ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAM

ALP
TEACHER’S HANDBOOK

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Southern Sudan
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 Table of Contents

Unit 1: The Accelerated Learning Program

A. What is ALP?………………………………………...…………. 2
B. Ministry of Education Policy on ALP…………………...…….. 5

Unit 2: Implementing the ALP Program

A. Organising and Managing an ALP Program……………....... 9
B. Intake and Placement Procedures………………………....... 13
C. School Administration………………………………………..... 18
D. The Community and ALP…………………………………....... 21
E. The Parent-Teacher Association and Its Role…………........ 23
F. School Regulations…………………………………………...... 26

Unit 3: Teaching and Learning

A. What is Education?…………………………………………..... 28
B. Comparing Three Types of Education…………………......... 30
C. Teaching Children/Teaching Adults………………………..... 33
D. Approaches to Teaching…………………………………........ 36
E. Professional Development…………………………………..... 42

Unit 4: In the Classroom

A. Effective Teaching…………………………………………....... 46
B. Motivation……………………………………………………...... 51
C. Classroom Management…………………………………........ 54
D. Identifying Learners’ Needs..………………………………..... 57
E. Teaching Girls and Young Women ………………………...... 63
F. Discipline………………………………………………..…........ 66
G. Assessment and Evaluation…………………………….......... 70
H. Lesson Plans….. …….……………………………..………..... 76
I. The Scheme of Work………………………………………........ 81
J. Record Keeping……………………………………………........ 83

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Unit 5: Basic Teaching Techniques
A. Teaching and Learning Aids…….…………………................ 86
B. Using Mother Tongue in the Classroom…………….....……. 91
C. Group and Pair Work…………………………………….....…. 93
D. General Teaching Techniques……………………………...... 96
E. English for Beginners………………………………………...... 103
F. Teaching Reading Comprehension………………………...... 110
G. Other Techniques for Teaching English…………………...... 115
H. Teaching Math for Understanding………………………........ 122
I. Homework……………………………………………..……....... 127
J. Outside Projects……………………………………………....... 129
K. Extracurricular Activities……………………………………..... 131
.
Unit 6: Life Skills
A. Gender Awareness………………………………….......…… 133
B. Child Protection…………………………………..........………. 139
C. HIV/AIDS………………………………………….....…………. 143
D. Mines Awareness………………………………......………….. 148
E. Peace Education………………………………......…………… 150
F. Study Skills……………………………………….....………….. 155

FORMS FOR TEACHER TRAINING........................................ 160

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Introduction

The war in South Sudan disrupted the country’s social services, especially the formal
education system. This has resulted in a high rate of illiteracy and low participation in
economic development, especially among those who were of primary school age
during the 20 year conflict.

The Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology aims to reduce illiteracy through
the provision of alternative modes of education. This process targets different cate-
gories of learners, including youth and adults. One of the alternative modes is the
Accelerated Learning Program (ALP) which aims at consolidating learning for citi-
zens of Southern Sudan who are too old for formal primary classes but who have
missed all or part of their formal primary education. The ALP Program provides eight
years of primary schooling compressed into four years, with special textbooks and
other materials aimed at older learners.

This handbook is an attempt to equip ALP teachers with the necessary skills and
knowledge needed to teach ALP classes. The handbook includes information on or-
ganising the ALP program, philosophy of teaching, teaching methods, and Life Skills.
By studying this handbook and putting the contents into use in their classrooms, ALP
teachers will be better able to help their learners successfully complete the ALP
course, thus providing a more productive future for the learners, their families, and
communities.

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 UNIT 1

THE ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAM

Section A
What is ALP?

ALP stands for Accelerated Learning Program. ALP is a catch-up learning program
offered in Southern Sudan which was designed to meet the needs of boys and girls
and young men and women aged 12 and above who missed the chance to complete
primary school as a result of the war in Southern Sudan.
ALP is open to all young people over primary school age who wish to study
the complete primary course, and also to those who have completed some years of
primary school and wish to complete their primary education. One of the main objec-
tives of ALP is to support the education of girls in Southern Sudan. When students
are enrolling for ALP classes in a town or village there is a strong emphasis on enrol-
ling all the eligible girls and young women in the community.
The ALP program covers all the work normally done in primary school from
P1 to P8. However, the length of the course has been cut from eight years to four
years and the daily study time has been reduced to around three hours. This was
done because ALP learners have other tasks to do during the day and so they can
enter secondary schools, vocational schools, and teacher training institutes while still
at a young age.

Characteristics of ALP
The Accelerated Learning Program is characterised by:
 a condensed syllabus
 a faster learning process

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  various categories of learners
 flexibility in the learning process and calendar

The ALP program is designed to:

a) offer opportunities to older girls and boys and young men and women to
access the basic education system by entering or returning to formal educa-
tion.
b) allow older learners to complete their primary education at a faster rate.
c) provide an alternative learning program for vulnerable groups such as de-
mobilised soldiers and young mothers.

Learning Schedule and Materials

ALP follows the syllabus of the Southern Sudan Primary School Curriculum. The syl-
labus is condensed into four years, with two years consolidated into one year as fol-
lows:
 ALP level one is comprised of the Primary one and two syllabus
 ALP level two is comprised of the Primary three and four syllabus
 ALP level three is comprised of the Primary five and six syllabus
 ALP level four is comprised of the Primary seven and eight syllabus

Primary ALP
Syllabus Syllabus
1 level
2 1
3 level
4 2
5 level
6 3
7 level
8 4

Learners may enter at any level depending on the number of years of primary
school already completed, and study up to level four (primary 7 and 8) when they sit
for P8 exams. Textbooks prepared for the ALP course include the basic subjects of
English, Science, Social Studies, and Mathematics.

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Categories of ALP learners
Because the goal of ALP is to meet the present needs of young people in Southern
Sudan, several special categories of learner have been identified who may be in
need of special attention in order to succeed in society. The main categories of spe-
cial learners are:
 drop-out youths and out-of-school children
 demobilised soldiers
 young mothers
 returnees
 returned abductees
 separated or orphaned children
 children and young people with disabilities

These groups should be recruited and welcomed into ALP classes. In some cases,
such as with young mothers, outreach to the parents and families may be needed.

Expected Outcomes of ALP

Communities that have ALP programs should experience many improvements in lo-
cal education. The following outcomes are expected in communities that have ALP:

a) An increase in the number of overage children enrolled and retained in

school without dropping out.

b) An increase in the number of adolescent girls enrolled and those re-enrolling

after having dropped out, particularly due to pregnancy or early marriages.

c) A more child-friendly and student-centered learning environment.

d) Positive attitudes about girls’ and women’s education.

e) Greater appreciation of diverse learners who have different educational

needs.

f) An increase in community involvement in education, including community

ownership of ALP and participation of PTA in school activities.

g) Positive attitudes about non-formal education and ALP.

h) An increase in literacy levels among young people.

i) A critical mass of youth who have basic education and can proceed to fur-
ther education or training.

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 Section B

Ministry of Education Policy on ALP

Following are policies on Alternative Education and the Accelerated Learning Pro-
gram as stated by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology:

National Policy: Education for all

We cherish education for all our people equally and aim to provide a lifelong educa-
tion of quality for all children and adults of South Sudan, education that is relevant
and based on the needs of the people to enable them to be responsible and produc-
tive citizens, in particular alternative education which shall be addressed to the
needs of children and adults who do not have access to the formal system of educa-
tion.

Aims of the Accelerated Learning Program

The Accelerated Learning Program will:
1. Provide an alternative education and a faster system of learning for older children
and young adults.
2. Enable older children currently enrolled in formal primary classes to catch up with
their peers.
3. Advocate for older girls and boys to enroll.
4. Provide learners with opportunities to acquire desirable knowledge, skills, values
and attitudes.
5. Create a learning environment that will enable learners to develop logical thought
and critical judgment.
6. Promote self-expression, self-discipline, and self-reliance.
7. Encourage parents and communities to support and participate in the provision of
basic education through ALP.

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Other Policy Points concerning ALP
a) The philosophical basis of ALP sees education as an instrument of empowering
people. The focus of ALP will be a restoration of respect and dignity of work and
human worth geared towards self reliance for sustainable and equitable social
and economic development of South Sudan.
b) The ALP cycle will have a duration of 4 years, with multiple entry and exit.
c) After completing level 4, the learner will sit for the Southern Sudan Primary Edu-
cation Certificate and will make the transition to the mainstream education cycle
at secondary level.
d) The age for entry will be 12 years and above.
e) Entry to level 2 and above will require proof of previous knowledge and skills.
This can be determined through assessment tests or by a recommendation of
competency.
f) Each teacher is to receive training in teaching methodology and specialize in
English, Math, Social Studies or Science.
g) Grading will be done in percentages/numbers and distributed on all the learning
achievements throughout the academic year as follows:
 Written tests and examination: 60%
 Practical Work: 20%
 Attendance and conduct: 20%

Target Groups/Beneficiaries
The Accelerated Learning Program will target overage children, youth, and adult
learners classified into the following groups:
a) Youth aged 12 and above, particularly women, and untrained teachers who are
currently teaching but did not complete their primary education.
b) Those who are out of school, having enrolled and then dropped out before com-
pleting the primary cycle and
c) Those who have never enrolled in school at all.

Policy on Implementation
a) The ALP program will be implemented in primary schools where formal education
is offered until a special center for ALP is completed.
b) There will be a need to undertake social marketing of ALP among teachers and
parents in order to build consensus and address any issues that may hinder the
success of the program.
c) Placement of overage children who are already enrolled in formal schools and
who may wish to join the ALP will be guided by performance records.

6
d) Progression from one level to the next will be determined by individual learner
performance. Schools will be encouraged to be flexible in allowing upward mobili-
ty based on individual achievement without waiting for the end of the year.
e) The ALP will mainstream multiple entry and exit points within the formal system.
The placement level will be determined by several characteristics including the
age of learner and his/her ability to cope with the class or level and previous
learning experience and any competencies acquired.

Policy on Teachers
The following points apply to ALP Teachers:
 ALP will be a specialization within the current existing unified teacher education
program.
 Teachers entering pre-service teacher education who opt for ALP as one of their
areas of specialization will take the ALP level One course in the first year and
Level Two in the second year.
 Teachers enrolled in the in-service teacher education who opt for ALP as one of
their areas of specialization will take the course in stages III and IV

Evaluation and Problem Solving

a) Evaluation to monitor progress of the program will take place through a learner–
wise tracking mechanism, visits to the accelerated learning program centers by
the supervisors (FEOs) and monthly interaction with the teachers.

7
b) ALP teachers along with PTA committee members, area supervisors and school
management staff will share and discuss issues concerning the function of the
ALP program. These issues will include sharing best practices, community-
support related issues, pedagogy, preparation and usage of teaching material,
etc.
c) The area coordinator in consultation with PTAs and community members will
troubleshoot possible solutions to problems with the participation of the teachers.
d) The MOEST Alternative Education management will meet with all implementing
organisations annually. The date will be determined by the MOEST.
e) In situations where there is a likelihood of a teacher dropping out or not perform-
ing well, the trainers/supervisors should be in a position to find other candidates
from the particular area and select the best candidate to take over the ALP cen-
ter after being trained.

Community Mobilization
The following is included in the sensitization process when introducing ALP to a
community:
 announcing the beginning of ALP classes in a particular area and formally in-
troducing the ALP teachers
 targeting parents and the community at large to send learners to school.

Administration
There shall be Payam, County, State, and National education structures to ensure
proper, efficient and coordinated implementation of educational policies and pro-
grams. The national Education Authority shall ensure the establishment of these
structures and effective coordination by them.

Financing of Alternative Education

 Alternative Education, including ALP, will receive finances from the government,
civil society, international NGOs, and interested individuals.
 Communities will construct ALP centers or use existing schools.
 The NGOs engaged in alternative education including ALP must invest in deve-
lopmental programs and share planning, monitoring, and evaluation with the
MOEST Department of Alternative Education.
 Individuals or Groups with the necessary resources may establish learning insti-
tutions in accordance with the New Sudan Education Policy.

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 All Alternative Education Schools will be monitored, supervised by the Govern-
ment of Southern Sudan and will follow the Government Curriculum Framework
and Syllabus.
 The recruitment of teachers by NGOs and religious organisations will be based
on MOEST standards (referring to payment and training).

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 UNIT 2

IMPLEMENTING ALP

Section A

Organising and Managing an ALP Program

Starting an ALP program in a community requires following certain steps and criteria.
The County Education Director (CED), head teacher, and teachers all work together
with the community to identify the location and the learners for the program. Follow-
ing are the steps for organising and managing an ALP program:

Step 1: Identify the Schools

A county planning meeting should be held between the CED and stakeholders in-
cluding head teachers, local NGOs, PTAs and community leaders. The meeting
should be facilitated by a person experienced in ALP programs. The purpose of the
meeting is to identify locations, visit sites, and orient head teachers and the PTA to
the concept of ALP. Schools interested in having ALP centers will plan implementa-
tion timelines and activities with the CED.

Criteria for identifying ALP Schools: Schools where ALP centers will function are
chosen by the following criteria:
 There should be a large number of learners in the area.
 Teachers should be available who meet the criteria for teaching ALP.

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  Extra room in an existing school should be available or a space for the cen-
ter should be provided in the vicinity of the school.
 Local head teachers, school staff, the PTA, and the community should be in-
terested in the program and should cooperate with the CED and other im-
plementing staff.
 The local head teacher should be willing to take extra duties.

Step 2: Identify the teachers

The head teacher of the school will be responsible for selecting teachers for ALP
from the pool of teachers available in the area. The list is then sent to the CED for
approval and selection for training. In the lower classes one teacher per class is pre-
ferable. In the upper classes teachers may take specialized subjects. Selection in-
cludes a written test in English and Mathematics and an oral interview.

Criteria for identifying ALP teachers: Teachers may be male or female, but where
merit is equal, preference should be given to women. This is done in regard to the
aim of ALP to support gender equity in Southern Sudan.
 Teachers should be residents of the community.
 They should be old enough to teach learners aged 20 to 25.
 They should hold a Primary School Teachers Certificate.
 They should have teaching experience at the primary level.
 They should have knowledge of the Primary School Curriculum.
 They need good communication skills to ensure comprehension on the part
of the learners and effective interaction with the community at large.
 They should be aware of gender equity and peace education issues.

Step 3: Hold training of ALP teachers

Before classes start, a special training for ALP teachers will be held at a central site.
The training will include:
 understanding the objectives and implementation of ALP, the role of the
teacher, classroom management, and use of textbooks and Teacher’s
Handbook
 training in teaching techniques, lesson planning and other classroom skills,
peace education and gender awareness.
 understanding of supervision, refresher trainings, and the process of obser-
vation and consultation that will be carried out with the FEO.

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Step 4: Enroll and Place Learners
After the teachers return from the ALP training, the head teacher and teachers
begin the process of identifying and testing learners. The following steps
should be included in this process:
a) mobilize the community: Community mobilization is an important step when
starting an ALP program. Meet with community groups and organisations to ex-
plain ALP and to ask for support in finding all eligible learners in the community.
Work with parents to support sending all eligible learners, especially girls, to
school.
b) announce enrollment: Let every family in the community know when and where
ALP registration will take place.
c) intake and placement: Enroll interested learners and give them a placement
test so they will study at the proper level.
d) prepare class lists and timetables: The head teacher and teachers organise
classes and study times. Involving learners in formulating class times and sche-
dules will help minimize attendance problems.
e) prepare materials: The FEO will arrange for textbooks and other materials to be
sent to the school. The following materials are used by learners and teachers:
 ALP textbooks (4 levels X 4 subjects)
 Answer Key and Learning Outcomes Manual for 4 levels
 ALP Teacher’s Handbook
 attendance and assessment record books

Step 6: Begin Classes: The weekly timetable for ALP is as follows:

Subjects Number of Hours per Week

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

1 English 5 5 5 5

2 Mathematics 5 5 5 5

3 Science 4 4 4 4

4 Social Studies 4 4 4 4

Hours per week 18 18 18 18

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Step 7: Refresher Trainings
The FEO, ALP teachers and head teacher have a regular meeting that includes the
following activities:
 discussion of results of school visits by FEO
 discussion of experiences and problems
 suggestions for improving the program
 a refresher teacher training on one topic presented by FEO
 payment of salaries

Step 8: School visits by FEO: The FEO visits schools monthly for the following ac-
tivities:
 observe classroom work of teachers (may be based on previous refresher
training)
 discuss the classroom observation with teacher/teachers
 check attendance of learners and teachers
 check on-going assessment of learners in each class
 check schedules and timetables and whether the school is functioning ac-
cording to schedules
 monitor learner progress
 check if teaching/learning material is being used appropriately
 identify training needs of the teachers

Step 9: Staff meetings and PTA meetings: Regular local meetings of teaching
staff and the PTA should be held to do the following:
 discuss successes and positive aspects of the ALP program
 discuss points for improvement
 plan improvements to facilities and materials
 formulate needs in terms of training and materials
 plan community advocacy work in gender awareness and other issues

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 Section B

Intake and Placement Procedures

Multiple-Entry System
The ALP program features a multiple-entry strategy. This means that learners may
enter the program at any level depending on their prior education and their level of
English and Mathematics. Following are criteria for upper level entry for two groups
of learners in Southern Sudan:
 former primary pupils who studied English language: If learners have pre-
viously completed primary grades in the English language they may enter ALP at
the level at which they stopped if the results of a placement test show that they
have mastered the knowledge and skills of the lower levels in English and Ma-
thematics.

 former primary pupils in Arabic: Learners who studied in Arabic pattern prima-
ry schools and who know little or no English should begin ALP classes at level 1
unless the teachers and head teachers feel the learner can master English
quickly enough to study at a higher level..

Placement at the Proper Level

It’s very important for learners to study at the level that matches their knowledge and
skills. Putting learners in classes at the wrong level results in little or no gain in know-
ledge. Learners put in classes that are too difficult won’t understand the material be-
ing taught while learners put in classes that are too easy will be bored and frustrated
because they already know the material being taught.
When learners are being registered for classes the ALP teachers and head
teacher must check the level of every new learner. Learners entering the school
while the term is in progress should also be tested.
Following are the three categories of learners you will find when you do ALP
placement:

a) absolute beginners in English: These learners have no knowledge of the Eng-

lish alphabet, nor can they read or write any words in English. They may be able

14
 to speak a few common phrases like “Hello”. These learners must study the al-
phabet and basic reading and writing at level 1.

b) beginners with some English: These learners know the English alphabet and
can read and write a little, but their knowledge of English vocabulary is still very
limited. Most will study at level 1, but some may study at higher levels depending
on their knowledge and skills in Mathematics, Science and Social Studies.

c) learners ready for levels 2-4: These learners have studied at primary school
previously and have enough knowledge of English and Mathematics to study at
a higher level. They need to take a placement test so that they can be put into
the proper level.

Organising a Placement Test

There are many ways to give placement tests, and ALP schools can each develop
their own methods of placing learners at the correct level. Following are the impor-
tant points to follow when placing a learner:
1. Find out if the learner knows the English alphabet.
2. Check if the learner can read basic words and sentences.
3. Ask questions to check the learner’s speaking ability in English.
4. Have the learner write some sentences to check his/her writing ability.
5. If the learner has some English language ability, have him/her read sentences
and paragraphs from the ALP English books at higher levels to find the correct
class level.
6. Check the Mathematics skills of the learner. Do problems from ALP Mathematics
books levels 1, 2 and 3 to see how far the learner has progressed in Math.

SAMPLE PLACEMENT TEST

Following is a sample test that may be used to enroll new learners. It consists of the
following sections:

A. Oral Interview: Find applicant’s speaking level

B. Reading letters of the alphabet: Does applicant have this skill?

C. Reading individual words: Does applicant have this skill?

D. Reading Paragraphs: Find applicant’s reading level

E. Writing: Student fills out the Student Application form

F. Math: Find Math level

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A. Speaking English: Oral Interview
Ask these questions and others to check the learner’s spoken English level.
1. What’s your name?
2. Where do you live?
3. What day is today?
4. How old are you?
5. Are you married? Do you have any children? How many boys? How many
girls?
6. Where does your family live?
7. What work do you do?
8. Have you studied in school before? How many years?
9. After you finish the ALP course, what do you want to do?

B. Read Letters of the Alphabet

Have each applicant read these letters.

1. D U Z H K O I

2. B Y F J N R V

3. X T P L Y D E

C. Read Individual Words

The assessor points to words one by one. Ask the student to say the indicated
words.

1) name 7) children
2) what 8) family
3) work 9) school
4) day 10) yes
5) married 11) no
6) single 12) year

E. Read Paragraphs and Answer Questions

Listen while the applicant reads the story aloud. The applicant then writes answers to
the comprehension questions.

16
 My name is Mary. I live in Rumbek. I am 24 years old. I am married. I
have two children. I have one son. His name is James. He is four years
old. I have one daughter. Her name is Amani. She is two years old.

1. What’s her name?

2. Where does she live?
3. How old is she?
4. How many children does she have?
5. What’s her son’s name?
6. How old is her daughter.

If the applicant can answer these questions he or she might be able to study at level
2. If the applicant can read this passage easily give him/her passages to read from
English books 2, 3, and 4 to find the proper level.

