single camera position.

• Socoordinate transformation from 2-D image coordinates to 3-D

Earth-surface coordinates can be expressed mathematically
using relatively simple expressions.

• Remote sensing satellite images are built up of groups of scan

lines acquired as the satellite moves forward in its orbit. So
different parts of the same image are acquired from different
sensor positions.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 53

Rational Polynomial Functions
• RationalPolynomial satellite sensor models are simpler empirical
mathematical models relating image space (line and column
position) to latitude, longitude, and surface elevation.

• The name Rational Polynomial derives from the fact that the model
is expressed as the ratio of two cubic polynomial expressions.

•A single image involves two such rational polynomials, one for

computing line position and one for the column position.

• Thecoefficients of these two rational polynomials are computed by

the satellite company from the satellite’s orbital position and
orientation and the rigorous physical sensor model.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 54

 GCP(Ground Control Point)
• Themain component of establishing an accurate relationship between the
images in a project, the camera/sensor, and the ground is GCPs.

• GCPsare identifiable features located on the Earth’s surface whose ground

coordinates in X, Y, and Z are known.

• A full GCP has associated with it X, Y, and Z (elevation of the point) coordinates.

• A horizontal GCP only specifies the X, Y coordinates.

• A vertical GCP only specifies the Z coordinate.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 55

 GCP(Ground Control Point)

• The
following features on the Earth’s surface are commonly used as
GCPs:

• intersection of roads

• utility
infrastructure (e.g., fire hydrants and
manhole covers)

• intersection of agricultural plots of land

• survey benchmarks

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 56

GCP(Ground Control Point)

Nitin Chauhan - Assistant Scientist 57

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
 GCP(Ground Control Point)
• Depending on the type of mapping project, GCPs can be collected from the following
sources:

• theodolite survey (millimeter to centimeter accuracy)

• total station survey (millimeter to centimeter accuracy)

• ground GPS (centimeter to meter accuracy)

• Planimetricand topographic maps (accuracy varies as a function of map

scale, approximate accuracy between several meters to 40 meters or
more)

• digital
orthorectified images (X and Y coordinates can be collected to an
accuracy dependent on the resolution of the orthorectified image)

• DEMs (for the collection of vertical GCPs having Z coordinates associated

with them, where accuracy is dependent on the resolution of the DEM and
the accuracy of the input DEM)
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 58
GCP(Ground Control Point)

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 59

GCP(Ground Control Point)

60
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
GCP(Ground Control Point)- Check Point

•A greater number of GCPs should be available than are actually used

in the block triangulation.

• Additional GCPs can be used as check points to independently verify

the overall quality and accuracy of the block triangulation solution.

• A checkpoint analysis compares the photogrammetrically computed

ground coordinates of the check points to the original values.

• The result of the analysis is an RMSE that defines the degree of

correspondence between the computed values and the original
values. Lower RMSE values indicate better results.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 61

 GCP Requirements
• Toestablishing a relationship between image space and ground
space, the theoretical minimum number of GCPs is two GCPs
having X, Y, and Z coordinates (six observations) and one GCP
having a Z coordinate (one observation). This is a total of seven
observations.

• To increase the accuracy of a mapping project, using more GCPs

is highly recommended.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 62

GCP Requirements- Single image
• When processing one image for the purpose of orthorectification
(that is, a single frame orthorectification), the minimum number
of GCPs required is three.

• Each GCP must have an X, Y, and Z coordinate associated with it.

• TheGCPs should be evenly distributed to ensure that the

camera/sensor is accurately modeled.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 63

GCP Requirements- Multi Strip
image
• When processing a strip of adjacent images, two GCPs for every
third image are recommended.

• Toincrease the quality of Orthorectification, measuring three

GCPs at the corner edges of a strip is advantageous.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 64

 GCP Requirements- Block image
• It is advantageous to have at
least one GCP on every third
image of a block.
•
• Additionally, whenever possible,
locate GCPs that lie on multiple
images, around the outside
edges of a block and at certain
distances from one another
within the block.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 65

 Tie Points
•A tie point is a point whose ground coordinates are not known, but is
visually recognizable in the overlap area between two or more images.