D. Fill out Application form

Each applicant fills out this form. If the applicant is unable to write the teacher can fill
it out.

Name: ________________________________________ Age: _____________

□ male □ female □ married □ single

Where were you born? _____________________________________________

Where are you living? ______________________________________________

Who are you living with? ____________________________________________

How many years of primary school did you finish? ________________________

Where was your primary school? _____________________________________

Other Information: _________________________________________________

F. Mathematics
The applicant completes Math problems from each level to find the correct study lev-
el. Begin with problems from level 1 and move up to level 4 if the learner is able.

17
G. Final Assessment: Fill out this form to make a final assessment. Write the level
at which the applicant can study for each level.

ALP Assessment Results Form

Name ______________________________ Date ________________________

Skill Level Comments

A. English If applicants are not able to answer the questions
Speaking Skills they should study at level 1. If they can answer all
the questions they can study at level 2. Ask them
more difficult questions if they want to study at le-
vels 3 or 4.
B. Reading If applicants can read the letters, words, and story
Skills: they may study at level 2. If you think their level may
letters, words, be higher give them higher level English, Science,
paragraphs or Social Studies books to read.

C. Writing Skills: If applicants can fill out the entire form they may
Application Form study at level 2. Give them more difficult questions
from books 2 and 3 to write answers to if they want
to study above level 2.
D. Math Skills At what level are they able to complete the Math
problems? They may study at the next higher level.

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 Section C

School Administration

This section gives a brief overview of an ideal ALP school administration, and the
stakeholders involved in ALP and their roles.

Definition of “School”
A school is defined as an institution established for the purpose of providing condi-
tions and services which enable people to learn. Schools are organisations that re-
quire formal administration. For any school to realize its objectives, proper adminis-
tration must be put into place.
A good school owes much to its head teacher and to the staff and committee
members. No one person can manage a school alone. A lot of players are involved:
teachers, parents, school committees and the community as a whole.

The Head teacher

The Head teacher is chosen by the County Education Office and is the overall ad-
ministrator of the school. Head teachers should have the following attributes:
 good character
 communication skills
 confidence
 public relations skills
 good organisational skills
 self-discipline
 neat appearance

Duties of the Head teacher

The head teacher is responsible for all matters pertaining to the smooth running of
the school. In addition to their special duties, both the head teacher and deputy head
teacher may act as teachers, especially in smaller schools. Following are the duties
of the head teacher:

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  School development planning
 Management of the curriculum
 Management of resources
 Secretary to the school committee/PTA
 Liaising with the education officers
 Formulating plans for achieving set objectives
 Evaluating the extent to which the set objectives have been achieved
 Motivating the staff
 Formulating the school budget for each year
 Taking care of staff and student welfare
 Accounting for school expenditures
 Evaluating the staff and the learners

Duties of the Deputy Head Teacher

 Supervise teachers
 Check on teachers’ attendance
 Perform day-to-day administration of the school
 Act in place of the head teacher

Duties of the Senior Teacher

In addition to their teaching roles, senior teachers are responsible for:
 Managing resource centers such as the library
 Managing the school farm or garden
 Maintaining cleanliness in the school compound
 Handling gender issues for learners and teachers
 Guidance and counseling
 Games, clubs, societies
 Heading departments

Teacher’s Role and Duties

Teachers are responsible for intellectual, physical, emotional, social, and moral de-
velopment of the learners. Teachers also have a number of other roles and duties.
These include
 Lesson planning and making schemes of work
 Assessment of learners
 Preparation of teaching/learning aids

20
 Organising extra-curricular activities
 Chairing/participating in subject panels, guidance and counseling, gender
issues
 Maintaining discipline
 Other duties pertaining to the welfare of learners.

21
 Section D

The Community and ALP

The Role of the Community

A community is a group of people who live together and share things in common.
One of the goals of any community is to educate its members, and all members of a
community recognize the need to have educational programs for children and young
adults.
ALP was designed as a community-based organisation. This means that
people in the community take part in organising, implementing, and maintaining the
program. There are many ways that members of the community can take part in
ALP. These include:
a) enrolling their children and young people in ALP classes
b) encouraging other parents to enroll their children
c) advocating positive cultural practices that support education for girls and young
women
d) attending school activities such as sports events
e) joining PTA
f) helping provide support for teachers (by donating food, etc)
g) helping to build and maintain school buildings
h) raising funds for school projects
i) helping teachers educate children and youth on cultural practices, history of the
community, and vocational skills

Working with Community Groups

It’s important for the community to have a sense of ownership of their ALP program.
“Ownership” refers to the feeling that you have a part in the organisation and man-
agement of the program, the feeling that your opinion counts and that you can make
valuable contributions to the program.
In order to maximize support from the community ALP staff should identify key
organisations that can help, identify and enroll students, and give other kinds of sup-

22
port when the program is starting in a community. Support from community groups
will ensure that the program is popular and successful in the community.
Community partners should include the following:
 Women Groups
 Religious groups
 Community Based Organisations (CBOs)
 Civil Authorities
 Educational Officials
 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
 Community leaders
 The youth
 PAGE groups
 Any other interested persons or groups.

Sensitivity to the Community

To win the support of these groups, ALP staff should be sensitive to community val-
ues and goals and should be willing to consult the community when making deci-
sions that affect ALP learners. It’s important for ALP staff to have good communica-
tion skills and relate to the local people in the following ways:
a) Involve the community as much as possible in school activities.
b) Be gender friendly with all girls and women in the community.
c) Recognise practises that are harmful to girls’ education and that cause con-
flicts and identify ways to facilitate the community to modify these practises.
d) Consult the community before embarking on any project or plan.
e) Ensure that the school activities reflect the nature and aspirations of the
community.
f) Know the community norms and exhibit acceptable behaviour in order to
earn respect.
g) Work hard and be well-organised and efficient.
h) Communicate in a transparent way.
i) Be flexible enough to accommodate other people’s ideas.
j) Be ready to accommodate change, as everything changes with time.

23
 Section E

The Parent-Teacher Association and its Role

The Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) is an association of local teachers and par-

ents bound together by the common goal of promoting education in the community.
Membership in the PTA is open to all adults and includes teachers, administrators,
community leaders, and general members of the community.
The PTA has the sole responsibility of managing local school affairs, and this
responsibility has been spelt out in the Education policy for Southern Sudan by the
Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology. Because ALP is a community-
based program it’s important that the head teacher form a PTA in every community
that has an ALP program.

Functions and Objectives of the PTA

The functions and objectives of the PTA are:
1. to promote education in the community and ensure that school programs meet
the needs of the community
2. to provide linkage between the school and the community by acting as an open
bridge of communication between the school and community, encouraging
community participation in the school and encouraging teachers to participate in
community activities
3. to improve the quality of education, teaching materials, and physical environment
of the school by planning and implementing school projects and raising funds to
implement these projects
4. to identify the needs of learners (both physical and psycho-social) and to take
action to meet these needs
5. to promote the motivation of teachers by providing contributions in cash or in
kind (food, clothing, housing) and by providing support and guidance
6. to record all income and expenditures of the school, to present financial reports
during PTA meetings, and to make decisions on school fees and other levies
7. to monitor school and ALP performance including attendance and performance
of both students and staff

24
8. to provide consul for problems of discipline in both students and staff
9. to identify problems and conflicts in the school and to develop strategies to re-
solve and manage these problems and conflicts.

Skills and Knowledge Required by PTA Members

To be efficient and effective in their responsibilities, PTA members need to develop
the following knowledge and skills:
a) awareness of the importance of education
b) leadership skills
c) community mobilization skills
d) importance of identifying and meeting the needs of individual learners
e) awareness of gender issues including the importance of education for girls and
young women
f) awareness of health and sanitation issues
g) awareness of conflict resolution and peace education issues
h) awareness of child rights and child protection issues
i) awareness of harmful community practises

Set-up and Operation of the PTA

The head teacher of the school takes the lead in establishing the PTA through the
following process:
a) A meeting is organised to nominate and elect members from the community.
b) The headmaster announces the names of the committee.
c) The committee meets to assign roles (chairperson, etc).
d) A second meeting is held to set rules and plan school development activities.
e) Regular meetings are held. The entire committee should meet at least three
times a year while the executive body meets more frequently.

Identification of PTA Committee Members

The PTA committee should include between 11 and 13 members. Membership is
open to all teachers and community members in the area where the school is lo-
cated. Nomination and identification of PTA committee members is conducted
through democratic elections.
Opinion leaders and influential persons in the community from various sectors
should be considered as committee members. The committee should have at least
three women members. Members remain in office for two years. The PTA committee
has the following members:
 chairperson

25
  vice chairperson
 secretary (head teacher)
 vice secretary
 treasurer
 vice treasurer
 information officer
 three committee members

Roles of the Executive Committee of the PTA

Chairperson: The chairperson is not necessarily a member of the school staff.
He/she may be any community member who commands respect in the local com-
munity. The chairperson exercises authority as directed by the PTA committee. The
decisions of the committee will always be supreme, and the PTA committee has the
power to vote out an errant chairperson. The chairperson has the following duties:
 chairs PTA meetings
 ensures proper use of school funds and reports to the school committee and
community
 coordinates community activities in the school
 ensures proper recruitment of teachers
 ensures the welfare of teachers

Secretary: The head teacher takes the position of secretary. The secretary:
 organises and sends out notification of meetings
 records minutes of PTA meetings
 deals with all correspondence
 links school activities with the PTA and the local authorities
 follows up on implementation of resolutions on behalf of the chair

Treasurer:
 keeps books of accounts and school property
 prepares and keeps income and expenditure records
 makes school payments and purchases school supplies
 prepares and presents financial reports to the PTA committee
 is a signatory to the school account

26
 Section F
School Regulations

What are school regulations?

All institutions require rules to ensure that the objectives of the institution will be met.
In schools, if regulations are formulated properly they will help learners and staff be-
have in a way that will benefit everyone’s educational development.
In ALP we are working with older learners who have responsibilities outside of
school, so ALP regulations may be less strict than those of a formal primary or sec-
ondary school. In the learner-centered approach used in ALP, learners are given a
voice in designing their own educational environment. This means that they have a
chance to discuss the school’s regulations and formulate new rules or modify those
they feel are not realistic or supportive of their education.

ALP schools should have two sets of rules:

1. School rules: These are regulations that all learners must follow while they are
enrolled in school or present in the school compound. The rules may also extend to
teachers. They include regulations about attendance and behavior (not smoking in
the compound, etc).

2. Classroom rules: Each teacher should be responsible for formulating regulations

for his/her classroom. In a learner-centered classroom the teacher and learners
should make the rules together and agree on what is acceptable and unacceptable
behavior. Teachers should understand that when learners make their own rules they
will feel more responsibility to follow them. Teachers should also give the learners a
chance to discuss rules they would like to change.

Examples of School regulations

Here are a few examples of school regulations of the type that teachers and learners
can develop together.

 Lateness: Teachers and learners should not come to school late. However, if it
is necessary to come late the learner must state the reason to the teacher, or the

27
 teacher must state the reason to the head teacher. If a teacher is often late often
a meeting is required with the head teacher. If a learner is often late the head
teacher, teacher, and learner should meet to discuss the circumstances that lead
to lateness.

 Fighting: Fighting or violence is not allowed. Learners caught fighting will be re-
quired to meet with the head teacher or deputy head teacher to discuss the prob-
lem and resolve their differences. Male students who use violence against fe-
male students will be suspended from school for one week and a meeting will be
held between the learner, the learner’s parents or guardian, and the teacher and
head teacher.

 Talking in Class: Learners should not talk to each other when the teacher is
talking. At other times they may talk quietly amongst themselves but they may
not disturb other learners in the class.

28
 UNIT 3

TEACHING AND LEARNING

Section A
What is Education?

When we hear the word “education” we usually think of schools and universities, but
there’s also a broader definition that holds true for all countries and cultures, even
those that have no formal schooling. Speaking generally, education is the total
process of human learning by which knowledge is gained.
Education can take place anywhere, not only in schools. From the day of birth
a child is continually learning. Children receive education from their parents and
family, people in the community, and through interaction with the environment.
Learning is natural in children. As their bodies and brains develop they be-
come more self-reliant and have both the need and the ability to learn new things.
Adults continue to learn, although learning in adults is more self-motivated than in
children.
Education benefits both the individual and society. For individuals it develops
a person’s metal, social, and physical abilities to a higher level and helps people im-
prove their lives. Socially it produces more able and productive members of society
by equipping people with knowledge, skills and attitudes to better live and work with-
in the community. Education is also the key to helping people of different societies
learn and adapt themselves to living together.

Types of Knowledge and Skills

People learn in many ways: by seeing, observing, listening, doing, talking, thinking,
and reflecting. Types of knowledge and skills include deductive or scientific reason-

29
ing, reflective thinking, vocational skills, creative and innovative skills, the ability to
solve personal and social problems, and an understanding of the world outside one’s
own environment. Teachers should work to develop all of these in their learners.

Creating The Desire to Learn

One of the goals of education is to create a desire to continue learning, and one of
the duties of a teacher is to create this desire in his/her students. If students really
want to learn they will begin taking responsibility for their own learning. They won’t
see education as something forced on them by society but as a way to improve their
lives and as thing to enjoy.

Teachers can create the desire to learn by encouraging learners to:

 read newspapers and books outside of class
 listen to the radio, watch TV, etc
 talk to and learn from people in the community
 observe things in nature
 learn to do things from people in the
community (cooking, construction, etc)
 learn how to prepare or train for differ-
ent occupations
 learn about higher-level education

and by talking to learners about:

 future possibilities for education
 professions they might study for
 reflections and ideas they have on any topic.

30
 Section B
Comparing Three Types of Education

Education can take place anywhere at any time. We can divide education into three
main types depending on their purpose, content, setting, and teaching methods. Fol-
lowing is a chart that compares the three types of education.

Formal Non-Formal Informal

a. To pass exams in a. To learn knowledge a. To learn valuable life

order to GET a job and skills in order to skills and knowledge
DO a job
b. Exam oriented b. Skills oriented, no
b. Skills oriented, exams
c. Some learners do usually no exams
well, others don’t c. Everyone should
c. Everyone should succeed
d. Qualifications succeed
Purpose/ awarded to those who d. No certificates
Philosophy do well d. Certificates of atten-
dance awarded to all e. Attendance is by
e. Attendance is obliga- choice.
tory e. Attendance is by
choice f. Self-discipline
f. Non-attendance is
punished f. Non-attendance is g. No uniform
not punished
g. Discipline is imposed
g. Self-discipline
h. Learners wear a uni-
form h. No uniform

31
 Formal Non-Formal Informal

a. Rote learning of a. More emphasis on a. Emphasis on prac-

facts for examinations. practical activities, dis- tical life skills; learn by
covery, enquiry experience
Teaching/ b. Competition en-
Learning couraged b. Competition discou- b. No competition
Methods raged- collaborative
c. Hierarchical rela- learning [Link] with
tionship between teacher varies
teacher and learner c. More equal relation-
ship- facilitator: partici-
pant

a. Rigid a. Flexible a. Very flexible

b. Usually provided by b. Often NGO or CBO b. provided by parents,

government provided elders, the community,
the environment
c. Often large scale, c. Often district level or
national smaller c. Anyone is teacher

d. Professional staff d. Para-professional d. Often no training

staff
e. Time bound e. Not time bound, life
Setting/ e. Flexible, not neces- long
Delivery f. Large groups of sarily time bound
system learners, usually aimed f. Learners are of any
at children aged 5-18 f. Small groups of age
learners, learners can
g. Usually held in pur- be any age but often g. Takes place any-
pose built school build- adults or adolescents where
ing
g. Venue adapted for h. No timetable
h. Schedule and timet- use: community center,
able rigid place of worship, ma- i. No rules or regula-
nayatta or under a tree tions
i. Rules and regulations
imposed h. Schedule and timet-
able flexible, nego-
tiated

i. Rules and regulations

negotiated

32
 Formal Non-Formal Informal

a. Syllabus and cur- a. Syllabus and cur- a. No planned sylla-

riculum planned by riculum negotiated by bus
deliverers teachers and learn-
ers b. Emphasis on life
b. Emphasis on skills, attitudes
knowledge, educa- b. Emphasis on
Content tional skills (e.g. knowledge, skills and c. Life skills empha-
reading, math) attitudes sized over formal
topics
c. Subjects and top- c. Topics and skills
ics learned, less em- emphasize useful
phasis on skills and knowledge
practical knowledge

Examples of the Three Types of Education

All three types of education may be found in Southern Sudan.

formal: This includes primary school, secondary school, teacher training institutes,
colleges, universities.

non-formal: This includes adult literacy classes, vocational classes (sewing, carpen-
try), language classes, training courses by NGOs or Com-
munity Based Organisations (on health, etc) and learning
from the media.

informal: This includes learning from parents and others,

transmission of culture, self learning from environment.

Which Type is ALP?

ALP is a combination of formal and non-formal education. It
is formal because there is a set curriculum and because
the learners receive a certificate at the end of the course. It
is informal because it can be organised anywhere with only
a facilitator, because it is flexible in allowing the learners a
choice of study time, and because it emphasizes practical
learning.

33
 Section C

Teaching Children/Teaching Adults

Characteristics of Children and Adults

ALP teachers work mainly with adolescents and adults. Teachers who have worked
with children in the past should look closely at the differences between children and
adults and think about how to adapt their teaching to adult ways of thinking. Follow-
ing are general characteristics of children, adolescents, and adults:

child: from birth to around age 12

 has little control of life/living situation
 mind and mental reasoning are developing
 emotions are developing, emotional responses are “childish”
 limited understanding of the outside world
 adults/parents are responsible for physical health and well-being

adolescent/teenager: from around 13 to 17

 gradually gaining control of own life but still needs guidance from adults
 becoming an adult socially and physically
 mental reasoning developing or at adult level but still has limited expe-
rience
 emotional bonding with peer group, not yet individual
 adults/parents still responsible for physical health and well-being

adult: from around 18

 has control of own life, makes own decisions
 mind/reasoning powers are developed
 emotions are developed, has control over own emotions
 has own responsibility socially and to find place in society
 responsible for own physical health and well-being

How the Differences Apply to Education

Because adults make their own decisions and have fully-developed reasoning pow-
ers we should offer them courses taught with methods that give them more control of

34
their education than is normally given to children. They should also have the chance
to express themselves, although this is also important with children. Following are
some comparisons of adults and children that apply to education:

Adults require a reason to learn.

Children have an inner desire to learn (because their minds are developing).

Adults need to understand the reasons why they are doing things.
Children will carry out tasks without questioning why they’re doing them.

Adults don’t have to take the course and may be critical of it.
Children must be at school and may have little control over the course.

Relevance to the ALP Program

ALP programs and classes are designed to accommodate the needs of older ado-
lescents and adults, and therefore have many differences from formal programs for
children. It’s important for ALP teachers to have attitudes and behavior that will meet
the expectations of adults. Following are four characteristics of adults and older ado-
lescents and how they apply to the ALP program:

1. Adults have responsibilities and status in the community

 Treat all learners equally and with equal respect. Make sure all learners feel
they are important and have equal status.
 Let learners be involved in designing the program as much as possible. This
includes study time and calendar.
 Discuss outside responsibilities with learners who come to class late or who
miss classes.
 If some learners can’t complete homework try to find the reason.
 Make use of their knowledge of adult responsibilities and status in discus-
sions.
 Talk to learners who cause discipline problems in an adult way.
 Don’t punish learners harshly; treat them as your equal.

2. Adults have prior knowledge and experience

 Ask learners if they’ve already studied a topic and assess their knowledge of
topics before teaching them.
 Don’t teach something the learners already know.
 Let learners try to explain things before you do.
 Use questions more than explanation.

35
  Teach through discussion rather than explanation, letting learners and
groups of learners lead discussions.
 Make use of the learners’ knowledge and experience in discussions.
 Give learners time to discuss and write about their own ideas.
 Organise extra-curricular activities that make use of the learners experience
and knowledge.
 Work to improve learners’ attitudes regarding gender, child protection, and
peace.

3. Adults understand concepts more easily than children

 Teach adult topics and higher level material.
 Cover material at a faster rate.
 Don’t revise material without assessing the need for revision first.
 If learners understand quickly move on to another topic.
 Ask questions that require thinking.
 Read newspapers, books, and magazines and bring interesting material to
discuss in class.
 Use appropriate and relevant textbooks and other learning materials. Bring
newspapers and other current reading materials to class.

4. Adults have their own plans and needs so they require choices in education
 Be open-minded and adaptable and show respect for learners’ needs and
opinions.
 Learners should be free to ask questions and make any comments they
wish.
 Topics should be interesting and useful and have a practical application.
 Let learners choose additional topics they would like to study.
 Allow learners to ask questions and state their opinions.
 Try to adapt the course to the needs of the learners.
 Have learners discuss and solve problems from their own lives.
 If there is a library in your area take your class for a visit. Encourage learners
to read books according to their interests.
 Give the learners projects to work on in the community that draw on their ex-
perience and needs.

36
 Section D

Approaches to Teaching

Teachers use many different methods to deliver lessons in the classroom. As teach-
ers we are generally free to choose the kinds of methods we use in our classrooms,
so it’s good to look at different teaching methods and their various benefits to the
learners. To do this we’ll first describe methods used traditionally in classrooms, and
then compare them with the approach favoured for ALP classrooms.

The Traditional Classroom

Traditionally the aim of education is to pass a certain body of knowledge to the
learners. Traditional methods involve mostly lectures by the teacher and rote written
assignments by the learners. There is little student participation and a low level of
independent thinking. In general, traditional methods:
 focus on passing information to the learners
 give the class a formal atmosphere
 allow learners to speak only when called on
 allow only the best learners to answer questions
 allow little participation by slower learners in the class

The Learner-Centered Classroom

The philosophy behind the learner-centered approach is that students learn more
effectively and develop important skills if they participate in their own learning. In a
learner-centered environment the students don’t sit passively and listen but are ac-
tive at all times. There’s an emphasis on critical thinking skills and problem solving to
help learners adapt to the challenges of a modern world. In a learner-centered class-
room the learners have the opportunity to solve problems, express their opinions,
and think and write creatively.
Students are also given the chance to direct their own learning by asking any
question they like and making suggestions for topics to study or talk about. As much

37
as possible, study topics come from the learners’ own environment so that the learn-
ers can develop thinking skills based on personal contexts.
In a traditional classroom the teacher usually pays most attention to a few of
the best students who will go on to higher education. In learner-centered education
all the students in the class take part equally to develop their knowledge and skills.
The goal of modern education isn’t to prepare a few of the best learners for second-
ary school and university, but to give useful skills to all members of society.

Characteristics of a Learner-Centered Classroom

To meet the objectives of a learner-centered classroom, the following points should
be incorporated into your teaching:
1. Informal Atmosphere: Teachers should make the classroom atmosphere in-
formal so that learners will feel they’re free to express themselves at any time.
Teachers should ask open questions and allow learners to give any answer they
like. Group activities are especially good because learners can talk amongst
themselves without being led or controlled by the teacher.
2. Participation of Learners: Class activities should involve all the learners in the
class. Activities that encourage learner participation include pair and group work,
whole-class discussion, and having all the learners do problems and answer
questions rather than only a few.
3. Development of Thinking Skills: It’s important to design classroom activities
that require independent thinking, information gathering, and analysis. There
should be questions for learners to think about and objectives for them to work
on that aren’t answered or explained directly by the teacher. Of course, the syl-
labus should be followed, and this requires a certain amount of information to be
transmitted directly to the students, but even rote learning can be made learner-
friendly by using the information as a starting point for thinking and discussion.
4. Correct Level of Difficulty: Materials and activities should be at the correct lev-
el for the learners. Materials should be carefully graded and sequenced so that
they aren’t too easy or too difficult for the learners using them. This is especially
important in Math and English, but in other subjects the amount of vocabulary
and information introduced in a lesson should be limited so that the learners
aren’t overwhelmed.

Benefits of a Learner-Centered Classroom

The learner-centered approach to teaching has many benefits for learners. Teachers
can also gain leadership and critical thinking skills by using this approach. In a learn-
er-centered environment students can:
 gain confidence in expressing their ideas and opinions
 learn to question things

38
  learn to think critically and analyze information
 learn faster and retain knowledge and skills because they’re participating
 learn ways to solve problems
 develop leadership skills
 learn to work in a group
 learn cooperation and negotiating skills
 build positive relationships with other stu-
dents
 become involved in their own learning
 think of things they would like to study
and learn about

Tips for Facilitating a Learner-Centered Classroom

Some important points for teachers in learner-centered classrooms are as follows:
1. Treat all learners equally and with equal respect.
2. Let the learners ask any questions they like.
3. Respect and treat seriously any idea or comment from the learners.
4. Encourage learners to give suggestions for study topics.
5. Try to find problems the learners are having and create activities to address
these problems.
6. Do work in groups so that learners can interact with each other rather than al-
ways having the teacher as the leader.
7. Let learners or groups of learners lead class discussions and take other leader-
ship roles. Rotate leadership roles so that all learners can develop these skills.
8. Give learners projects to work on in the community (interviewing people in the
community, etc)
9. Empower learners by taking the role of facilitator.

Learner-Centered Checklist
Ask yourself these questions after teaching a class to see if the class was truly
learner-centered:
 Did the learners have a chance to express themselves or did I do most of the
talking?
 Did I assess for prior knowledge and let them explain new material or did I
explain things they knew already?
 Did the learners have a chance to think creatively and analytically?
 Did all the learners participate in the activities or only a few that I chose?

39
 Did the activities include the slower as well as the faster learners?
 Did the girls participate equally with the boys?
 Did I do activities that allowed different ideas and opinions to be expressed?
 Did the learners appear to be interested in the lesson and motivated to learn?
How could I improve my lessons for tomorrow to make them more learner- centered?

Comparing Approaches with Classroom Activities

This table compares the two approaches for some common classroom activities.

Traditional Approach Learner-Centered Approach

1. Presentation of New Material 1. Presentation of New Material

 The teacher explains or presents the  The teacher encourages the learners
new topic while the learners listen. to give information they know about the
 Learners listen passively. new topic.
 The teacher doesn’t consider the  The teacher encourages discussion
learners’ prior knowledge; the teacher on the topic.
may repeat information the learners al-  The teacher considers the learners’
ready know. prior knowledge on the subject.

2. Questioning 2. Questioning
 The teacher asks all the questions.  The teacher uses activities where all
 The best learners in the class answer the learners can ask and answer ques-
the questions. tions.
 Questions are about the facts of a  The teacher asks questions that
lesson. Each question has only one cor- probe for understanding and encourage
rect answer. critical thinking. Some questions have
many possible answers.
 The teacher does not encourage or
allow learners to ask questions.  The teacher asks questions to all
members of the class, asking easier
questions to slower learners.
 Learners are encouraged to ask
questions and feel free to ask questions
any time.

40
 Traditional Approach Learner-Centered Approach

3. Reading Comprehension 3. Reading Comprehension

 The reading passage may be too dif-  There aren’t more than five or ten
ficult for the class and contain many new new words per page.
words.  All the learners have a chance to
 One learner stands and reads while read.
the others sit passively.  Topic of the reading is interesting to
 Topic of the reading may not be rele- the learners and will encourage thinking.
vant or interesting to the learners. Vocabulary is repeatedly used in future
Vocabulary isn’t revised or repeated in lessons.
future lessons.

4. General Classroom Activities 4. General Classroom Activities

 The teacher leads all activities.  The teacher encourages group and
 One learner is called to the black- pair work.
board to solve problems and do written  All learners do problems and written
activities. activities.
 The teacher stays in front of the  The teacher moves around the class-
classroom. room checking learners’ work and talking
 The teacher pays more attention to to individual learners.
fast learners and less attention to slow  The teacher is gender sensitive and
learners. gives extra encouragement to girls.
 The teacher may pay more attention  Teacher uses visual aids in class as
to boys and not be gender-sensitive. often as possible.
 Teacher doesn’t use visual aids.  The teacher allows learners to work
 The teacher sets strict time limits and at their own pace.
expects all learners to finish a task at the
same time.

Approaches to Teaching: Other Considerations

You should now have a good understanding of ways to make your ALP class more
interesting and beneficial to the ALP learner. Following are some other aspects of
learner-centered education.

41
1. Activity-based learning: This is “learning by doing”. The idea behind activity-
based learning is that students learn and develop skills faster when they are actively
doing things.

2. Participatory learning: The learners should participate in all lessons. In participa-

tory learning the student is the focal point while the teacher is a guide and provider of
learning opportunities. Students should help each other and learn by working togeth-
er.

3. Ways of learning: This chart shows different ways that students learn, and things
the teacher can do in the classroom for each.

Ways of Ways of supporting in the classroom

learning

Seeing Use real objects and pictures including charts, photos,

drawings, diagrams, actions, and acting.

Listening Encourage the learners to listen to each other. Have learn-

ers tell stories, and use, poems, rhymes, singing, and dialo-
gues.

Touching Use objects related to lessons So learners can feel and ma-
nipulate them, for example stones and sticks in Math.

Doing Have learners draw pictures and handle objects, flashcards,

and pictures. Play games, act plays, work in pairs and
groups.

Conclusion
In these approaches you can see that the role of the teacher and other aspects of
traditional education have changed. Learner-centered teaching focuses on the needs
and interests of every learner in the classroom. Effective
ALP teachers will explore the various aspects of learner-
centered teaching and adapt them to their classes, always
thinking about the individual goals and personalities of each
learner.

42
 Section E
Professional Development

Becoming a Better Teacher

Teaching is a profession that requires many skills in addition to subject knowledge,
and teachers should always be interested in improving their skills so they can func-
tion better in their work and contribute to the development of their learners and
communities. Teachers aren’t alone in their classrooms. There’s a whole network of
teachers, trainers, and supervisors working together to improve teaching and the
system of education in Southern Sudan. There are also many books and manuals
that describe aspects of education that can give teachers new ideas for their work.

Following are some suggestions for professional development in teaching:

 Think about your students: Develop a realistic attitude toward your learners’
abilities and needs. Plan classroom work that will meet their needs and that is
appropriate to their abilities.

 Talk to other teachers about your work: Discuss all aspects of your work with
other teachers. The head teacher should encourage teachers to consult with
each other on classroom activities, learner development, and problems they’re
having.

 Read about teaching: Read anything you can find about teaching and think po-
sitively about how the ideas you read could improve your class and school. Start
with this manual. Reading everything in this manual will be a good start.

 Don’t be afraid to experiment: If you read or hear about a new teaching me-
thod, try using it in your class. Plan the activity carefully, thinking about how it will
work with your learners.

 Keep learning: Learning about a new classroom activity, trying it in your class,
and talking to other teachers about it will help improve your class’s learning ex-
perience and also help in the overall development of the school.

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Reflection: Thinking about Teaching and Learning
Reflecting on something means to think about, consider, ponder, or contemplate it.
For teachers it’s important to reflect on your teaching both before you go into the
classroom and after you finish a lesson. Reflection is an important tool for improving
your teaching and your students’ success in education.
You can reflect on teaching yourself or include other people. It can be a valu-
able experience to have someone help you plan your lessons and observe your
teaching because it enables you to hear another person’s perspective on your teach-
ing. If you approach reflection as a constructive way to improve your work (and not
as negative criticism) it can yield positive results for your class.

Reflecting – Before Teaching a Class: Before teaching a class think about the
knowledge and skills you plan to teach and the activities you plan to use. Ask your-
self these questions:
 Are the objectives at the right level for the class?
 Have the learners studied this material before? Could they explain any as-
pects of it themselves?
 Have I planned activities where all the learners can participate?
 Do the lessons advocate gender equity and peace?
 Can quiet or shy learners participate equally?
 How learner-centered are the activities? How can I make them more learner-
centered?

Reflecting – After Teaching a Class: At the end of a teaching period or day ask
yourself some questions to reflect on what happened during the class:
 Did the learners pay attention and enjoy the activities?
 Did the learners feel that the class was worthwhile to them? Did they learn
things that are useful to them and that meet their needs?
 Did all the learners in the class participate and learn? What can I do to help all
the learners participate?
 How could I modify and improve the activities I did to make the learners feel
more motivated to learn?

Reflecting on Teachers I’ve Learned From: Another good reflection activity is to

look at the way your teachers taught you when you were a student and what you
thought were the positive and negative aspects of their methods and classroom
management. It’s likely that you’re using some of the same methods your former
teachers used, and it’s good to analyse them to see if they’re helping all your learn-
ers develop their thinking and analytical skills in addition to imparting knowledge. Ask
yourself:
 Which of my teachers did I like the best and why?
 What methods did my teachers use to teach each subject?

44
  Did we understand and learn effectively by these methods?
 Did the teacher reach all of the learners in the class, or only a few of the best?
 Did we enjoy our classes or did we feel bored and uninterested?
 Were we given a chance to develop and state our own ideas?

Peer Support
A school is composed of many people. It’s important for the teachers and head
teacher of every school to form a team with common goals, working together in a
sharing, consultative way. The head teacher should take the lead in encouraging
teachers to discuss all aspects of teaching and school management. Following are
some suggestions for working with your peers – the other teachers in the school:
 Set goals for your school and keep them in mind during meetings and dis-
cussions.
 Include the whole staff when making important decisions.
 Ask more experienced teachers for advice about classroom work and prob-
lems with learners.
 Help each other in the classroom if you have free time, for example, divide
the class into two groups and have an extra teacher work with one of the
groups.
 Treat each other with respect.

Observation and Feedback/Role of the FEO

ALP schools work under a Field Education Officer (FEO) whose role is to ensure that
the program is being implemented effectively. Part of the FEO’s role is to work with
teachers in their classrooms, observing them and helping them to reflect on and im-
prove their teaching. Observation by the FEO isn’t an inspection. The FEO shouldn’t
criticize teachers or tell them what to do, but work in a consultative way to help them
build on their knowledge and skills to improve their learners’ educational experience.
FEOs do any of the following activities during classroom observation:
 Watch classes and facilitate teachers to reflect on their lessons.
 Give pointers on how to improve lessons.
 Focus on one aspect of the lesson during observation, for example, learner
motivation or girls’ participation.
 Observe lessons that are taught from a recent refresher training topic.
 Demonstrate a teaching technique or approach while the teacher watches.
 Team teach with the teacher (both the teacher and FEO plan the lesson then
teach it together).

45
  Work with the teacher to plan future activities for the class based on points
for improvement that they have developed together.
 Plan the follow-up lesson together, with revision and expansion activities.
 Help the teacher develop a plan for daily reflection on his/her teaching.

Procedure for Observation and Feedback

Receiving feedback should be a positive experience for the teacher being observed.
This short procedure will give both the teacher and observer a chance to express
positive reflections on the lesson and ideas to consider for improvement:

Procedure for Observation and Feedback (FEO/Teacher)

When teaching is finished, first let the teacher reflect on his/her own teaching, fol-
lowed by input from the observer. The teacher and observer reflect on and discuss
two questions:
What were the positive points of the lesson?
What could you change to improve the lesson?

During reflection and discussion the teacher and observer consider the following
points:
a. Was the material at the appropriate level for the learners?
b. Were the learners motivated?
c. Did the lesson have clear objectives?
d. Did the steps of the lesson follow a logical order?
e. Did the steps lead to understanding?
f. Did the teacher take the learners’ prior knowledge into account?
g. Was the lesson more teacher-centered or learner-centered?
h. Did all the learners participate, including girls?
i. Will the learners be able to use the skills and knowledge in a practical way?
j. Did the teacher assess whether the objectives of the lesson were met?
k. Were visual aids and the blackboard used appropriately?

46
 UNIT 4

IN THE CLASSROOM

Section A

Effective Teaching

Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes that Teachers Should Have

Teaching refers to helping a person acquire knowledge and skills, either by directly
passing on information or by facilitating self discovery. Effective teaching requires
special knowledge, skills and attitudes which are developed through training, study,
and experience. Following are the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that teachers
should have to facilitate effective teaching:

1. Knowledge of the learning process: Teachers need to know how people learn
so they can understand their students’ learning abilities, their attitudes towards
learning, and other behavior in the classroom. Understanding the learning
process will help teachers plan more effective lessons.
2. Attitudes that foster learning and good human relationships: Teachers
should have a positive attitude toward their students. A good attitude will moti-
vate students to do well in class, and developing good relationships will facilitate
the learning process among students and serve as a role model for the school
and community. Teachers should always advocate friendship, equality, and
peaceful solutions to problems. Both the learners and teacher should end every
lesson with a feeling of satisfaction and achievement.
3. Knowledge of the subject matter: ALP teachers need to know in detail the
subject matter they will teach their classes. It’s important to read all the material
you will teach, to plan out answers to questions the learners may ask, and think

47
 of how to relate the material to the learners’ daily life. Talk to your fellow teach-
ers if you’re not sure about material in the textbooks.
4. Teaching Skills: ALP teachers should have an interest in the teaching profes-
sion, including the knowledge of many kinds of teaching methods and tech-
niques including how to plan the steps of a lesson and how to assess learners’
work. Teachers should always look for new techniques and activities to try out.
5. Understanding of Each Learner’s Abilities: Teachers should remember that
each student has different abilities. Some students learn things quickly while
others require more time to understand. When teachers know their students well
they can plan lessons that are beneficial and interesting to everyone in the class.
6. Creativity: Creativity is the ability to come up with new ideas. It’s important in
the classroom because teachers often face new situations that require original
responses and solutions. Creativity is also needed to plan effective lessons,
whether with drawings and other artwork, music, writing, or thinking of new
games and exercises. Teachers should also plan activities that will develop crea-
tivity in their students.
7. Communication Skills: Teaching requires good communication skills. A good
teacher must be a good communicator, being able to both speak and listen well.
Spoken communication has three aspects:

Speaking: Good speaking includes

 a clear and concise message
 clear voice and pronunciation
 a match between what is being said and body language

Listening: Effective listening includes

 Hearing the information
 Selecting appropriate information from what was heard
 Reflecting on the context in which the information was spoken
 Determining what you think about the information
 Responding in an appropriate way

Non-verbal Communication: This refers to movements of the body that are

used consciously or unconsciously to give additional meaning to verbal mes-
sages. Movements include
 gestures and movement
 facial expression and eye contact
 posture and the use of the space around you.

48
Roles of the ALP Teacher
For effective, learner-centered teaching, the teacher must take on many roles be-
sides that of a traditional classroom teacher. Following are these roles:
a) Facilitator: “To facilitate” means “to make easy, to lessen the difficulty of”. A fa-
cilitator uses discussion, questioning, and other approaches to help people de-
velop their ideas and make choices. Good facilitators need to be creative so they
can develop ways to facilitate people to think for themselves.

b) Motivator: “To motivate” means “to stimulate the interest of, to inspire, to give a
motive (reason) or incentive for”. In the classroom a motivator uses various
techniques to stimulate learners to explore their own ideas, think critically, and
feel interested in improving their lives.

c) Moderator: A moderator is a person who leads a discussion between two or

more people or groups. A good moderator needs to understand the goals of the
groups, listen carefully to what is being said and move the discussion on appro-
priately when a person or side is finished speaking.

d) Counselor: A counselor gives advice. Counselors often use the technique of

stating the options available in a given situation and helping the person make a
choice while taking their needs into account. As a counselor the teacher gives
learners options to help them solve problems and plan for the future.

e) Mentor: A mentor is a trusted advisor. A mentor gives advice and guidance to

people who trust him or her, using various techniques to guide or counsel. A
mentor differs from a counselor by his/her relationship to the person, being
looked up to as someone with knowledge and skills the person would like to at-
tain.

f) Leader: Teachers are in a good position to become leaders in the community.

Good leaders should think of the people they are leading more than themselves.
Good leaders look for the people’s needs and use various approaches to help
them solve their problems. Good leaders should act confident and be decisive,
but they should also be good, sympathetic listeners and make decisions only af-
ter talking to the people involved.

g) Role Model: Younger people often copy the behavior of older people. With this
in mind, the teacher should appear and behave in a way that is both acceptable
to the community and appealing to the learners. This includes morals (being
honest, non-violent, gender sensitive, hard-working), personal habits (having a
healthy lifestyle), and appearance (being clean and neat).

h) Advocate: This word is both a noun and a verb. As a verb it means “to recom-
mend, to be in favour of”. As a noun it refers to a person who promotes a certain
policy such as gender equality, peace education, or HIV/AIDS education. This is

49
 usually done through discussion, meetings, and other forms of community edu-
cation.

The Teacher as Facilitator

In a learner-centered classroom we often refer to the teacher as a “facilitator”. The
following chart compares the role of a traditional teacher with that of a facilitator.

A Traditional Teacher A Facilitator

 expects learners to be passive,  expects learners to be active and

accepting the knowledge he/she to take responsibility for their own
tells them learning
 is concerned mainly with teaching  guides learners to generate skills
new knowledge and knowledge rather than telling
 considers education as the trans- them things
fer of knowledge and facts from  provides opportunities for all
teacher to learner learners to participate
 works with the best learners who  guides learners to express their
will continue in higher education ideas and opinions, and to gain
 does not encourage learners to skills in critical thinking and prob-
think critically and solve problems lem solving
 teaches according to the syllabus;  asks learners questions to probe
is concerned only with what will be for understanding; works learners
covered through steps of critical thinking
 sets strict time limits and expects and problem solving
all learners to finish at the same  considers learners’ prior know-
time ledge; builds lessons on learners’
 does not share outcomes and as- knowledge and experience
sessment with learners  encourages learners to work at
their own pace
 explains the purpose of tasks and
materials to learners
 discusses outcomes and assess-
ment with learners

50
Other Points for Effective Teaching
Following are some practical points for effective teaching:
 Use a variety of approaches and techniques
 Be enthusiastic
 Be task oriented
 Be appreciative of all students’ contributions
 Know your learners well
 Read widely and know your subject matter well
 Use a variety of materials
 Be honest, hard-working, neat, and punctual
 Be resourceful
 Be cooperative with all staff, students, and the community
 Enjoy talking to your students
 Be happy and positive; don’t shout or be bad-tempered
 Treat everyone equally

51
 Section B

Motivation

Internal and External Motivation

Motivation refers to the reason, inspiration, or incentive for doing something. Every-
thing a person does is the result of some sort of motivation which can be both biolog-
ical and social.
Motivation can be classified in two ways depending on whether the reason
comes from outside the person’s body and mind (called “external motivation”) or
whether it comes from a feeling or need within the person (“internal motivation”).