• Thecorresponding image positions of tie points appearing on the overlap

areas of multiple images is identified and measured.

• Ground coordinates for tie points are computed during block triangulation.

• Tie points can be measured both manually and automatically.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 66

Tie Points
• They should show good contrast in two directions, like the
corner of a building or a road intersection.
• Tie points should also be distributed over the area of the block.
• Typically,nine tie points in each image are adequate for block
triangulation.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 67

 The Collinearity Equation
• It
is defined as condition that the exposure station , any object
point and its photo image all lie along a straight line in three
dimensional space
• Most photogrammetric tools utilize the following formulas in one
form or another.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 68

The Collinearity Equation
• O: Projection centre
• A: Point on the ground
• a: Image of A on the
photograph from similar
triangles:

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 69

 The Collinearity Equation

• For each point in the terrain its position in the image can be computed from
these two equations. (Different for the left and the right image.)

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 70

 Photogrammetric Solutions- Space Resection

• Space resection is commonly used to perform single frame

orthorectification, where one image is processed at a time.
• If
multiple images are being used, space resection techniques
require that a minimum of three GCPs be located on each image
being processed.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 71

 Photogrammetric Solutions- Space Forward
Intersection

• Spaceforward intersection is a technique that is commonly used

to determine the ground coordinates X, Y, and Z of points that
appear in the overlapping areas of two or more images based on
known interior and exterior orientation parameters.

• The collinearity condition is enforced, stating that the

corresponding light rays from the two exposure stations pass
through the corresponding image points on the two images, and
intersect at the same ground point.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 72

 Photogrammetric Solutions- Bundle Block
Adjustment
• The
use of space intersection and space resection techniques is limited for
mapping projects having more than two images.

• This is due to the lack of information required to perform these tasks.

• It
is fairly uncommon for the exterior orientation parameters to be highly
accurate for each photograph or image in a project, since these values are
generated photogrammetrically.

• Airborne GPS and INS techniques normally provide initial approximations

to exterior orientation, but the final values for these parameters must be
adjusted to attain higher accuracies.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 73

Photogrammetric Solutions- Bundle Block
Adjustment

• Thereare rarely enough accurate GCPs for a project of 30 or

more images to perform space resection (90 points).

• To minimize the costs of a mapping project, fewer GCPs are

collected and used.

• Toensure that high accuracies are attained, an approach known

as bundle block adjustment is used.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 74

 Photogrammetric Solutions- Bundle Block
Adjustment
•A bundled solution is computed including the exterior orientation
parameters of each image in a block and the X, Y, and Z coordinates of tie
points and adjusted GCPs.

• A block of images contained in a project is simultaneously processed in one

solution.

• A statistical technique known as least squares adjustment is used to

estimate the bundled solution for the entire block while also minimizing
and distributing error.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 75

 Photogrammetric Solutions- Bundle Block
Adjustment
• Block triangulation is the process of defining the mathematical relationship
between the images contained within a block, the camera or sensor model,
and the ground.

• Oncethe relationship has been defined, accurate imagery and geographic

information concerning the Earth’s surface can be created.

• When processing frame camera, digital camera, videography, and

nonmetric camera imagery, block triangulation is commonly referred to as
aerial triangulation (AT).

• When processing imagery collected with a pushbroom sensor, block

triangulation is commonly referred to as triangulation.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 76

 Least Squares Adjustment
• Leastsquares adjustment is a statistical technique that is used to
estimate the unknown parameters associated with a solution while
also minimizing error within the solution.

• With respect to block triangulation, least squares adjustment

techniques are used to:

• estimate or adjust the values associated with exterior orientation

• estimate the X, Y, and Z coordinates associated with tie points

• estimate or adjust the values associated with interior orientation

• minimize and distribute data error through the network of observations

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 77

 Least Squares Adjustment
• Data error is attributed to the inaccuracy associated with the input GCP
coordinates, measured tie point and GCP image positions, camera
information, and systematic errors.