Motivation and Education

Motivation is important in education because all students need reasons to learn.
Some of these reasons may be external and others may be internal. For older learn-
ers, such as those in ALP classes, internal motivation is especially important be-
cause adolescents and adults make their own choices and thus will be motivated by
things they feel are useful in their own lives. For younger learners, such as those in
primary school, external reasons coming from the family and society are usually
more important.

Following are some external reasons why students come to school:

 I want pass the test for secondary school.
 Education will help me get a job.
 I’ll be punished if I don’t go to school.
 My parents want me to go.
 The teacher will give me a reward if I do well.
 I want a certificate.
 All my friends are studying.
 My teacher told me to go.
 People will respect me if I go to school.

Following are some internal reasons:

 I want to learn.

52
  I want to be a teacher.
 It will make me feel successful.
 I want to do something challenging.
 I want to achieve.
 I like to study.
 I want to learn English.
 I have the personal goal of completing primary school.
 I want to improve my life
 I like my teacher.
 I feel comfortable and safe at school.
 I feel supported by my teachers and the other learners.

Reinforcing Motivation
Every learner in your class has reasons for coming to school. One of your responsi-
bilities as a teacher is to continually reinforce and build on each learner’s motivation.
You can do this by finding out learners’ reasons for coming to school and being sure
that needs arising from these reasons are being met. You can also motivate your
students to come to school through the lessons you teach and the atmosphere of
your classroom. Following are some things the teacher can do to reinforce motiva-
tion:
1. The ALP program should be well organised with community participation, good
teaching, adequate textbooks and materials, and certification.
2. The teacher should help learners set goals and praise them when they do well or
achieve their goals.
3. The teacher should set realistic and relevant goals for the class.
4. The teacher should ensure that all learners experience success and feelings of
competence.
5. The teacher should show interest in each learner and treat all learners with re-
spect.
6. The teacher should know each learner’s reasons for studying in the ALP class
and work to reinforce these reasons.
7. The teacher should show commitment to teaching by preparing good lessons,
coming to class on time, and marking homework and exams on time.
8. The teacher should provide challenging and interesting learning tasks and expe-
riences to motivate learners to reach higher levels of achievement and to spark
their interest in learning.
9. The teacher should encourage cooperation among learners so they can help
each other learn and enjoy coming to class.

53
10. The teacher should highlight the link between effort and outcome, so that learn-
ers see the link between their own effort and success. Such learners are likely to
persist with challenging tasks.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

As a teacher you continually respond to things the learners say and do. It’s valuable
to think of responses to learners’ behavior in terms of positive and negative rein-
forcement. In simple terms, positive reinforcement is a response that makes a learn-
er feel good, while negative reinforcement makes a learner feel bad. Both can moti-
vate students, but positive reinforcement motivates them for positive reasons, while
negative reinforcement motivates them for negative reasons (such as fear).
Negative reinforcement includes scolding a learner or embarrassing the
learner in front of classmates, hitting the learner, and shouting, laughing at, or saying
negative things to the learner. Positive reinforcement includes praising an individual
or the whole class, giving a gift or prize to a learner, and smiling, laughing and giving
a general atmosphere of enjoyment to the class.
ALP teachers should, of course, use mainly positive reinforcement in their
classes and rely on negative reinforcement only for extreme disciplinary problems.

Equity between Teacher and Learner

Always remember that you should treat learners fairly and in the same way that you
would expect other people to treat you. If you have done something wrong to a
learner, it will help his or her motivation to apologise. Don’t feel that you’re lowering
yourself by apologising to a learner. You will be a good role model in fair and just
behavior if they see you apologising.
In ALP classes some of the learners may be older and more experienced than
the teacher. Teachers should give older learners a chance to use their experience
and knowledge in class. If a learner has more knowledge or experience in a subject
than the teacher, the teacher shouldn’t feel overshadowed but should take advan-
tage of the learner’s knowledge and let him or her take the role of teacher. This will
motivate learners to help each other while giving the older learners positive rein-
forcement.

54
 Section C

Classroom Management

Classroom management refers to the way a teacher organises and handles a class.
The type of classroom management a teacher uses depends on the learning objec-
tives and the teaching philosophy of the teacher and school. In ALP classes a learn-
er-centered approach is favoured. This means that the teacher should manage the
classroom so that the learners feel free to express themselves and communicate
with both the teacher and other learners.

Aspects of Classroom Management

We will look at four important aspects of classroom management: atmosphere, inte-
raction and participation, seating arrangement, and time management.

1. Classroom Atmosphere: It’s important to establish a good classroom atmos-

phere that will motivate your students to learn. Following are some ways to create
and maintain a positive atmosphere in the classroom:
 be friendly, make the class enjoyable
 be sympathetic to what the learners feel and say
 know your learners well: names, families, special characteristics
 praise the learners when they do good work and don’t discipline learners
harshly
 use an assortment of classroom activities and vary your activities throughout
the day
 be a good listener: listen carefully when students are talking and have stu-
dents listen carefully to each other
 make the classroom attractive
 encourage a spirit of cooperation between teachers and learners
 treat all learners equally
 let learners talk quietly amongst themselves. Don’t require absolute silence.
 start classes on time and give adequate breaks

55
2. Interaction and Participation: Effective teaching/learning requires interaction in
the classroom and participation by all learners. There are two types of classroom in-
teraction:

a) teacher-learner interaction: Teachers usually stand in front of the class when

presenting new material, leading discussions, or having the class practise exer-
cises as a whole group. In these activities it’s important to engage all the learn-
ers by choosing among everyone to answer questions and do exercises. When
learners are working alone the teacher should move around the classroom talk-
ing and checking work.

b) interaction among learners: Here the learners are working with each other in
pairs and groups, doing role plays and dialogues in front of the class, or giving
reports to the class. These activities allow all the students to engage in active
learning. Try to do these kinds of activities every day so that students learn the
value of participation and learning from each other.

3. Seating arrangements: Vary the seating arrangement of your class according to

the activity you’re doing. There are four common seating arrangements:

a) desks in rows: This is the traditional seating arrangement with all the learners
facing the blackboard. It’s used when the teacher is leading the class or when
the class is watching presentations by other learners.

b) working in groups: Here the learners move their chairs to sit in groups. If
you’ve given the groups a task that takes 15 minutes or more you can let some
groups go outside to work.

c) working in pairs: Here the learners sit or stand in pairs to work. This is done for
pair tasks, interviews, and asking questions in pairs.

d) semi-circle: This is used best with a small group, not over 15 or 20 people. The
group sits in a “U” shape with the teacher or leader at the front. This arrange-
ment is good for discussions because everyone can see each other.

56
4. Time Management: Keep your eye on the time when you’re teaching and having
breaks. Following are points about time management in the classroom:

a) plan your lessons: Plan the steps of your lesson and estimate the time needed
for each step so you have adequate activities to engage the learners for the en-
tire period.

b) start classes on time: Teachers should encourage learners to make efficient

use of their time and you can do this by setting a good example. Teachers
should arrive at school and start classes on time. If your learners have a habit of
coming late, start the class on time with the few learners who are there, and the
others will soon learn to come on time.

c) keep the learners active: One aspect of timing is to keep the learners active.
When you give the class a problem or task to do, watch the learners as they
work. Give them enough time to do the task, then move on to the next step as
soon as they’re finished. Try to do two or three different activities in one period
so that the learners don’t become inactive or bored.

d) limit your talking time: Don’t use too much class time talking and explaining.
When the teacher talks too much it limits learner participation. Give explanations
through questions and answers, or have the learners explain things themselves.

e) breaks: Give the learners breaks to let them relax between lessons. Don’t let the
breaks go on too long, though. It’s good to stay with some of the learners during
breaks, talking to them and helping them with individual problems.

57
 Section D

Identifying Learners’ Needs

Each of your students is an individual with different interests, needs, and physical
characteristics. As a teacher you should develop the skill of identifying and meeting
each student’s needs and interests. In this section we will look at four needs that
learners may have:
a) Learners with special interests
b) Learners with varying rates of learning
c) Learners with physical problems
d) Learners with special needs from their past circumstances

1. Learners with Special Interests

Everyone has things they’re interested in, and as a teacher one of your roles is to
reinforce and encourage special interests in a positive way. For example, if certain
learners are interested in writing, help them make a bulletin board to post their writ-
ings. If some girls are interested in sports help them start a girls’ team.

2. Learners with Physical Problems

Some students in your class may have physical problems that affect their learning.
These may include:
 hearing problems
 sight problems
 speech problems
 malnutrition or illness
 physical disability

Be sure to show sympathy and understand to any learner with physical problems,
and do whatever you can to help them, for example, learners with sight problems
should sit nearer the blackboard.

58
3. Learners with Varying Rates of Learning
Every person learns at his or her own pace. Learners tend to fall into three catego-
ries regarding the pace at which they learn: average Learners, slow learners and fast
learners.

a. The Average Learner: The majority of learners move comfortably at the teacher’s
pace. Plan your lessons the learners at this level.

b. The Slow Learner: This is a learner who works at a slower pace than average. In
ALP classes this is commonly caused by a poor educational background because of
the lack of access to schools during the primary school years. Lack of English lan-
guage skills may also be a factor, as are shyness and lack of confidence. If you have
students in your class who are learning at a slower pace than average, check if their
knowledge and skills are adequate for the class level. It may be advantageous for
them to study at a lower level.
Slow learners may have the following characteristics:
 act quiet and withdrawn
 don’t do assignments
 don’t volunteer to answer questions
 have difficulty understanding
 may be defensive and avoid the teacher
 may come late or miss class

You can assist slow learners in the following ways:

1. Be sure the learner is studying at the correct level. Move the learner to a
lower level if it will help his/her learning.
2. Give the learner extra encouragement and help.
3. Help the learner during breaks and before and after class.
4. Don’t ask the learner difficult questions in class. Ask him/her questions that
are easy to answer to help build confidence.
5. In pair and group work, put the learner with a friend who can help him/her.
Don’t put slow learners together in pairs.
6. Encourage the learner to come to class every day.

c. The Fast Learner: This is a learner who acquires knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes at a fast pace. Fast learners may have these characteristics:
 volunteer to answer questions in class
 finish exercises before the others
 are friendly to teachers and talk to the teacher during breaks
 are leaders

59
  may be restless if not given enough work to do

Fast learners are often out-going, trying to answer all the questions the teach-
er asks. However, fast learners can also be shy, doing all of their assignments well
but lacking the confidence to speak in class.
Following are ways to work with fast learners to facilitate their learning:
1. If they finish exercises before the others, give them extra work to do while
the others are still working.
2. Encourage them to help others in pairs and groups.
3. Encourage them to ask you questions and discuss topics during breaks and
outside of class.
4. Try to find extra books and other materials for them to read.
5. Encourage them to listen to English language programs on the radio.
6. Use them to assist in the collection of display and learning materials.
7. Give them challenging assignments to do both in and out of class.
8. Encourage them to be leaders.

3. Learners with Special Needs

The long war in South Sudan has caused many people to have problems they would
not encounter in peaceful situations. Because ALP classes are for teenagers and
young adults, you may have learners in your class affected by traumatic events that
have them caused physical and emotional suffering. ALP teachers need to know the
background of each of their students, recognise potential problems, and know how to
help solve these problems. Following are some categories of learners who may need
special attention from teachers:

a. traumatised youth: During the war youths may have been abducted causing
them to suffer both mistreatment and separation from their families leading to physi-
cal and emotional problems. Girls may have been forced to marry and they may
have returned home with a baby or with the stigma of being “bad”.
It’s important to welcome traumatised youth into your ALP class and encour-
age other learners to accept them as peers. It may be necessary to discuss the
learner’s situation with the class so they accept him/her in a friendly and sympathetic
way.

b. demobilized soldiers: There may be young men in the class who were soldiers.
They may feel older and more experienced than the other learners and have prob-
lems fitting into the class. They may also feel it’s alright to use violence to settle con-
flicts.
The teacher and other learners should be friendly and sympathetic to demobi-
lized soldiers. The teacher should allow the learner to feel older and more expe-
rienced. The teacher may give him special duties in the class so that he may take a

60
leadership role. If he feels the need to use violence the teacher and head teacher
should meet with him to discuss the problem.

c. children without parents: The war resulted in children living apart from their par-
ents and families and being orphaned when their parents died. In some areas NGOs
and other organisations help children without parents. In school, the teacher should
act as a parent, giving them extra affection and attention so they feel the support of
an older person.

d. young mothers: Because of the war girls are becoming pregnant and having ba-
bies at a younger age. These girls may be forced to drop out of school by their par-
ents or because of community norms. One of the objectives of ALP is to ensure that
young mothers are able to continue their educations, so ALP teachers should advo-
cate for education for young mothers in their communities. Following are points to
consider:
 teach all learners about HIV/AIDS and other negative effects of early sexual
activity
 advocate education for young mothers by explaining that families with edu-
cated mothers have healthier children.
 encourage the girls’ mothers and other family members to care for the child-
ren while they are studying
 allow girls to bring babies to class and give them a place to be with their ba-
bies during breaks
 teach young mothers about proper nutrition and other health matters.

Problem Solving
It’s important for everyone to learn to deal constructively with problems in life. ALP
learners may require more attention than those in formal or mainstream education
because of their background. For example, demobilized child soldiers are brought up
in a war environment full of military ideology and war-oriented attitudes. Learners
who have never been to school before may perceive the school environment diffe-
rently from those who are familiar with school.
Helping learners solve problems may require support from the school admin-
istration, and the PTA can be involved in cases that involve a large number of stu-
dents. Parents may be contacted and involved when learners have personal prob-
lems.
Some community practices can have negative effects on ALP learners. Wom-
en are usually more affected by these practices than men. It’s important for ALP
teachers to understand community practices, values, and myths and be an advocate
for gender equity and child protection.

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Emotions, Stress, and Anxiety
Emotions are internal feelings that are experienced by everyone. Emotions include
fear, excitement, love, affection, anger, and shyness. People exhibit emotions diffe-
rently depending on their personality and circumstances. If you see your learners
acting moody or having conflicts with others you should take steps to help them
overcome emotional problems so they are able to succeed in school.

Stress
Stress refers to a change that exerts pressure on physical or mental energy. People
feel stress when they are in a situation they cannot cope with and which makes them
feel powerless. If the stress-causing problems are not relieved the person may feel
anxiety and tension. A person who is affected negatively by stress may exhibit be-
haviour that can be noticed by other people, or they may hide (or “internalise”) their
anxiety so that it isn’t noticeable.

Causes of stress and anxiety

There are many reasons why ALP learners may feel stress and anxiety. The follow-
ing are some common causes:
 a desire to be liked by others of the same age
 disagreements/arguments with family members or friends
 problems between men and women
 physical violence
 ethnic problems, religious or cultural bias
 Illness
 having nothing to do and no income
 pressure at work or school, poor performance in school

Signs of Stress
If you notice the following signs in your students they may be suffering from stress
and anxiety:
 inability to concentrate, forgetfulness, poor study habits
 poor attendance at school
 disillusionment, depression, and a tendency to live in isolation. The person
may begin to lead an isolated life and avoid other people
 physical ailments such as pains in the stomach, poor sleep, and headaches
 disruptive behavior, outbursts of anger, violent behavior
 drinking or drug problems

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 Stress may affect other family members, and younger siblings may copy the
behaviour. There may be a disruption of learning, for example, a student may run
away from home, a girl may become pregnant, or in extreme cases a person may
commit suicide.

Handling Stress in Students

Learn to recognise stress in learners. If you see a learner showing symptoms of
stress, have a talk with him or her to find the source of the problem. Counsel the
learner on ways to overcome stress. By being close and friendly to the learner you
can help him or her to cultivate a positive mental attitude.
Encourage learners to:
 Discuss matters openly with family members, friends and teachers at school.
If people discuss their problems, they feel usually happier.
 Learn to listen to advice from other people.
 Learn to face life’s problems courageously.
 Engage in physical exercise. Sports and other physical activity will improve a
person’s mental outlook.
 Avoid the company of substance abusers.

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 Section E

Teaching Girls and Young Women

Education is a Right
Education is a basic human right. In South Sudan there is a special need to emphas-
ize the importance of education for girls and women. When girls and women are
educated both families and communities will benefit, and the girls and women will
feel that they are able to contribute to their families and communities by living and
working at their full potential.
Because girls are treated differently from boys in many communities it may be
necessary to give girls special help to enter school, and once they are in school they
may need special help in the classroom.

Harmful Social Customs

Many girls require extra attention in class because social customs have left them
more vulnerable and less confident than boys. These customs include:
 early and forced marriage
 having babies at a young age
 older girls may be ashamed of their lack of formal education
 girls are considered as family wealth and may not be allowed to become
educated
 it’s not considered important to educate someone who will live with another
family after they marry
 schools may be unsafe for girls

Points for Teachers

Teachers need to encourage girls to take part in activities on an equal basis with
boys. If a girl is to reach her full potential she needs a lot of support, help and encou-
ragement. Following are some suggestions for teaching girls.

1. Encourage girls and make them feel secure: Be friendly to girls in your class
and help them solve problems they might have. Talk to them about their work and

64
 interests. Encourage girls to answer questions and express their ideas and opi-
nions. Support girls’ efforts in all subjects, but especially in mathematics and
science where boys are considered better. Don’t assume that because a girl isn’t
vocal in class she doesn’t know the answer or understand the material.

2. Encourage girls to help each other: Encourage girls to help each other both
inside and outside the classroom. One way of doing this is to have the girls form
their own working groups to do homework after class.

3. Place girls in the correct classes: Be sure the girls (and all learners) are placed
at the correct level. If girls are placed in classes that are too difficult for them they
won’t perform well and may drop out.

4. Plan activities at the girls’ level: Make sure that class activities are at the prop-
er level for all the girls. If the activities are too difficult it will make them feel less
confident and this may affect their success at education, for example, don’t call
on a girl with a question that is too difficult for her to answer.

5. Encourage equal participation in class: Allow girls and boys to participate

equally in all classroom activities. For example, when asking questions have girls
and boys respond an equal number of times.

6. Put girls in groups: Put girls together when doing group work so they have a
chance to take leadership roles. When you see that a certain girl is strong
enough to work with boys, put her together with boys, but watch to make sure the
boys allow her a voice in the group. It will benefit boys to learn to work equally
with girls and to have girls as leaders.

7. Support girls’ careers: Encourage equal aspirations for girls and boys. Don’t
discourage girls from becoming doctors, engineers, lawyers, business persons,
or other professions traditionally considered men’s work. Use examples of suc-
cessful women at the district, county, and international level.

8. Make lessons practical: Find out what girls would like to do after they complete
the ALP course and give them lessons that teach practical skills for the future.
Remind them that whatever occupation they choose skills and knowledge they
learn in school, like Mathematics and Science, will be important.

9. Practise gender equity: Never make it seem as if one gender is better, more
valuable, or more active than the other. Encourage boys and girls (and men and
women) to respect each other.

10. Meet with girls’ parents and families: Meet with parents on a regular basis to
report on the progress of their children. If a student drops out of the ALP class,
visit the family to find out why, and find out if you, the supervisors or the commu-
nity can provide support to encourage the learner to return.

65
11. Be a good role model: Remember that you, the teacher, are viewed as a role
model and that whatever you say and do will have an impact on the behavior of
your students.

12. Practise non-violence: Never be violent or abusive to learners and advocate

strongly against violence to women.

66
 Section F

Discipline

What is Discipline?
Discipline refers to controlling behavior so it conforms to outside rules or a personal
code. In schools it refers to controlling behavior so that there is a good teaching and
learning environment. Teachers have different ideas of what good discipline is.
Some teachers demand absolute silence from their learners and feel that their class-
room discipline is good if the learners don’t say anything. Other teachers prefer an
informal atmosphere where the learners are free to talk, and will use strong meas-
ures only if the learners aren’t using good judgment and are arguing or causing prob-
lems with each other.

Methods of Discipline
Discipline happens in two ways, one external and the other internal:
a. obedience: This refers to following external rules and doing what other people
say.
b. self-control: This refers to being disciplined in one’s own mind. Here a person
understands the reasons for correct conduct and discipline themselves because of
the benefit they feel they will receive.

Parents and teachers use both approaches with children, but as people be-
come older and begin to take responsibility for their own lives the second (self-
control) becomes more important. For this reason ALP students should learn to
make their own decisions about their things they say and do rather than depending
on outside authority to maintain discipline.