• The least squares approach requires iterative processing until a solution is

attained.

• A solution is obtained when the residuals, or errors, associated with the

input data are minimized.

• The least squares approach involves determining the corrections to the

unknown parameters based on the criteria of minimizing input
measurement residuals.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 78

 Least Squares Adjustment
• Theresiduals are derived from the difference between the
measured (i.e., user input) and computed value for any particular
measurement in a project.

• In
the block triangulation process, a functional model is formed
based upon the collinearity equations.

• The residuals, which are minimized, include the image

coordinates of the GCPs and tie points along with the known
ground coordinates of the GCPs.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 79

DEM (Digital Elevation Model)
•A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) provides a
digital representation of a portion of the earth's
terrain over a two dimensional surface.

•A DEM is normally generated by sampling a regular array of

elevation values derived from topographic maps, aerial photographs
etc.

• Thebasic data for a DEM is based on terrain elevation observations

that are derived generally from one of three sources: digitized
contours, photogrammetric data capture (including aerial
photography and digital satellite imagery), and surveying.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 80

DEM (Digital Elevation Model)

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 81

 DTM(Digital Terrain Model)
•A digital terrain model is a topographic model of the bare earth – terrain
relief - that can be manipulated by computer programs.

• Thedata files contain the spatial elevation data of the terrain in a digital
format which usually presented as a rectangular grid.

• Vegetation, buildings and other man-made (artificial) features are removed

digitally - leaving just the underlying terrain

• DTM is the sum of all terrain specific information you have about an area
including the elevation data itself.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 82

DTM(Digital Terrain Model)

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 83

DTM(Digital Terrain Model)
• DTM model is stored usually as a rectangular equal-spaced grid,
with space (resolution) of between 50 and 500 meters mostly
presented in cartesian coordinate system – i.e. x, y, z .

• Forseveral applications a higher resolution is required (as high

as 1 meter spacing).

• DTM can be stored in a GIS databases in several ways:

• a set of contour vectors ;
• a rectangular grid of equal-spaced corner/point heights ; or,
• an irregularly spaced set of points connected as triangles (TIN -
Triangular Irregular Network)

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 84

DTM(Digital
Contour
Terrain Model)

Grid TIN

85
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
DSM (Digital Surface Model)
• DSM describes the terrestrial surface, including the objects
covering it like buildings, vegetation etc.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 86

 Digital photogrammetric softwares
Type of
Standalone Automatic
Application License Platform Scalability photogrammet Data source Inception Vendor / Creator
/ Plugin modelling
ry
Android, iOS,
Yes, multiple 2011[citation
123D Catch Proprietary[1] Microsoft Windows, Standalone Yes Close-range Images[3] Autodesk
images needed]
Web-based
Autodesk Yes, multiple
Unknown Microsoft Windows Standalone Yes Close-range Images 2015 Autodesk
Remake images
Yes, multiple
Geomatica Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone Yes Aerial, Satellite Images 1982 PCI Geomatics
images
Yes, multiple
ImageModeler Unknown Unknown Standalone No Close-range Images 2009 Autodesk
images
Yes, multiple Aerial, Hexagon
ImageStation Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone Yes Images 1980
images Satellite, UAS Geospatial
IMAGINE
Semi- Yes, multiple Aerial, Hexagon
Photogrammet Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone Images 2009
automatic images Satellite, UAS Geospatial
ry
Yes, multiple Aerial,
INPHO Unknown Microsoft Windows Standalone Yes Images 1980 Trimble
images Satellite, UAS
Semi- Yes, multiple Eos Systems -
PhotoModeler Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone Close-range Images 1994
automatic images PhotoModeler
PhotoModeler Yes, multiple Eos Systems -
Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone Yes Close-range Images 2008
Scanner images PhotoModeler
PhotoModeler Yes, multiple Close-range, Eos Systems -
Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone Yes Images 2016
UAS images UAS PhotoModeler
Linux, OS X, Yes, multiple
PhotoScan Unknown Standalone Yes Aerial, UAS Images 2010 Agisoft
Microsoft Windows images
Pix4Dmapper Microsoft Windows, Yes, multiple Aerial, Close-
Unknown Standalone Yes Images 2011 Pix4D SA
Discovery Web-based images range, UAS
Microsoft Windows,
Pix4Dmapper Yes, multiple Aerial, Close-
Proprietary cloud computing, Standalone Yes Images, videos 2011 Pix4D SA
Pro images range, UAS
OS X, Linux
Microsoft Windows, Yes, multiple Aerial, Close-
Pix4Dmodel Proprietary Standalone Yes Images 2011 Pix4D SA
MacOS, Cloud images range, UAS 87
Yes, multiple Aerial, Close-
SOCET SET Proprietary Microsoft Windows Standalone No Images BAE Systems
images range, Satellite
 Feature extraction….
• The process of transforming data into information is known as “Information
Extraction”. This process is called “Feature extraction”- isolation of
components within multi spectral data that are most useful in portraying the
essential elements of an image. This can be of four types:
• 1. Interactive
• 2. Semi-automatic
• 3. Fully automatic
• 4. Autonomous