Solving Disciplinary Problems

All teachers know that they will eventually have to face discipline problems when
teaching children and adolescents. In general there are two ways to approach discip-
line problems:

67
1. talking about the problem: Here the parent or teacher talks about the offence
with the child or learner, making him/her understand why the offence was wrong.
The objective is that, through understanding, the child or learner will be less likely to
repeat the behavior. In this method you don’t shout or insult the child or learner. In-
stead, you talk in a calm, reasonable voice. When problems within a group, the par-
ent or teacher acts as a mediator and tries to reconcile the problem with the whole
group.
Following are points for using discussion as a means of discipline:
1. Discuss the infraction with the learner. Find the reasons why he/she broke the
rule.
2. Counsel the learner. Discuss the importance of making and following rules.
3. Discuss the problem with the learner’s parents or other family members.
4. If a learner or learners think a rule is unfair, have a discussion about it.
5. Have the learner apologise to a person or people he/she has offended.
6. Have the learner talk to others who have had the same problem and who have
resolved it.

2. punishment: To punish means to cause suffering for an offence. Punishment can

be both psychological and physical (corporal). Punishment makes the person follow
the correct behavior because of fear, not because of understanding.
Punishment of children is practiced all over the world according to local cul-
tural values. In schools in some countries learners are punished for giving wrong an-
swers, failing examinations, and coming late. In some places caning (or beating stu-
dents) is thought to be the best and most efficient way to correct wrong behavior.
However, caning and other kinds of physical punishment have negative effects in-
cluding:
 physical injury
 demoralization; not wanting to attend school
 resentment towards the teacher because of the humiliation caused, leading
to the desire for revenge
 more aggressive behavior and rebellion leading to increased discipline prob-
lems
 low self-esteem because of shame and feelings of inferiority to other learn-
ers
 the teacher setting a poor example because critical thinking and personal
judgment are needed for personal development
 the teacher being a poor role model for the learners. Teachers should prac-
tise the values of Peace Education and always interact in a non-violent way

When you hit or beat children you are showing them that it is alright to hit or
beat others. When you slap them, pinch them, or twist their ears you are teaching
them that violence and anger are good ways to react to problems. When you beat

68
them you are telling them that they are failures and that they do not deserve your re-
spect.

Alternative Punishment
Following are ways to punish learners that are alternatives to physical punishment.
1. Have the learner go outside for a short period of time and sit in a vacant room or
under a tree.
2. If something was damaged have the learner repair it.
3. In very serious cases suspend or expel the learner from school.

Some people recommend giving learners extra homework or having them clean the
school as punishment. However, homework and keeping places clean should be
seen by the learners as positive activities and using them as punishment could give
learners a negative attitude toward them.

Learning from Mistakes

One effect of harsh punishment on children and young people is that they learn to
avoid taking responsibility for their mistakes, sometimes blaming others for things
they’ve done. In this way, harsh punishment causes people to lie and leads to mi-
sunderstandings and conflict. To avoid this, ALP teachers should focus on the follow-
ing attitudes and behaviors when learners make mistakes:

 you can learn from your mistakes: Teach the learners that mistakes can ac-
tually be beneficial because they make you analyze your mistakes and form
strategies to avoid making the same mistakes in the future.

 accept that you’ve made a mistake: ALP learners should understand that mak-
ing mistakes is part of being human. Everybody makes mistakes and we should
use them as a chance to learn, not as an excuse to punish someone. Be sure
you teach your class not to tease or make comments about learners who have
made mistakes.

 don’t repeat your mistakes: It’s better to discuss mistakes with learners and
have them agree not to make the mistake again than to punish them. If they re-
peat the problem you can then start to consider punishment as a way to correct
the behavior.

Learners Cheating on Exams

Learners know that they shouldn’t cheat on tests and exams, but the temptation is
great because everyone wants a high score. There are some things teachers can do
to minimize cheating on tests and exams.

69
  Watch the students at all times while they’re taking the test. On important
tests have two or three teachers watching the learners.
 Have the students sit far enough apart so they can’t see each other’s an-
swers.
 Put the learners in several different classrooms with a teacher watching each
group.
 Have learners sit outside, isolated from each other.
 Don’t allow students to talk to each other.
 Don’t allow learners to have any books or notes.

Truancy: Staying Away from School

When learners stay away from school without a reason it’s called as “truancy”. There
are many reasons why learners become truant including:
 They may not like some aspects of school life: a particular subject, a teacher
or another pupil.
 They may not be performing well and don’t want to feel embarrassed in front
of other learners.
 They may be bored with the lessons or feel they have no value to his/her life.
 They may be misled by friends who are not in school.
 They may be working, married, or have other family responsibilities.

How to reduce truancy

It’s important to talk to a truant learner and find the reasons why he/she isn’t coming
to school. You may be able to discuss the reasons with the learner or the family and
find a way for the learner to return to school. If truancy is caused by poor perfor-
mance you may try putting the learner in a lower level class or giving the learner ex-
tra help. If the learner is bored he/she might do better in a higher-level class. Try to
encourage the learner by reminding him/her of the advantages of being educated.

70
 Section G

Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment and evaluation are processes that are done to measure and describe
the progress of the learners and the success of the teachers and school. In assess-
ment the teacher measures the quality of the learners’ performance using tests and
observation. In evaluation the information collected from assessment is used to re-
flect on and describe the learners’ and teacher’s performance.

Types of Assessment
There are two kinds of assessment that are important in ALP classes:

1. On-going assessment: This refers to making observations on a continual basis

to find out what learners know, understand, and are able to do. This generally in-
volves observing learners throughout the lesson and giving a short assessment at
the end of the lesson. On-going assessment helps teachers to:
 Find out whether instructional objectives have been achieved
 Keep track of each learner’s progress
 Work immediately with those who haven’t mastered the knowledge and skills,
including assigning homework.
 Find out if teaching has been effective and plan an effective lesson for the fol-
lowing day
 Identify strengths and weaknesses of individuals to determine the needs of
each learner so that all learners have the opportunity to succeed in school.

2. Summative assessment: This refers to formal assessment at the end of a given

period of time, such as examinations at the end of a term or school year. Summative
assessment helps teachers and schools to:
 Evaluate the learner’s overall progress
 Determine whether overall objectives have been achieved
 Determine promotion to the next class or to higher learning institutions
 Evaluate the educational capacity of the teachers and school

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  Plan strategies for improvements to the ALP course.

Evaluation
Evaluation refers to making a judgment based on information gathered during as-
sessment. In schools, evaluation enables teachers to evaluate both the work of the
learners and their own work.
For example, you may find that majority of learners have scored 55% or
above on a formal examination so your evaluation states that the learners have
made good progress and that your teaching has been effective. On the other hand, if
a large number of learners have scored below 50%, your evaluation may include
recommendations to improve the teaching, placement of learners in the class, and
the study skills of the learners. Thus you are using evaluation to plan improvements
in your future work.

Methods of On-going Assessment

On-going assessment occurs daily in the classroom. Following are common methods
of on-going assessment:

written: Write a question or problem on the blackboard and have the learners an-
swer it individually.

oral: Ask each learner a question about the lesson.

observation: Observe learners individually in class and keep notes on their

progress.

homework and other assignments: Teachers should check homework and record
marks in a record book.

projects: Have individuals or groups do projects either in class or outside the

school. Assess their work stage-by-stage and as a finished project.

Summative Examinations
Summative evaluation involves written exams at the end of a term or other set period
of time. Oral tests may also be given in some subjects, especially English. Teachers
should develop tests for each subject based on the learning outcomes and content
for the period the test covers. Following are important points:
a) The test should be at the right level for the learners.
b) It should cover material (objectives) that the learners have already studied.
c) The test shouldn’t be too long or too short; an hour is the usual length of time.

72
d) There should be several types of questions on the test, including multiple choice,
short answer and essay questions (where the learners write on a topic).
e) The test should be fair. The learners should know what material the test will cov-
er. Don’t ask questions that only a few learners can answer.
f) Instructions should be clear so that learners don’t fail because they misunders-
tood the questions.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS USED IN ASSESSMENT

Following are types of questions used in assessment. For on-going assessment
write one or two questions on the blackboard at the end of the teaching period to
check if the learners have understood what you’ve taught. For examinations a larger
list of questions is given to the learners in a formal setting.

Type 1: Questions: Write the answer to a question or work out a Math problem.
How many brothers and sisters do you have?
What are some crops grown in your area?

Type 2: Write on a Topic: Learners write sentences or a paragraph on a topic de-

pending on their level.
Write three sentences about yourself.
Write about the wild animals in your area.

Type 3: Write Sentences using Vocabulary: Write several words on the black-
board and have the learners write any sentence they like using the words.
behind
in front of
inside

Type 4: Fill-in the-blank (A): Choose the correct word from several given.

________________ you ever driven a car?

(Do / Did / Have)

Chad is __________________ of Sudan.

east/west/north/south

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Type 5: Fill-in the-blank (B): Write one word from the list in each blank.
am is are
a. My sister ____________ a teacher at this school now.
b. I _________ happy to see you.
c. The pupils _______________ happy to come to school.

Type 6: Fill-in-the-Blank (C): In this type no words are given to choose from. The
learner must supply the word.
Yesterday I saw John but I didn’t _________ Mary.
Foods that have vitamin C are _____________ and ______________.
Malaria is transmitted by the _________________ mosquito.

Type 7: Supply the Letter: This is for spelling and vocabulary study. Write words
the learners have studied but leave out some of the letters. The learners have to
supply the correct letters.
b __ n __ n __
fr __ __ t
__ e __ e __ abl __ s

Type 8: True/False: Write a statement and the learners say whether the statement
is true or false.
Giraffes are carnivorous. true false
Humans are carnivorous. true false

Type 9: Sentence completion: Learners may write anything they like to complete
the sentences. The examples are for English and Science.
Yesterday I came to school but I didn’t ____________________________
We bought everything we need except ______________________________
Soil is made up of ____________________________
The planet nearest the sun is ________________________

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Type 10: Matching Words: Match the words from two columns. (opposites, related
words)

Match the animal with the type of food it eats.

1. cow a. meat
2. lion b. fruit and insects
3. weaver bird c. grass

Type 11: Odd One Out: Find the word that doesn’t fit with the others. Differences
may be in category, or in grammar (for English).
1. cow goat lion donkey
(“lion” is out because it’s a wild animal and also a carnivore)

2. France Uganda Kenya Nigeria

(“France” is out because it’s in Europe, the other countries are in Africa)

3. come ate go buy

(“Ate” is out because it’s the past tense form, others are present tense.)

Type 12: Transforming Sentences (for grammar): Change sentences from affir-
mative to negative, from statements to questions, from present to past, etc.

EXAMPLE: Change these sentences to the negative.

I live near the school. I don’t live near the school.

a. The classroom is clean. _______________________________________

b. I like swimming. _______________________________________

c. She bought a pen. _______________________________________

Type 13: Teacher gives Definition/Learners write Word: The teacher says a defi-
nition for a word the learners have studied. The learners write the word in their exer-
cise books.
Teacher: the biggest river in South Sudan
Learners write: the Nile River

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Type 14: Using Pictures: There are three types of assessment activities that in-
volve learners looking at pictures and either identifying or talking about things in the
pictures. Use pictures from books, flashcards or that you’ve found or drawn yourself.
a) learner describes what’s in a picture: The teacher shows a picture to a learner
and he/she describes what’s in the picture using words or sentences. The teach-
er may also ask questions about the picture.
b) teacher shows a picture/learners write: The teacher shows the learners a pic-
ture and they write what they see (without speaking).
c) teacher says a word/learners point to picture: Learners look at pictures of dif-
ferent objects. The teacher says a word and the learners point to the correct pic-
ture.

Type 15: Labeling a Picture or Diagram: Draw a picture or diagram on the board
that the learners have already studied. The learners draw the picture in their exercise
books and label it. You can put lines on your drawing to show which parts should be
labeled.

Type 16: Reading with Comprehension Questions: The learners read a para-
graph and write the answers to questions.

Anaemia – Anaemia is a common health problem. If you feel tired and weak
you may have anaemia, but it can be corrected by eating the proper foods.
Anaemia is caused by a lack of iron in the diet. Iron is needed by red blood
cells which carry oxygen around the body. If you think you have this problem
you should eat foods that have iron such as meat, liver, beans, eggs, and
green vegetables.

a. How do you feel if you have anaemia?

b. If you have anaemia what nutrient is lacking in your body?

c. What function does iron have in the body?
d. If you think someone has anaemia what would you tell them to do?

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 Section H

Lesson Plans

Before teaching any class the teacher should write a lesson plan. Teachers should
never stand in front of a class without first planning what they’re going to do. A les-
son plan contains the objectives of the lesson and the steps the lesson will follow
along with additional information such as time of the lesson, number of learners, etc.
There are three main reasons why we make lesson plans:
1. To give the teacher a chance to think in advance about the objectives and con-
tent of the lesson and to formulate a logical sequence of activities that will meet
the objectives.
2. To guide the teacher during the lesson. Teachers often consult their lesson plans
during the class to remind themselves of the content and steps of the lesson.
3. To have a record of what was taught each day.

Objectives/Outcomes
The first thing to think about when you’re planning a lesson is the objective. The ob-
jective states what the students will know or be able to do at the end of the lesson.
Because objectives refer to the results at the end of the lesson, they are often called
“outcomes”.
The most common way to write objectives is to use a verb that states what the
learners will be able to do at the end of the lesson. Following are examples of objec-
tives for the four ALP subjects:

English:
Learners will be able to ask and answer questions about their families.
Learners will be able to use the past tense form of “eat”, “buy”, “go” and “have” in
sentences.

Math:
Learners will be able to add two digit numbers with carrying.
Learners will be able to draw circles, squares, triangles, and rectangles.

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Science:
Learners will be able to describe ways to increase crop yields.

Social Studies:
Learners will be able to state the names of their own county and the counties sur-
rounding it.

The following criteria describe good objectives:

Criteria for Objectives

Effective Objectives
 are specific
 are measurable
 are focused on the student
 emphasize results and outcomes, not means and
techniques

Verbs used in Objectives

Following are some of the verbs commonly used in objectives:
(Learners will be able to…)

act complete fill out a form make sing

add differentiate give examples match solve

answer demonstrate give reasons name state

ask and answer describe illustrate plan use

choose draw label point to write

compare explain list read write answers

Parts of a Lesson Plan

The two parts of a lesson plan are:
a) preliminary information, including the objective
b) steps of the lesson

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Preliminary Information: First, write the following information at the top of the les-
son plan. This includes the topic and objective of the lesson.

Date Class Subject Time No. of Learners

Topic: Sub-topic: Methods: Teaching/Learning Aids:

Objective: References: Content:

Steps of the Lesson

Next, write the steps you will follow as you teach the lesson. Most hour-long lessons
have three to five separate steps. Lessons don’t always follow these steps, but in-
clude some or all of them depending on the content and objectives:

1. Revision: If you’re continuing from a previous lesson, ask questions or have a

short discussion about the material the learners have previously studied to revise
it. Revision may include problems, exercises, or talking about a picture or dia-
gram from the previous lesson.

2. Introduction: This is a short activity that will lead into the main content of the
lesson. Try to think of something that will spark the learners’ interest: a question,
a drawing, or an object to start a short discussion.

3. Presenting New Material: Here the learners study the new material of the les-
son. When presenting new material It’s important not to talk too much. It’s better
to ask the learners questions and to let them explain any information they already
know on the topic. A good rule is to explain something yourself only when there’s
no student in the class who can. Teachers should get to know their learners well
enough to understand what kinds of things they know and don’t know on the sub-
jects you’re teaching them. Never explain things they already know! Following are
some ways to introduce new material:
a) lecture: Here the teacher explains the new information. There are several
negative points about lectures: the learners don’t participate and they may
not even be listening. If you give a lecture to the learners be sure to keep it
short, and ask questions as you’re giving the lecture so that the learners can
participate.
b) brainstorm: Ask for vocabulary or ideas about the topic and write them on
the blackboard. This will build interest in the topic and help bring out impor-
tant vocabulary and ideas. Brainstorms are explained under “General Teach-
ing Techniques”.

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 c) discussion: Talk with the learners about the topic before giving them new
information. This is especially good because you can find out what the
learners already know about the topic. Discussions are also explained under
“General Teaching Techniques”.
d) group/pair work: Put learners in groups or pairs and have them plan a
presentation on the topic. This is more learner-centered than a lecture.

4. Other Steps/Practise: Here the learners are working on the new information. In
English they may be reading or speaking, in Maths they may be doing problems,
and in Science they may be reading and discussing the text, exploring nature or
doing an experiment, and in Social Studies they may be reading and discussing
the information in the textbook.

5. Assessment and Evaluation: At the end of the lesson the teacher should as-
sess the students’ learning and determine whether or not the objective has been
reached. In Maths you may give everyone a single problem to do. In English they
may write sentences or answer questions on the topic, and in Science and Social
studies they may answer questions about the material learned.

6. Conclusion/Summary: Here the teacher summarizes the lesson with a short

discussion or other activity.

Lesson Plan Form with Teacher/Learner Activities

Following is a standard lesson plan form developed for the ALP program. On this
form the teacher writes both the activities that the teacher and the learner are doing
for each step. This is done to encourage learner participation and learner-centered
activities.

Teacher Activities Learner Activities

Step
(What the teacher will do.) (What the learners will do.)

1. Revision

2. Introduction

3. Presentation

4. Other Steps/
Practise

5. Assessment

6. Conclusion

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Guide to Lesson Planning
When preparing a lesson plan it’s helpful to ask yourself questions about each step.
Read these questions and use them when planning your lessons.

Preliminary Questions  What class am I planning for?

Ask yourself these questions  What subject am I teaching?
as you start planning:  What skills/concepts will be covered?
 How long will it take to finish the topic? One pe-
riod? two periods? a week?
Objectives  What will the learners be able to do after the
By the end of the lesson the lesson?
learners will be able to:  What behavioral changes will the learners show
a) after learning?
b)
Teaching/Learning Aids  What materials do I need for the lesson?
a)
b)
Chalkboard  What important points shall I write on the chalk-
board?

Steps:
Review  Does the new topic continue from previously
taught material?
 How shall I review the previously taught material
to refresh their knowledge and skills and to lead
into the new material?
Introduction How shall I start the lesson in order to:
 Get and hold the learners’ attention?
 Arouse the learners’ interest?
 Link the start with new work?
 Reveal the scope of the lesson?
Presentation/Other Steps  What ideas will be covered in the lesson?
1……………………………  What skills will be mastered during the lesson?
 What activities will the teacher and learners per-
2…………………………… form?
 Where and when shall I use teaching/learning
3 ………………………….. aids?
 In what order will the ideas be covered?
Assessment  How can I assess whether the learners have
met the objectives of the lesson?
 What questions shall I ask to find out if specific
objectives have been achieved?
 What activities should the learners perform to
reveal mastery?
Conclusion  How shall I end the lesson?
 What important ideas should I repeat to sum up
the lesson?

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 Section I

The Scheme of Work

In addition to lesson plans, schools also require teachers to make a Scheme of Work
before each school term. A scheme of work is a plan of topics the teacher will teach
a particular class, written using the textbook, syllabus, and teacher’s guide. To write
the scheme of work, the teacher will need to divide the topics into sub-topics accord-
ing to the number of periods on the timetable for the subject per week, month and
term.
The scheme of work includes objectives, teaching methods and techniques,
and reference pages in the textbook and syllabus. It should cover a whole term’s
work. The scheme of work is important for the following reasons:
1. It helps the teacher prepare lesson plans.
2. It guides teaching and learning activities.
3. It helps the teacher prepare teaching and learning materials in advance.
4. It allows for a smooth handover if another teacher takes over the class.
5. It helps during the evaluation of the teacher’s work.
6. It reminds the teacher of what has been taught and learnt.

Example: Scheme of Work For English Level 1

Week Date Topic Sub-topics Objectives Methods/ References

Techniques

3 2 April Unit 5: classroom The learner  Point and ALP English

to 6 Things commands: should be say (pictures and level 1,
April we do at verbs and able to words) page 27
school phrases match words  Give com-
and actions mands, learners
for verbs and respond.
commands.  Learners
give each other
commands.
 Dictation of
commands.

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1. week and date: This is where the teacher writes the term’s week number and
the dates of the teaching week.
2. topic and sub-topic: This is the main topic divided into teachable units. The
number of units should correspond with the number of periods the subject will be
taught during the week.

3. objectives: Write the outcomes of the lesson.

4. methods/techniques: This includes the methods and techniques used when

teaching.

5. references: This includes the textbook pages and other sources of information
you will use while teaching.

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 Section J

Record Keeping

Types of records
ALP schools require the following records:

a) Attendance record: a daily record of attendance is kept for both learners and
teachers

b) On-going test marks: a chart for scores of tests given per subject throughout a
term

c) Written observation: a notebook for written assessment for each learner. This
includes notes on participation and attitude towards learning. Special attention
should be given to improvement throughout the term.

d) Syllabus covered: lesson plans and a scheme of work that show which points
of the syllabus were covered during the term.

e) Summative examinations: a record of end-of-term exam results are kept by

class.

Reasons for Keeping Records

Records are needed for the learners, school, and educational system.

 for learners: They provide a record of work through a term, year, or course.
These records provide information for certification, for institutions of higher edu-
cation, and for employers. They also keep the learner informed of his/her
achievement.

 for teachers: Records of lesson plans and schemes of work provide information
on what was taught each day. Attendance records of teachers are used by head
teachers and supervisors to evaluate the teacher’s performance.

84
 for the school: Records also show the teachers’ and school’s achievement in
educating learners. For example, if the scores in a class are all below average it
may mean that the teacher requires additional training.

 for the educational system: County, state, and national offices of education
require records from each school on a yearly basis.

On-going Assessment: Chart for Tests Results

Short tests should be given in each subject whenever a unit is completed, with the
results recorded on a chart and averaged at the end of the term.

Subject: Math
Name Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Average

Mary 80 82 92 100 88 94 89.3

Mading 48 45 65 54 35 40 47.8

Nadi 62 78 68 72 65 78 70.5

Rebecca 90 100 98 96 100 96 96.6

Sarah 92 86 94 82 76 88 86.3

Summative Assessment: End of Term Examination Mark Sheet

A single record is required for end-of-term examinations. The subject averages will
give an idea of the teacher’s accomplishments in teaching each subject.

Class position: A common debate is whether to include learners’ class position in

the results. In formal education it is usually included on the chart, and every learner
is informed of his/her position in the class. However, ALP classes follow a learner-
centered approach that focuses on the individual, with special emphasis on girls and
special groups, so comparing learners with each other might cause vulnerable
groups to feel less successful than other learners. This may affect their confidence
and cause them to drop out of school. In ALP classes it’s probably more important to
emphasize each learner’s individual progress throughout the term than to compare
learners with each other.

85
Term 2 (Position
Class 3 English Maths Science Social Learners ???????)
Studies Average

Lupai 72 78 65 66 70.2 4

Rebecca 80 82 90 85 84.2 1

Esther 75 65 68 60 67.4 5

Ladu 60 35 52 36 45.8 6

Mary 85 80 92 72 82.2 2

John 80 75 88 70 78.2 3

Subject
Average 75.3 69.1 75.8 64.8

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 UNIT 5

BASIC TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Section A

Teaching and Learning Aids

Teaching aids/learning aids are pictures or objects that facilitate teaching. By defini-
tion, teaching aids are used by the teacher while learning aids are used by the learn-
er, but in practice classroom pictures and objects are used in various activities by
both the teacher and the learner. Teaching/learning aids are important for the follow-
ing reasons:
 They make lessons more interesting.
 The students can learn by doing.
 They are useful for illustrating examples and meanings.
 They help learners remember vocabulary and ideas.
 They can be used to stimulate discussion and critical thinking.
 They allow learners to use all of their senses in their learning process.

Many kinds of teaching aids are used in ALP classes and it’s important for
teachers to understand how to use them effectively. The following teaching aids are
explained in this section:
1. Flashcards
2. Chalkboard
3. Pictures/Drawings/Diagrams

87
 4. Objects
5. Charts and Maps
6. Nature Table
7. Bulletin Board

1. Flashcards
These are large cards with pictures, words, sentences, or Math problems written on
them. Flashcards should be large enough for the whole class to see. They’re used in
many ways in classrooms.

a) Quick drill: This is for practising or drilling letters, vocabulary, or Math sums af-
ter the topic has been introduced to the class. Use a set of flashcards for the top-
ic you’re teaching, for example letters of the alphabet, pictures of food, names of
the months, and multiplication sums for 5. The teacher shows each card quickly
to the learners and the whole class calls out the letter, word, or answer. You can
also drill individual learners one at a time, showing each learner a different flash-
card. This activity can be repeated daily to practice the alphabet, etc.

b) Pair/group work: Put learners in pairs or groups and give each some of the
cards. They drill each other with the cards, taking turns being the “teacher”.

c) Learner takes a flashcard: Pass out the flashcards to the class, giving them to
individual learners, pairs, or groups. Have the learners do a short activity with the
flashcard, for example, make a sentence with the word on the card.

d) Point to the correct flashcard: Put all the cards on the table or on the floor with
the learners standing around them. The teacher or a learner names the letter,
word, or picture on one of the cards and the learners point to the card. This activ-
ity practises listening comprehension.

2. Chalkboard/Blackboard
The chalkboard is the main teaching aid in the classroom. An important point about
using a chalkboard is that all the learners should be able to see it. Some of your stu-
dents may have eyesight problems, so at the beginning of a term try to identify them
and let them sit nearer the chalkboard. Other points about using the chalkboard:.
 Be sure your handwriting is clear and legible, written in straight lines, and with
equal spacing between words.
 Be sure your writing and drawings are big enough for every learner to see.
 All teachers should be able to draw simple pictures on the blackboard. Practice
drawing people, houses, trees, animals, etc. These drawings can be used in
many ways.

88
 Use a top corner of the chalkboard for the date, and change it daily. Encourage
learners to date their work.
 Don’t write on the board with dark coloured chalk because it’s difficult to read.

As you teach a lesson, plan ahead where you will write different kinds of information.
For example, in this lesson the blackboard is divided into three sections:

(vocabulary) (lesson summary) (illustration)

temperate Types of Forest

tropical
1. Tropical evergreen
hard-soft 2. Temperate deciduous
3. Coniferous

3. Pictures/Drawings/Diagrams
Try to have a picture, drawing, or diagram for every new topic. Most topics in the
textbooks include an illustration or diagram, but it’s also good for the teacher to draw
illustrations on paper or on the blackboard to make the lessons more interesting. If
you can’t draw well find a learner or another teacher who can help you.
Use illustrations to elicit discussion. For example these general questions can
be asked about a picture:
What do you see in the picture?
Can you name everything in the picture?
How many _______ are there?
What are the people doing?
What’s happening in the picture?
How do you think this person feels?
Why do you think he/she feels that way?
Here are other suggestions for using illustrations:
 Have learners make sentences about the picture while you write them on the
blackboard.
 Have learners sit in pairs or groups. Have each pair or group write their own sen-
tences about the picture.
 Have the learners draw a similar picture that illustrates the topic

89
4. Objects
Objects can be brought to class and used with many subjects and topics. Either the
teacher or the learners can find and bring the objects.

 Science: Bring plants, types of soil, and samples of other things the class is
studying.

 Mathematics: Use stones and other small objects for counting and for teaching
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. When studying fractions the
class can cut up paper, oranges, etc or divide up amounts of sand, soil, or water.

 English: Use objects when teaching the names of classroom objects, food,
clothing, kitchen objects, etc. Objects can also be used for props when the
learners are doing a dialogue or role play.

Local materials used as visual aids

5. Charts and Maps

Charts and maps are good to use for teaching and decorating the classroom. Follow-
ing are some charts and maps that are good for a school to have:
 chart of the alphabet, both small and capital letters
 chart of verb forms
 chart of states and capitals of South Sudan
 map of Sudan and South Sudan
 map of Africa
 map of the world
 chart with diagram of the sun and planets
 chart showing parts of plants and trees
 chart showing of parts of a vehicle and engine

90
6. Nature Table
Put a table in a corner of your classroom where interesting things from nature can be
displayed to motivate learners to be interested in nature and to have a better under-
standing of the environment in which they are living. The display may include plants,
leaves, types of seeds, insects, and rock samples. The things on display may be la-
beled and questions with answers may be attached to the objects e.g. What is this?
Where can you find it?

7. Bulletin Board
Put short compositions, stories the learners have written, or pictures they’ve drawn
on a wall or bulletin board in a central location of the school so that other learners
can read them. The writings should be corrected first. Change the writings periodical-
ly.

91
 Section B

Using Mother Tongue in the Classroom

A person’s mother tongue is his or her first language: the language spoken at home
and by the person’s ethnic group or community. In schools in South Sudan the
mother tongue is used at the lower levels. The teacher and learners speak the moth-
er tongue while English is gradually introduced. The amount of English used in-
creases from year to year until the learners can speak, read, and write it fluently.
Learners in ALP classes are older than primary students, but it’s still neces-
sary for teachers and learners to use the mother tongue (or a language spoken by all
the learners in the class) rather than English when studying at level 1, and at other
levels when discussing difficult vocabulary and concepts. This is done for several
reasons:
 Beginning learners in South Sudan usually have little or no understanding of
English, so if the teacher uses English in level 1 the learners will have little or no
understanding of the lessons.
 It’s necessary for learners to develop basic skills such as listening, understand-
ing, and expressing ideas and opinions during their first year. This can only be
done in the mother tongue because learners are unable to understand or ex-
press themselves in English.
 Use of the mother tongue encourages learners’ spontaneous responses during
the learning process. The mother tongue harmonizes the school with the home,
thus making the learning experience more personal.
 Teaching and learning in the mother tongue promotes a positive attitude toward
the language’s development and future.

The Bilingual Classroom

A classroom of this type, where two languages are used simultaneously, is called a
bilingual classroom. It’s a challenge for teachers to manage a bilingual classroom.
Two objectives need to be balanced: the learners should understand the lessons and
they should learn English. An effective bilingual teacher must use both languages
skillfully to meet these objectives.

92
Literacy in the Mother Tongue
When first learning to read it’s helpful, though not absolutely necessary, to gain an
understanding of basic reading concepts through the mother tongue. Teachers may
first teach letter-sound recognition by having learners read words in their mother
tongue. This can help speed up the process of learning the sounds of individual let-
ters and letter combinations and how these sounds combine to make words. Learn-
ers can then put words together in sentences from the mother tongue.
The process of learning to write can also be accelerated using the mother
tongue. Learners identify more with words from their mother tongue than with words
in English, so writing words and sentences in the mother tongue will motivate learn-
ers to develop writing skills more quickly.

Objectives for Mother Tongue:

ALP learners, especially at the lower levels, should master the following skills in the
mother tongue. These objectives are stated as part of Ministry of Education policy.
Using the mother tongue the learner should be able to:
a) express himself/herself orally
b) follow oral instructions
c) understand and tell stories
d) communicate orally with peers, family
members, and other speakers of the
language
e) understand and sing traditional songs
f) understand and play cultural games

The learner should also

a) have sufficient linguistic skills to interpret and translate the idiomatic and poetic
expressions of the culture
b) have adequate knowledge of the language to enable him/her to read and under-
stand cultural symbols correctly
c) develop respect for all mother tongues spoken in the nation, and thus develop
respect for all members of the nation.

93
 Section C

Group and Pair Work

1. GROUP AND PAIR WORK

In group and pair work the students sit together in pairs or in groups of 3, 4, or 5 stu-
dents and work together on a task the teacher has given them. While they’re working
the teacher moves from group to group giving them help. Group and pair work is
good because it helps learners develop critical thinking skills and creativity through
the exchange of ideas required to complete the tasks. It also helps learners develop
skills in working in a cooperative way with other people.
Group and pair work are important activities, and teachers in this program
should do them every day in their classes. Following are some of the benefits of
group and pair work:
a) Learners get to know each other and learn to cooperate and work together.
b) Learners develop and discover ideas with help from each other rather than hav-
ing the teacher tell them. They develop a good attitude towards work and dis-
covery.
c) Students learn to think critically and analyze information through interaction with
each other.
d) Learners develop skills in communication, discussion, negotiation, and debate.
e) Quiet learners participate more than in a teacher-centered environment.
f) Students become involved in their own learning; they become active rather than
passive learners.
g) When students report to the class they gain speaking skills.

Procedure
In group and pair work the students are given an assignment or “task” (a single piece
of work), for example, a question or problem to find an answer to, or something to
write or make that has an outcome they can give to the teacher or report to the class.
Teachers shouldn’t just give groups or pairs a topic to discuss. They should have a
task that requires them to produce something or reach a conclusion

94
Examples of group/pair tasks and activities are:
 Find out about each other’s families. Who has the biggest and smallest family?
Do this while speaking English only.
 Plan a party with a budget for food and entertainment.
 Draw a plan for a garden that has all the food your families need.
 Write a dialogue in which two people are talking while going to the market.
 Write down reasons why you think people become ill.
 Write ideas for making extra money in our community.

While the groups or pairs are working the teacher should go from group to
group, helping them with their task or activity by asking questions or and giving sug-
gestions. When the groups are finished they should report their results to the whole
class. Try to have everyone in the group contribute to the reporting.

Which Learners should Work Together?

Teachers should give some thought to which learners are put together in groups or
pairs. Following are some considerations:
 If you want all the learners to participate, do pair work rather than group work. In
groups some learners may not participate.
 If you put talkative and quiet learners together in a group, the talkative learners
may dominate while the quieter learners remain silent. Try to form groups of
learners who can work together on an equal level.
 If you put a talkative and a quiet learner together in a pair it could help the quiet
learner gain confidence.
 If you put men and women together the women should be strong enough to ac-
tively participate in the group.

95
 Quiet or shy women will probably work better with other women or with men who
are sympathetic to them.
 Sometimes it’s good to form “friendship groups” where you let the learners sit
with their friends.

As the teacher you should know the personality of your students and which
learners will be able to work together constructively. Our learners are older than pri-
mary level learners and will most likely cooperate with each other well in group and
pair work.

96
 Section D

General Teaching Techniques

Six techniques are described in this section:

1. Introducing New Vocabulary
2. Questioning
3. Brainstorm
4. Whole Class Discussion
5. Role Play
6. Debates

1. Introducing New Vocabulary

New vocabulary is introduced in all subjects. There are many ways to introduce new
words, some involving the mother tongue and some only English, but the most im-
portant point is that you should be sure all the learners in the class understand the
meaning of the new words you teach. Use the mother tongue if necessary. It’s better
for them to understand the meaning than to listen to you say things they don’t under-
stand.

How Many New Words?: How many new words do you think you can remember in
one day? The number isn’t high, perhaps five or ten. Because of this you should be
careful not to teach too many new words a day,

The Importance of Review: Most people will agree that it’s easy to forget a new
word if you hear it only once. For this reason, words should be “re-cycled” in the les-
sons. Try to use the same words over and over when you speak to the students. Re-
peating words day after day will help the learners remember them.

Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary

Following are some ways to introduce new words:
a) pictures: Use a picture that illustrates the meaning.

97
b) objects: If the word is the name of a common object, bring it to class and point to
it while you say the word Bring objects to class from home when teaching household
objects.
c) actions: Demonstrate actions for action verbs. Have the learners act out the ac-
tions as they say the word.
d) learners explain in English or Mother Tongue: Let the learners try to explain
the meaning, either in the mother tongue or in English. Ask “Does anyone know the
meaning of this word?” Don’t be afraid to let them use the mother tongue to explain
vocabulary.

f) teacher explains in English or Mother Tongue: Explain the meaning in a simple

way in English or in the Mother Tongue.

e) in context: Have the learners read the word in a sentence and try to guess the
meaning from the rest of the sentence. This is referred to as the meaning of the word
“in context” and is an important reading skill that you should help your learners de-
velop.

Activities to Practice and Revise New Vocabulary

After your class has learned some new words, use these activities to practice or re-
vise the meanings.
a) drill with flashcards: Use flashcards with pictures on the front and the word on
the back. Show a series of cards and have the class say the words.
b) do actions: To practice verbs, the teacher or learners do actions while the class
says the verb.
c) point to picture: Say the word and have the learners point to it in a picture or in
a drawing on the blackboard.
d) say the definition, find the word: Write some words on the board. Say the de-
finition of one of the words and see if the learners can point to the correct word.
e) Say the word, find the definition: Write several definitions on the board. Say
one of the words and have the learners match it with the correct definition.
f) Fill in the Blank: Write a sentence on the board but leave out a word. See if the
learners can put the correct word in the blank.

98
2. Questioning
Questions are used in all classes and subjects. Asking and answering questions is
basic to education and should be one of your main classroom activities. When ask-
ing questions about a certain topic start out with easy questions and move to more
difficult ones. There are four basic types of questions that may be ordered from ea-
siest to most difficult.

a) Yes/no questions: These are answered by “yes” or “no”. Examples are:

Is James here today?
Can you write your name?
Have you ever seen an elephant?
Do you like to play football?

b) Wh- Questions: These begin with a question word: who, what, when, where,
why, how, how many, etc. Use these question to elicit information.
Who knows how to build a house?
What’s the capital of South Africa?
How do you contract ringworm?
Why does it get dark at night?

c) Questions about the learners’ life: The answers to these questions will vary
from learner to learner. They’re good to use because the students can talk about
themselves and compare their experiences, helping the learners become more
interested and involved in learning.
Where does your brother work?
What kind of vegetables do you have in your garden?
When do you use multiplication outside of school?
What kind of trees do you want to plant at your house?

d) Questions to make the learners think: These include “why” questions and
other questions that make the learners think creatively or critically.
Where do you think crocodiles sleep: on land or in the water?
Why do you think animals stay in herds?
Why do boys like to fight?
How old should people be when they get married?
Why do you think people have conflicts?

Using Questions in Class: Questions are good for both speaking and writing. It’s
good to put learners in groups or pairs and have them ask each other questions or
write the answers to questions together. Following are some ideas for using ques-
tions in class:

99
1. Write Answers Individually: Write some questions on the blackboard and have
learners each write the answers on paper. The teacher checks each learner’s
answers. This is a good way to do assessment after teaching a lesson.
2. Ask in Pairs or Pairs: Write a list of questions on the board or use questions
from the textbook. Put the learners in pairs or groups and have them ask each
other the questions. This is good for oral speaking practice.
3. Write Answers in Groups or Pairs: Write some questions on the board and
have the learners discuss them in pairs or groups and write answers for them.
This is good for both discussion and writing, especially if you use difficult ques-
tions that make the learners think.
4. Oral Interview with Teacher: Have an oral interview with the learners. Talk to
each learner individually, asking them a list of questions. You can tell them the
questions first so they have time to study them.

Calling on Learners: Read the questioning techniques in the following table. Decide
which technique you use the most often, ordering the techniques from 1 to 8. Ask
yourself these questions about the techniques:
 Which technique for calling on learners do I most commonly use?
 How does the technique work for me?
 Which techniques encourage participation of all the learners?
 Which techniques could cause the learners to feel embarrassed or ashamed?
 What are the good and bad points of each technique?
 How could I change the way I call on learners to have more participation?

Order of
Techniques for Calling on Learners Frequency
that I use
each
a. Ask a question and wait for the whole class to respond in chorus.

b. Call on a student by name and wait for a response.

c. Call on the first person to raise his/her hand.

d. Call on learners after giving them a few seconds to think.

e. Alternate calling on boys and girls.

f. Call on learners by alphabetical order in the class register.

g. Call on learners by going around the room from desk to desk in order.

h. Learners ask each other questions.

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3. Brainstorm
This is an easy technique that can be used daily in all subjects. The objective is for
the class to think of as many ideas or words on a topic as possible. As the students
say things the teacher writes them in a list on the blackboard. First write a topic on
the blackboard such as:

Things your parents do every day

The learners say things their parents do, and as they say them the teacher writes
them on the board. If they can’t come up with many ideas give them hints and en-
courage them to keep thinking. Keep the brainstorm going until no one has any more
ideas. Don’t let the learners discuss the points or copy them down until the brains-
torm is over. The idea is for everyone to keep thinking.
The theory behind a brainstorm is “Two heads are better than one”, that is,
many people thinking at the same time form a creative atmosphere where new ideas
can emerge.
Brainstorms are good for both introducing new topics and for revision, for ex-
ample, introduce clothing by asking learners to say the names of all the clothes they
can in English. After you’ve studied clothing in English class revise the vocabulary by
having the learners do the brainstorm again.

Rules of Brainstorming: There are definite rules for brainstorms which should be
followed for the best results:
1. Learners think together about one topic and give as many ideas and responses as
possible.
2. The teacher or leader writes them on the blackboard as people say them.
3. All learners participate; no writing is allowed until the brainstorm is finished.
4. Discussion isn’t done during the brainstorm. Wait until you’re finished to discuss
things people have mentioned.

4. Whole-Class Discussion
Here the teacher leads a discussion in which the entire class takes part. The topic is
taken from the subject being taught. In discussions the learners are free to say any-
thing they like, and the teacher uses questions to keep the discussion moving. The
technique is very good for helping learners improve their speaking and critical think-
ing skills. Discussions can be done in the mother tongue for beginning level learners,
and in English for higher-level learners.
It’s good to draw up a list of questions on the topic first. The questions are
used to stimulate thinking. Order the questions from the most easy and basic to

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those that are more difficult and require opinions and critical thinking. Following is a
sample list of questions for a discussion comparing cities and rural areas:
Are we living in a city or a rural area?
Have you lived here all your life?
Has anybody here ever lived in a different place?
Who? Where did you live?
Is that place a city, town, or rural area?
Did you like living there? Why? Why not?
Anyone else?
Do you think you’d rather live in a city or in a rural area?
Why do you say that?
What’s good and bad about the city?
What’s good and bad about living in rural areas?

It’s also good to use the blackboard while you’re doing a discussion, listing the points
in an organized way. Use headings as in this example:

Learners who like the city Learners who like rural areas
Mary Ninwa
Kalo Sarah
John James
Khamisa

or tables:

Good points about the city Bad points about the city

Good points about rural areas Bad points about rural areas

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5. Role Play
In a role play the learners act out a situation without reading a dialogue or script.
The learners speak spontaneously, although they may plan what they want to say
beforehand. Role plays are common for teaching English but they can also be used
with other subjects, especially Social Studies and Life skills where they are used to
explore social issues. Following are some examples of role plays:
 One student is a seller in the market, two other learners are buying food for
dinner. (for English)
 One student is the mother who wants her daughter to get married, the other
student is the daughter who wants to finish school first. (for Life Skills)

Use these steps when doing a role play:

a) Prepare the actors so they understand their roles and situation.
b) Explain to the rest of the class what to watch for in the role play.
c) Observe the role play.
d) Thank the actors and ask them how they feel about the role play.
e) Share and discuss the reactions of the class.
f) Ask the class what they have learned and how the situation relates to their own
lives.