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC

Need for automatic feature
extraction….
• Monitoring land use changes in settlement areas is important for urban planning.
There is a great need for timely maps for urban and regional planning applications.
Land use in urban areas changes continuously mainly due to the construction of new
buildings, roads and other man made objects.

• In order to use the huge amount of information available from high-resolution satellite
and aerial images more efficiently, it will be necessary to find methods that detect
objects like streets, houses, vegetation and other cartographic features in a fully
automatic manner. Since manual extraction of buildings from imagery is a very slow
process, automated methods have been proposed to improve the speed and utility for
urban map’s production process.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC

 Feature extraction- an object
oriented approach…
The basis of this type of classification lies on the principle that any particular scene
consists of individual entities or segments or objects having particular properties
like form and shape, size and color.

Each object, in some way or the other is related to its neighboring objects by
relations like ‘inside it’, ‘outside it’, ‘below it’, ‘next to it’ and so on.

Thus, this cognition process of comparing the objects and their relationships with
the available knowledge is made use of in object oriented classification to classify
image.

As against MXL classifier which has a pixel based approach towards

classification, OOC has a context based approach for classification.

It is a hybrid classifier as it deals with the spatial as well as spectral data of an

image. P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
 Segmentation….
 It is an optimization procedure which locally minimizes
the average heterogeneity of image objects for a given
resolution. It can be applied on the pixel level or an
image object level domain.

 The size of each image object is controlled by the

SCALE parameter which determines the maximum
allowed heterogeneity for the resulting image objects.

 Thus, the scale should be chosen such that image

objects of the biggest possible scale which still
distinguish different image regions (As large as possible
and as fine as necessary.)
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
 Rule formation….
Processes are the fundamental tool for editing and sequencing development functions.

The Process Tree window is the central place where rule sets are organized.

A single process represents an individual operation of an image analysis routine. Thus,

it is the main working tool for developing rule sets.

A single process is the elementary unit of a rule set providing a solution to a specific
image analysis problem.

Every single process has to be edited to define an algorithm to be executed on an image

object domain.

Combine single processes in a sequence by building a rule set. We can organize a

process sequence with parent and child processes which are executed in a defined order.

The two main functions of algorithms are generating or modifying image objects and
classifying image objects.
P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC
 Vectorization….
Within Definiens Developer vector structures are not only used for import
and export, but also for advanced classification.

 After segmentation and rule based classification, vectorization functionality

allows the production of polygons and skeletons for each object. Definiens
Developer supports the import and export of thematic data in shape format.

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC

 Building Extraction
Here the constructed (Buildings) has been identified on the basis of their height (175m) by
using the DSM as an ancillary data to get the height information of the buildings.
 Building Extraction Cont…….
This image is showing that two difference heights(164.39m & 175m) has been used to
discriminate the constructed (Buildings) area.
Building Extraction Cont…….
Cont….

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC

smart point Dense Cloud

Textured Model
Mesh Building

P . K Parida, Scientist, ORSAC 99