6. Debates
In debates two teams take sides on an issue. Debates are good because they help
develop critical thinking skills. When introducing debates to your class it may be
good to practice with the whole class first, using the mother tongue to elicit points
and reasons on the two sides of the issue. Divide the blackboard into two parts and
write the points for each side as the learners think of them. You could also divide the
class into groups and have them list points and reasons for one side of an different
issue. The final step is to have the class do an oral debate with two teams.

Following are some topics for debates:

 Which is more important: your mother or
your father?
 Which is better: being a teacher or being
a doctor?
 Being a woman is better than being a
man.
 It’s better for women to be educated than uneducated.
 It’s better to have a few children than to have a lot of children.
 Living in a village is better than living in a town.

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 Section E

English for Beginners

Teaching Absolute Beginners

Students who enter ALP with no knowledge of English are called “absolute begin-
ners”. These students have to learn basic English skills from the first three chapters
of the ALP English Level 1 book before they use ALP textbooks in other subjects,
especially textbooks in Science and Social Studies.
Following are the skills and knowledge absolute beginners should attain in the
first few weeks of ALP class. References are to ALP English Book Level 1.
1. Speak Basic Sentences: Say sentences of simple English conversation includ-
ing greetings, “What’s your name?”, etc. (chapter 3) Teach learners to speak the
greetings, etc, only at first without reading or writing.
2. Say Alphabet: Say and understand the alphabet and associated words (chapter
1, page 1)
3. Write Alphabet: Write small and capital letters (page 1)
4. Sounds of Letters: Recognise the sounds of letters, especially consonants
(pages 4 to 11)
5. Read Words: Read and understand individual words (pages 4 to 11)
6. Read sentences: Put words together into sentences (chapter 3)
7. Numbers: Say and understand basic numbers, read numerals (chapter 2)

Teach all Points and Skills Simultaneously

It’s best to teach the above points simultaneously from the first day of class. Each
day, teach some letters of the alphabet, some letter sounds, some numbers, some
writing, and have the learners practise saying greetings and other basic sentences.
Spend only 10 or 20 minutes on each activity.
This is done for the following reasons:

a) To accelerate students’ learning: It’s not possible to remember the entire al-
phabet or numbers from 1 to 20 in one day. Mixing and reviewing many topics

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 per day will help the students remember what they’ve learned which will accele-
rate their learning.

b) The four skills should be taught daily: You should do activities that practise
speaking, reading, writing, and listening every day at all levels.

c) Learners are reading a second language: The students are learning to read a
second language, not their mother tongue, which means they have to learn the
meaning of the words along with the skill of reading. This is why you should start
teaching basic speaking (greetings, questions, etc) from the first day so the stu-
dents already know some English sentences they can then learn to read.

d) The points reinforce each other: The eight points reinforce each other, making
them all easier to learn. Students learn the alphabet along with sounds of letters,
writing the letters, how the letters make words, and how the words go together in
sentences that they can already say.

e) People learn in different ways: People learn languages in different ways.

Some learners base their language learning on speaking and listening and oth-
ers on reading and writing. Therefore, to reach all the learners you should teach
every skill daily.

The Four Language Skills

There are four language skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. Beginners
learn the above topics in all four skill areas, as in these examples:
alphabet: speaking: learners can say the alphabet
listening: learners can recognise a letter when they hear it
reading: learners can read each letter of the alphabet
writing: learners can write each letter of the alphabet

numbers: speaking: learners can say the numbers from 1 to 1000

listening: learners can understand a number someone says
reading: learners can read numbers from 1 to 1000
writing: learners can write numbers from 1 to 1000

words: speaking: learners can say the individual words

listening: learners can understand a word someone says
reading: learners can read words and understand the meaning
writing: learners can write and spell individual words

sentences speaking: learners can express meanings in sentences in English

listening: learners can understand English sentences when spoken
reading: learners can read and understand sentences in English
writing: learners can write sentences in English

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The Steps to Reading
Following are the steps learners take to be able to read English:

1. letters: Students learn to read individual letters of the alphabet. Do this simulta-
neously with the second step.

2. sounds of letters: Students learn the sound associated with each letter. This is
called “letter-sound recognition”. In English it’s best to teach the consonants first
because they have fairly consistent sounds, unlike English vowels which have
many sounds associated with each of the five letters. The letter “b” (figure below)
is the first letter taught on page 4 of English book 1. Teach learners the sound of
“b” (“buh”) and show them how it’s the first sound of “book” and “boy”. Eventually
the learners will know the sounds of all the letters in the English alphabet and will
be able to read new words they see.

3. sight words: Students learn to read sight words from the sound of some letters
they know and from the shape of the word, the spelling, and the number of indi-
vidual letters. For example they’ve learned the sound of “b” in “book” but they
read the rest of the word by the spelling and the number and shape of the letters.
This is an intermediate step on the way to reading words completely by letter-
sound recognition. Flashcards are good for teaching sight words.

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4. single-syllable words: Sounds of letters are put together to read single-syllable
words when learners know the sounds of all the letters. Begin with these com-
mon endings, changing the initial consonant and having the learners read the
words from their knowledge of the consonant sounds:

-at -it -in -un -en -ot -an -and -ar

cat sit bin bun pen hot can hand car
rat hit fin fun men lot fan land bar
hat fit pin gun hen not pan hand far
bat bit sin nun ten pot man band jar
fat pit tin run cot tar
mat wit win (war)

Next teach the vowel sounds. These are more difficult because each of the five Eng-
lish vowel letters has several sounds associated with it.

-ee -o -oo/-ou -i/-ie/-y -ay -oat

see no too hi say boat
bee go zoo lie day coat
me so you tie may goat
he my bay float
she exceptions: by lay
(do, to) pay
way

5. words with multiple syllables: Next students learn to read multi-syllable words.
This requires learning to separate words into its syllables. See page 11 in Eng-
lish Book 1 or think of your own words that combine sounds the students have
learned such as:
ba-na-na ba-boon bam-boo
kan-ga-roo bal-loon ze-ro

6. sentences: Reading sentences is the next step. It’s best if the students already
know how to say the sentences they’re reading, so have them learn to say the
basic conversations in Chapter 3 before they read them.

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Simple Techniques for Teaching the Four Skills
It’s best to teach beginners using a series of simple activities that involve all four lan-
guage skills. Following are some easy ways to teach the four skills:

skill techniques

 The learners ask each other basic questions like “How are you?”
speaking and “What’s your name?” and do basic dialogues.
 The teacher says a letter, word, or sentence, or dialogue and the
learners repeat it after the teacher.
 The learners say the names of objects from pictures, flashcards,
or while pointing at the real object.
 The learners greet each other.

 The teacher says a letter, number, word, or sentence and the

listening learners write it on paper (this practises both listening and writing).
 The teacher says a letter, number, or word and the learners point
to it on the blackboard, in the book, or on a flashcard.
 The teacher or another student ask questions and students an-
swer them.

 The teacher writes some letters, numbers, words, or sentences on

reading the blackboard and the learners read them as the teacher points to
them.
 Learners read words or sentences from the book and translate
them into the mother tongue or show they understand the meaning in
another way.
 Learners read a word then find the picture or object that matches
the word (or connect the word to a picture).

 Learners copy letters, words, or sentences from the book or

writing blackboard onto paper.
 Learners write letters, words, or sentences several times to prac-
tice and learn the spelling (3 to 5 times).
 The learners write words on a topic (names of food, animals).
 The teacher asks a question and the learners write the answer.
 The learners write sentences on a topic.

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Sample Lessons: The First Three Days
Following are examples of ways to teach all the skills in a 90 minute to two hour
class. The second and third days include review of previous days.

Day 1: Learners will be able to: ALP English Level 1 Time

a) say the alphabet A to E along with Book page 1; flashcards 15 minutes

associated words
b) write A to E in small letters and 20 minutes
capital letters
c) recognise sounds for letters B and Book page 4, flashcards 20 minutes
D and learn the four sight words
d) say the numbers 1 to 5 Book page 12; flashcards 10 minutes
e) write numbers 1 to 5 (numerals on- 10 minutes
ly, not words)
f) say: “Hello. How are you?, “I’m Book page 15 20 minutes
fine”. (say only, don’t read or write)
g) write own name (teacher helps 20 to 30 mi-
each student spell and write his/her nutes
own name).

Day 2: Learners will be able to ALP English Level 1 Time

a) review alphabet and associated Book page 1, flashcards 5 minutes
words A to E
b) learn letters F to K and associated Book page 1, flashcards 15 minutes
words
c) write small and capital letters F to K 20 minutes
d) recognise sound for letters F and G Book page 4, flashcards 25 minutes
and learn the four sight words
e) review numbers 1 to 5; learn 6 to Book page 12, flashcards 15 minutes
10
f) ask and answer “What’s your Book page 16 15 minutes
name? My name is _______” (say only, don’t read or write)
g) say a short dialogue: greet some- Book page 16 10 minutes
one and ask “What’s your name?” (say only, don’t read or write)
h) write “My name is _____.”, writing 15 minutes
own name in the blank.

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Day 3: Learners will be able to: ALP English Level 1 Time
a) say new greeting “Good morning, Book page 15 10 minutes
class, Good Morning, teacher.”
b) revise alphabet A to K, learn L to P, Book page 1; flashcards 20 minutes
including associated words
c) write any letter A to K as teacher 15 minutes
says it
d) do written activity at bottom of page Book page 4 10 minutes
4 for sounds “b, d, f, g”
e) recognise sounds for letters H and Book page 5, flashcards 20 minutes
J and learn four sight words
f) revise numbers 1 to 10; play games Book page 12, flashcards 20 minutes
with number cards
g) Read dialogue “What’s your Book page 16 10 minutes
name?” on page 16
h) Write both question and answer Book page 16 20 minutes
“What’s your name? My name is
_____.”

110
 Section F

Teaching Reading Comprehension

An Important Skill
There are many ways to teach reading comprehension and many different activities
you can use to motivate learners to read. Reading is something that learners do
every day in English, Science, Maths, and Social Studies and is one of the most im-
portant skills people gain from their educations.

Are the Learners at the Correct Level?

One of a teacher’s main goals is to be sure every learner in the class is able to read.
If some learners in your class cannot read at the same level as the others you may
want to give them extra help or move them to a lower level class. Teachers of levels
2, 3, and 4 should check to see if every student can read most of the words in the
English book for their level. They should have difficulty reading only 10% to 20% of
the words in the book (the words that are new to them).

General Concepts and Activities

It’s important for teachers to understand the following concepts about reading:

a) Introducing New Vocabulary: Before the learners read a passage it’s helpful
for them to learn the meanings of some of the new words in the passage. Ways
to teach new vocabulary are explained under “General Teaching Techniques”.

b) Reading Silently: In silent reading the learners read the passage with their eyes
only, without speaking or moving their lips. Silent reading is important because
reading in everyday life is done mostly silently. When teaching reading compre-
hension the learners are usually given time to read the passage silently before
reading it aloud.

111
c) Reading Aloud: Here the learners read the passage aloud sentence by sen-
tence. Try to give all the learners in the class a chance to read. The teacher may
also read aloud to demonstrate pronunciation. Sometimes the whole class reads
aloud together. Reading aloud is good because the teacher can check if the
learners can read correctly, and because the whole class participates and fol-
lows the meaning of the passage together.

d) Reading for Understanding: Sometimes learners read sentences without un-

derstanding the meaning. (They have the skills for reading the words but don’t
know the meaning of the words.) Teachers have to be sure their learners under-
stand what they’re reading, and it’s often necessary to use the mother tongue to
check understanding. There are several ways to check if the learners understand
the meaning. These include:
 Learners explain the meaning of what they’ve read, either in English or in
the mother tongue.
 Learners translate the meaning into the mother tongue.
 Learners answer a comprehension question which the teacher asks.
 Learners ask each other questions about what was read.

e) How much for one day? When planning a reading lesson teachers should look
at the passage and determine how much of it the learners can read and under-
stand in a single period. Sometimes the class won’t be able to finish a long story
or passage in a single day, and will have to continue the lesson for two or more
days. Teach new vocabulary for the part you’re teaching for that day only. You
should also plan comprehension questions part by part to use on consecutive
days.

f) Review: The teacher should review vocabulary and the content of the previous
day’s reading passage. There are many activities for review, including:
 Ask comprehension questions about the previous day’s reading.
 Review vocabulary from the previous day and have learners use them in
questions or sentences (orally or in writing).
 Have several learners describe the content of the previous day’s reading.
 Draw a picture that illustrates the previous day’s content and have the
learners describe it (or have the learners draw the pictures).
 Ask multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank or true/false questions about the con-
tent.

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Parts of a Reading Lesson
1. Before Reading: There are many different activities the teacher can do before the
class reads a story or passage, including the following:
 Teach the new vocabulary they will encounter in the passage.
 Ask the learners some questions with the new vocabulary.
 Talk about a picture or pictures that accompany the reading.
 Tell the learners what they’re going to read about and have a short discus-
sion on the topic to stimulate interest in what they’re going to read.
 Ask the class one or two questions about the passage which they will find
the answers for as they read. Write these questions on the blackboard.

2. While Reading: These are activities done while the learners are reading the pas-
sage.
 Ask comprehension questions after each sentence to make sure they under-
stand the meaning.
 Ask questions with “why”: Why do you think he did that?
 Ask what the learners are thinking: What do you think will happen next?
 Ask the learners about their feelings: How does that make you feel?

3. After Reading: When the learners have finished reading there are other activities
you can do:
 Ask more comprehension questions.
 Put learners in pairs and have them read the passage to each other.
 The class writes about the passage. They may write questions, answers to
questions, or a paragraph about the topic of the passage.
 Speaking activities: the class discusses the passage, asks each other ques-
tions, or sits in groups for a discussion and task on a related topic.

A SAMPLE READING LESSON

Following is a reading lesson for “Cleaning the Classroom” from ALP English Book 1,
Page 35

Step 1: Teach New Vocabulary

Have the class look at the new vocabulary in their books. Teach the new words as
follows. Write each word on the blackboard as you teach it. Try to teach it in English
first but explain in Mother Tongue if some learners don’t understand.

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 word how to teach

wash Do the action of washing your hands to demonstrate the meaning. Say
and write:
“I’m washing my hands.”
Have learners say the sentence while doing the action.

happy Smile and act happy to demonstrate the meaning. Ask the learners:
“Are you happy?”
They answer “Yes, I’m happy” while smiling.

can Ask the learners a question with “can” and have them ask each other:
“Can you read?”
“Can you write?”

because Write this example on the blackboard:

“I’m eating because I’m hungry.”
Ask the learners if they can explain the meaning of “because” from con-
text. Have them make other sentences with “because”.

who Explain that “who” is used to ask about people. Ask the question:
“Who is your teacher?”
Ask class if they can say other questions with “who”. Write them on the
blackboard.

where Explain that “where” is used to ask about places. Ask the question:
“Where is your house?”
Ask for more questions with “where”.

why Explain the “why” is used to ask for reasons that are answered with “be-
cause”.
“Why are you happy?”
“Why are you eating?”
Have the class make more questions with “why” and respond with ”be-
cause”.

Step 2: Talk about the picture

Ask the following questions about the picture:
What do you see in the picture?
Where are they?
What are they doing?
What is he doing? (point to picture)
What is she doing? (point to picture)
What is this? (point to picture)

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Step 3: Read silently (with a question to find the answer to)
Have learners read the passage silently and find the answer to this question as they
read (write the question on the blackboard before they start reading silently):

Did the teacher help the learners clean the classroom?

Step 4: Read aloud

Have each learner read one sentence aloud. Ask a question after each sentence to
be sure they understand the meaning. Translate the sentence into the mother tongue
if necessary.

Step 5: Answer the questions

Have learners read and answer the questions in the book aloud. Put learners in pairs
and have them ask each other the questions.

Step 6: Write answers to questions

Have learners write the answers to the questions in their notebooks. (This may be
done as homework.)

Review (the following day):

Review the vocabulary by asking questions and making sentences with the words.
Have each learner write one question about the story. The teacher checks the ques-
tions, then the learners ask each other the questions.

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 Section G

Other Techniques for Teaching English

Six techniques are described here:

1. Ways to Practise Speaking
2. Dialogue and Role Play
3. Listening Practice
4. Spelling
5. Pronunciation
6. Teaching Language Structures (Grammar) with P.P.P.

1. Ways to Practise Speaking

When learning a language it’s important to use it as much as possible. English
teachers should therefore do activities in class every day that allow the students to
speak. The activities should give all the students in the class a chance to speak.
There are three types of speaking activities:

 Some language learning activities are controlled. This means that the stu-
dents repeat or answer in a specific way that you have taught them.

 Other activities are uncontrolled. This means that the students may say any-
thing they like or respond to a question with any answer.

 As students learn more and more English they do free speaking activities
where they talk about their own ideas and opinions.

Speaking helps the learners remember what you’ve taught them and also to become
more fluent. Following are common ways to practice speaking in class:

a. Question and answer drill: If you’re teaching the class a question, do a quick
drill by pointing to two learners and having one ask the other the question. Continue

116
doing this with many pairs of learners. This gives the learners a chance to practise
both the question and the answer.

b. Speaking in pairs/groups: Put a list of questions from your lesson on the black-
board, or have the learners look at a list of questions in the book that they’ve studied.
Put the learners in pairs or groups and have them ask each other the questions. (All
the pairs and groups can do this simultaneously.) The teacher goes form pair to pair
or group to group checking if they’re asking and answering correctly. This activity is
good because all the learners have a chance to practice speaking, and the learners
become relaxed about using a second language with each other.

c. Presentations by learners: Each learner talks about a topic, for example, if

you’re studying diseases have each learner describe a medical problem he/she has
had. This can take a long time if your class is big, so it can be done in groups with
the teacher checking from group to group. Doing it in groups is also less stressful.

d. the Communicative Approach: Here the learners practise real communication in

the classroom. The teacher sets up a situation where the learners are required to
use English to find out certain information or complete a task. Students have to use
authentic language in real situations, and this helps increase their fluency more than
controlled exercises.

2. Dialogue and Role Play

In a dialogue two (or sometimes three) learners have a conversation which is written
out in the textbook or on the blackboard. The dialogue uses vocabulary and sen-
tence structures that the learners are familiar with (or it may introduce a few new
words and structures).

The basic steps for teaching a dialogue are as follows:

a) Read the Dialogue: Have the learners read the dialogue line by line from the
book or blackboard. Be sure they understand the meaning of each line. They
may also repeat each line several times.

b) Practise as Group: Lead everyone to practice it orally line by line several times.

c) Divide Class: Divide the class into two parts to be the two people (A and B).
The two groups say the dialogue.

d) Practise in Pairs: Pairs of learners stand up and say the dialogue.

e) Memorize: Have the class memorize the dialogue for homework.

f) Revise the Next Day: The next day the class recites it from memory.

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Here’s a sample dialogue:
A: Hi John. What are you doing today?
B: I’m going to visit my aunt and uncle.
A: Where do they live?
B: They live in the next village.
A: Are you walking there?
B: Yes. It’s not far. Only three kilometers.

Variations: To make the technique more interesting, write it on the blackboard leav-
ing out certain words. Have the learners put different information in the blanks as
they practice it in pairs. You can also erase parts of the dialogue and have them say
it from memory. This will help them memorize the dialogue.

A: Hi _______. What are you doing today?

B: I’m going to visit _______________________.
A: Where do they live?
B: They live ___________________.
A: Are you walking there?
B: Yes. It’s not far. Only _________

Role Play for English: This was explained under “General Teaching Techniques”.
Role plays are very important in English for practising situations because they help
learners speak spontaneously and build fluency. Following are some examples of
role plays for English class:
 greeting an old friend
 meeting and talking to someone you don’t know
 talking about your school, teacher, family, etc
 buying things
 going to the doctor
 talking about a problem
 discussing a wedding, party, or sports event

3. Listening Practice
Listening is an important skill that can be practised in class. The basic technique is to
speak some English while the students listen to you, then ask comprehension ques-
tions to see if they’ve understood.
You can draw a simple picture on the blackboard to represent the person
speaking. If you’re reading a dialogue you can draw a picture of two people and point

118
to them as you read each part. Sometimes you have to read the passage two or
three times for the learners to understand it well. Ask “Do you want me to read it
again?”
Following is an example of a listening passage. Draw a picture of the girl on
the blackboard and point to it when you ask the question (for “her/she”)

My name is Marie. I study at this school, and my teacher’s name is

Sanah. I like to study here because I want to be a teacher in the
future. I have a sister named Ninwa but she doesn’t come to school
now.

1. What’s her name? (point to the picture when you ask)

2. Does she study here?
3. What’s her teacher’s name?
4. Why does she like to study here?
5. What’s her sister’s name?
6. Does her sister study here?

4. Spelling
Spelling is important for English class, and it can also be done with important words
in other subjects. Try to give a spelling test once a week with ten to twenty important
words to spell (give beginning learners only five words). Following are points about
spelling tests:
 Choose words that the learners have already studied.
 Give them the list of words ahead of time and tell them when the test will be.
 Choose words that they will use when writing.

5. Pronunciation
There are many ways to teach pronunciation. Some books have the learners study
all the sounds of English, but a more efficient way is to concentrate only on the
sounds that the learners have problems with.
Young children can easily learn to say any sound, but older people often have
problems pronouncing sounds that aren’t present in their mother tongue or other
language they learned as a child. Older students learning English in South Sudan
won’t all have problems with the same sounds.
It’s good for teachers to compare their learners’ mother tongues with English
to find out what sounds they might have problems with, then give them words and

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sentences containing these sounds to practise. In South Sudan it’s possible that
learners will have problems with th, ch, sh, p and f, but listen carefully to how your
learners speak English and gear your pronunciation lessons toward the problems
you hear.

6. Teaching Language Structures (Grammar) with P.P.P.

Young children learn languages spontaneously without studying the grammar, but
most adult learners prefer to study the grammar rules along with speaking, reading,
and writing. This is because adults can analysis as a tool to learn languages more
than children do. An effective way to teach English language structure (or grammar)
is to use the PPP method. These initials stand for:
 presentation: The teacher presents a grammatical structure to the students.
 practice: The students practice the grammatical structure in a way that is
controlled by the teacher.
 production: The students practice the grammatical structure in a freer, less-
controlled way where they have a need to use it.

Step Teacher’s Role Purpose

 to present a new structure in

Teacher presents the new lan- a way that makes the meaning
Presentation guage structure, making sure clear.
all learners understand.  to present the new language
in a natural way so that the stu-
dents can see how it works.
 to link the new language to
what the students already know.


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  to help students memorize
Teacher organises practising the new structure.
Practice the structure, listens to the  to help students produce the
students speaking and makes word order.
corrections where necessary.  to give the teacher the
chance to check for errors and
make corrections.
 to give practice in pronuncia-
tion.
 to develop students’ confi-
dence.

 to give students more free-

Teacher organises an activity dom to practice.
Production where the learners can pro-  to encourage students to the
duce the structure naturally. new structures in their own way.
The teacher provides assis-  to help students see the use-
tance where necessary, and fulness of what they have
identifies any problems stu- learned.
dents have.  to check what has been
learned.

A SAMPLE PPP LESSON

Objective: Learners will be able to ask and answer questions about their families in
the present tense using “what”, “how many” and “who”.

1. Presentation: Write these questions on the blackboard and let the learners think
of answers for them. Write sample answers on the blackboard.
What’s your father’s name?
What’s your mother’s name?
How many sisters do you have?
How many brothers do you have?
Who do you live with?

2. Practice: Have the learners practise asking and answering the questions. Do
question and answer practise with pairs of students until they can ask and answer
well. Put learners in pairs and have them ask each other the questions.

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3. Production: Divide the class into groups. Give them the following task:

Find out the following information about each person in your group:
 names of parents
 number of brothers and sisters
 who they live with
 another piece of information about their family using “what”,
“how many” or “who”.

Let each group find out the information from each other while speaking only English
and report back to the whole group. They have to think of other questions for the last
point to find other information about each group member’s family.

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 Section H

Teaching Mathematics for Understanding

Understanding Concepts
When teaching Math it’s important for learners to understand the concepts behind
the operations they’re doing. The “operation” refers to the process taken to find the
solution. Some teachers have learners simply memorize operations without helping
them understand what is actually happening in the process. This can lead to prob-
lems at higher levels. Learners may have trouble understanding fractions or geome-
try and lose interest in Math.

Understanding concepts behind operations will benefit learners in several ways:

 They can use the knowledge to solve similar problems.
 They gain insight into deductive reasoning processes which will give them
the ability to solve problems in a range of subjects.

The best way to teach the concepts of arithmetic is with objects that the
learners manipulate. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and fractions can
all be understood with local objects such as stones and sticks. Geometry is best with
taught with drawings or objects in different shapes.

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Concrete and Abstract Concepts
A good way to understand Math concepts is in terms of “concrete” and “abstract”. A
concrete idea or concept is one that can be seen with your eyes and understood
physically. An abstract idea or concept is one that can be understood only theoreti-
cally, in the mind as an idea. Mathematics begins with concrete concepts such as
addition and geometry and moves into more abstract concepts with algebra and cal-
culus. Learners should be taught to understand concrete operations physically so
that they will more easily understand higher, abstract concepts.

Demonstrating Math Concepts

Following are some ways to demonstrate basic Mathematical concepts to learners.

Addition: Bring stones or other small objects such as sticks or seeds to class. Have
learners count out numbers of stones into separate piles. Put two of the piles togeth-
er, then show how the sum of the two numbers is written as an addition equation.

Subtraction: Use the same small objects, but show how taking away some objects
results in a smaller amount that can be written as a subtraction problem.

Place value: Tie small sticks into bundles of ten. These are your “tens”. Use single
sticks for “ones”. Illustrate numbers like this:

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 24 = two bundles of ten plus four single sticks
The “tens” column has two bundles
The “ones” column has four single sticks

Say a number and have learners find the bundles and single sticks for the number.
Let pairs and groups of learners practice the same operation.

Addition with carrying: Be sure the learners understand place value. Demonstrate
an addition problem with carrying such as:

9 + 14 = 23

Show how another “ten” is formed, which you tie into a bundle or make into a pile of
ten stones. The result is two tens and three ones.

Multiplication: There are diagrams in the Mathematics book that show how to vi-
sualize multiplication with rows of objects. It’s also good to use stones or sticks for

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multiplication to help the see the groups of physical objects multiplied. Here five pens
are multiplied three times.

Division: Put a large number of stones in a pile then divide it into small piles of
equal number. For example, 18 divided by 3 by putting 18 stones in a pile, then di-
viding it into three small piles. Each will have six stones.

Division with a remainder: This illustrates 9 divided by 2. Divide the stones into two
piles. There will be four in each with a remainder of 1.

Fractions: Use pieces of fruit. Cut an orange or a banana into pieces and then
demonstrate how the number of pieces are written as fractions.

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127
 Section I

Homework

Homework gives students a chance to practise and use skills and knowledge learned
in class. Teachers use homework to check on learners’ progress and to give the
class extra practise on difficult learning objectives.

Following are some important points about homework:

a) Objective: Homework should have a clear objective. Think about why you’re giv-
ing the learners homework and what they will gain from it. Don’t just give them
homework so they have some work to do.

b) To Practise and Reinforce: Homework should be based on class work and

used to reinforce and practise skills you’ve taught. For example, you may want
the learners to practice Math problems at home, but be sure they’re practising a
skill you’ve already taught them. Give homework when learners need extra prac-
tise on a topic. Not all the learners in your class will need extra practise on the
same topic, but try to pick important topics that will benefit a large number of
learners.

c) Difficulty: Be sure the homework isn’t too difficult or the learners will feel fru-
strated because you’re not there to help them. You should give them homework
that is at the same level as work you’re doing in the classroom.

d) How often? Weekend assignments may be best for ALP learners because the
learners probably have extra time then. Short assignments can also be given on
weekdays. It’s recommended that ALP learners be assigned homework twice a
week. Remember that in ALP you’re teaching older learners so they may have
outside responsibilities that leave them with little time to do homework. There-
fore, be sure the learners feel the homework you’re giving them will have some
benefit to them.

e) Keep a Homework Record: Keep a record of homework as part of on-going as-

sessment, and use the information when evaluating your learners at the end of
the term. Keeping a record may help motivate learners to do homework.

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Correction of Homework
It’s important that teachers correct homework. If homework isn’t corrected the learn-
ers will feel that you’re not interested in their work and won’t feel motivated to do fu-
ture assignments. There are three ways to correct homework:
1. Collect and correct: Here the teacher collects the homework and corrects it
during breaks or overnight.

2. Correct individually: In this method the teacher goes from learner to learner in
the class checking their homework. The rest of the class should be working on
an assignment while you’re doing this.

3. Correct as a class: Here the whole class corrects homework together. This me-
thod is good because everyone can work out the problems, and those who didn’t
do the homework will also benefit.

What if Learners Don’t do Homework?

A common problem teachers have is that some learners don’t do homework assign-
ments. The teacher should first find the reason:
 Was the learner in class when the homework was assigned?
 Does the learner have a good reason why he/she didn’t do the homework?
 Was the homework too difficult?
 Does the learner feel that the assignment is worthwhile to his/her education?

Don’t punish learners if they don’t do homework. Instead, talk to them about it,
explaining that homework is important for building skills and knowledge and to en-
sure their success in school. Do your part by giving your class assignments that they
feel are interesting and beneficial.

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 Section J

Outside Projects

A good activity that will develop independent initiative is for individual learners or
groups of learners to research a topic in the community. This may include interview-
ing local people, visiting local offices and organisations, and gathering information
about the community. Projects may involve spending one or two weeks gathering
and organising information, then reporting the results to the class. You can also give
weekend assignments that involve gathering information on a single topic.

Advantages of outside projects are:

a) Learners gain the ability to plan, organise, and carry out independent work
b) The class gains knowledge about the local community.
c) Learners gain information that is useful for personal development.
d) People outside the school become acquainted with ALP learners and the ALP
program.

Outside projects are done mostly with Science, Social Studies, and Life Skills
topics. The teacher can assign topics, or learners can think of their own topics based
on their interests. Following are examples of projects:

interview:
 former soldiers about the history of the area
 business people about doing business in the area
 government leaders about the organisation of local government
 musicians, artists, and craftsmen about their work and role in the community
 local elders to gather oral history
 health workers including the local midwife about local health issues
 veterinarians about health problems with animals
 police about law and order in the area
 local courts to report on legal issues

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visit:
 the local health center to interview medical staff about local health problems
 NGOs and other organisations to interview them about their activities
 experimental farms to report on new agricultural methods
 training schools and colleges to report on their programs

survey:
 kinds and number of animals in the community
 number of children not attending school
 number of girls and young women not attending school
 occupations of local people
 activities people do to generate income
 crops grown in the community
 environmental problems

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 Section K

Extracurricular Activities

“Extracurricular” means “outside the curriculum” and refers to activities done to facili-
tate learning on topics that aren’t in the curriculum. Most extracurricular activities in-
volve sports and clubs. Extracurricular activities are done outside of class time but
usually take place on the school grounds.
The types of extracurricular activities you have at your school depend on the
interests of the learners and teachers and on the availability of equipment. Fol-
lowing are some examples of extracurricular activities you can do.

 football
 volleyball
 basketball
 athletics
 gymnastics
 Cultural Club
 Debate Club
 Drama Club
 Environment Club
 Agriculture Club
 Garden Club
 Music Club
 Art/Drawing Club
 Science Club
 Scouts and Girl Guides

Organising a Club
Teachers who are interested in organising a club or sports team should discuss
plans at a staff meeting. It’s good to have two or more teachers for each team or club
so that they can give support to each other. Announce the formation of the club or

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team to the classes, then have your first meeting. The following should be discussed
at the first meeting:
1. name: Let the participants think of a name for their club or team.
2. objective: Write a statement of the objective of the club or team.
3. activities/calendar: Brainstorm a list of activities that participants would like to
do. Decide on dates and times of activities.
4. leadership: Elect a president or captain and other leaders.
5. regulations: Make a list of rules and regulations for the club or team.

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 UNIT 6

LIFE SKILLS

Section A

Gender Awareness

In this section we will discuss how women and men are given different roles in socie-
ty which causes inequality between them, and how this inequality affects the educa-
tion of girls and women. The term “gender” itself refers only to one’s sex: whether a
person is male or female. The word is used in the following phrases when talking
about females and males in society:

 gender awareness: Having an understanding of social disparity based on

gender and an awareness of ways to promote gender equity.

 gender disparity: Inequality based on whether someone is male or female.

 gender equity: Equal rights and treatment regardless of sex; sharing resources
and opportunities equally regardless of sex.

 gender role: The function of a person in society based on whether the person is
male or female.

 gender stereotype: A generalised idea about men and women without consid-
eration for the characteristics of individual people, for example, saying that boys
are better at Math than girls when some girls are actually better than boys.
Gender stereotypes may be biologically true, for example, that men are generally

134
 taller or stronger than women, however societies also hold false beliefs about
men and women, such as the belief that men are better at making decisions than
women.

Following are important points for gender awareness:

 Society constructs beliefs about men and women based on the

social roles the society gives them.
 These beliefs are not necessarily true for men and women
throughout the world.
 Biologically, men and women are able to do most tasks equally.
 If women are to reach their full potential we must separate social
beliefs from biological fact.
 If women are living and working at their full potential, it will benefit
the family, community, and nation.

Gender Roles and Stereotypes

Gender roles and stereotypes differ from one society to another. The differentiations
start from early childhood when boys and girls are taught what their families and so-
ciety expect them to think, say, and do. As children develop they learn to follow their
roles as ascribed by society and to understand which behaviors and activities are
considered feminine and masculine.
In most African cultures, household duties such as cooking, pounding, fetch-
ing water, collecting firewood, and caring for children are done by women. Men are
given the role of working outside the home to provide for their families and to defend
their families from harm.
In many societies boys and men are thought to be more active, while girls and
women are more passive. Girls are taught to be quiet and shy and are given the role
of serving men. Boys are normally socialized to dislike girls’ activities like skipping
rope and cooking, while girls are taught that they are not physically able to play
sports or hunt.
Women are often considered more emotional than men, and are given more
freedom to express their emotions. Men are often taught that showing emotions like
sadness or tenderness is “unmanly”, so they hide their feelings or express them in
angry or violent ways. When men are unable to show their feelings their children
may feel distant from them, and men are less able to get support from others for their
problems.

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When Gender Roles Harm
Fulfilling the roles expected by the community can be satisfying and give people a
sense of belonging, but sometimes these roles limit a person’s activities and choices.
They may also make girls and women feel less valued than boys and men. When
girls are made to believe that they are weak and less important it undermines their
confidence.
In some societies girls and women are teased or harassed by boys and men
at school and in other community areas. Women may also be the victims of physical
violence by men if it is allowed by the society or culture.
In most communities, women are expected to be wives and mothers. Many
women like this role because it can be very satisfying and give them status in the
community, Other women, though, may prefer to follow their own interests, wanting
only a few children while doing challenging work outside. However, communities and
families may not give them this choice.
Some communities may not allow girls and women to become well-educated.
They have reasons for this, for example believing that if women are more educated
than men they won’t listen to decisions made by the men, or that it’s not necessary
to educate girls because they will go to live with another family when they are mar-
ried. However, it’s been proven that families benefit greatly when the mother is edu-
cated because, among other factors, the mother participates in decision making and
because the children have better nutrition and are ill less often. Children have a bet-
ter future when women are educated.
Women are also capable of doing what are believed to be masculine activi-
ties. In Bahr el Ghazal, for example, women thatch houses, unlike other regions
where it is an activity for men. One has only to look at other countries in the world to
see that women are engineers, doctors, and prime ministers. This confirms that men
and women can share social roles with equal participation in all parts of society, and
that development suffers when girls and women aren’t allowed to reach their full po-
tential.

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 GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION
Factors that Lead to Gender Disparity in Education
In many communities in South Sudan girls and young women aren’t given equal op-
portunities in education. Following are some of the factors that cause this:

a) Economic factors: Parents may send only their sons to school because they
don’t have enough money to pay for the girls. Schooling can be expensive for
families. Expenses include school fees and money for books and clothing.

b) Cultural factors: Certain cultural practices may hinder girls’ education. These
include:
 Girls getting married when they are very young or having babies when
they’re too young
 Education being considered inappropriate for girls and women
 Girls being considered family wealth and not given freedom of choice
 Girls and women having to do more labour than boys and men because they
are assigned more duties
 Boys and men being given more respect than girls and women
 Physical violence against girls and women
 Male teachers not respecting girl students

c) Stereotyping: Schools may stereotype males and females and this leads to un-
equal treatment. Examples are: giving leadership roles only to boys because
they think that the nature of girls is not to lead, having sports only for boys be-
cause they think girls can’t play sports, and having boys continue their educa-
tions because they think that boys are the future professionals and leaders.

d) Teacher’s attitude: The way a teacher treats his/her students sends a powerful
message about who will succeed and fail in the learning environment. Studies in
Africa have identified gender bias in teacher-student interaction that may affect
boys’ and girls’ performance in education. It has been shown that teachers tend
to interact more with boys, give more time to answering boys’ questions and give
more positive feedback to boys. Another problem that may arise is male teach-
ers having relations with girl students. This should be forbidden in all schools.

e) Bias in allocation of resources: If there are limited resources in a school, for

example a lack of exercise books, boys may be given first choice in receiving
them.

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Gender Equity and ALP
It’s important for all ALP teachers to have a high level of gender awareness and to
promote equal treatment of all learners in ALP classes regardless of sex. Likewise,
ALP staff should include both male and female teachers.
Girls and young women should be encouraged to do well in school so they
can become teachers or go into other occupations, thus contributing to the develop-
ment of the country.
Community practices that put girls and women in an inferior position should
be advocated against. The empowerment of women and girls is a pre-requisite for
achieving effective educational and community development.

Strategies for Gender Equity in Education

To address these issues teachers and head teachers should develop strategies for
establishing gender equity as part of the school development plan, taking into con-
sideration the following points:

 Equity in positions: Positions should be shared equally between males and

females for both teachers and learners. This includes positions like deputy head
teacher, subject panel chairpersons, school committee members and prefects.
Delegation of tasks and responsibilities, such as cleaning the compound and
fetching water, should be balanced between males and females.

 Involving the community: Activities should be organized within the school and
community to make people aware of gender issues and the importance of girls’
education. The PTA should be active in advocating education for girls and young
women and in discouraging negative cultural practices.

 Teaching: Head teachers should ensure that all teachers advocate gender
awareness in their classrooms and teach without gender bias. Boys shouldn’t be
given the lead in Math and Science, and girls should be given extra help in these
subjects if necessary.

 Counseling: A female and a male teacher should be identified to handle special

issues related to women and girls and to men and boys.

 Attendance and record keeping: Information and data collected for school
records should be separated for male/female and used to aim at improved gend-
er equality. The head teacher and teachers should be conscious of any increase
or decrease in enrolment of students, especially girls. Measures should be put in
place to address situations of truancy or dropping out.

138
 Prizes: The school should provide incentives to both boys and girls in recogni-
tion of their performance. Give girls’ prizes and boys’ prizes, not a single prize to
the best learner.

 Sports: Girls and women enjoy playing sports as much as men and boys. Phys-
ical activity improves both health and mental outlook, and sports and other phys-
ical activities should be encouraged for everyone, including teachers and people
who have finished their education. Start by organising a girls’ football team or
girls’ running team. Include girls’ competitions whenever you have games be-
tween boys’ teams.

 Meetings: Include gender issues on the agenda at staff meetings.

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 Section B

Child Protection

What is Child Protection?

In recent years the increase in child soldiers, child abuse, and child trafficking has
prompted the United Nations and other organisations to put the rights of children into
international law so that children may be protected from the effects of war and child
abuse. Child protection refers to ways of protecting children by ensuring that these
rights are met.
Protecting children is a difficult task because they are physically more vulner-
able than adults and because the parents are considered completely responsible for
their up-bringing. If children are to be protected, though, teachers must take part be-
cause, along with the parents, they are the ones who spend the most time with them
and therefore are able to identify problems that they are having.

Who Protects Children?

The task of protecting children falls on parents and family, teachers and school staff,
other people in the community, organisations like NGOs, and the government. It’s
important to teach both children and adults about child protection. Children should be
taught that they have rights that are protected by law and that they can talk to teach-
ers and other adults if they feel their rights are being abused. Adults should be
taught to feel responsible for the welfare of every child in the community.

Laws on the Rights of Children

The rights of Children have been codified in three international conventions. These
are:
1. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC): This convention was produced
by the United Nations and became international law in 1990. It has been signed
by most of the countries in the world. The CRC protects the rights of children all
over the world and reinforces the role of parents in protecting their children.

140
2. African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of Children (ACRWC): This con-
vention was initiated by African heads of state and describes the rights of child-
ren in African countries. It was signed by the SPLM in 1995. The document in-
cludes an article on the responsibilities of children according to African practices
and values.

3. Action on the Rights of Children (ARC): This document was written to protect
the rights of children during periods of emergency. It covers vulnerable children
including child soldiers, orphans, separated children, and abducted children. This
convention was initiated by the UNHCR and Save the Children.

Following are the main rights of children as expressed in these documents:

 Right of survival: Children must be provided with all the things that are neces-
sary for basic survival. These include food, shelter, clothing, and access to
medical care.

 Right of protection: Children must be safe-

guarded from danger.

 Right of participation: Children must be able to

express their opinions and take active roles in
their communities. Rights of participation are ex-
tended to parents, relatives, communities, and
organisations who are responsible for the protec-
tion of children.

 Right to development: These are the rights of children to reach their fullest
potential through education, training for occupations, etc.

 Right of non-discrimination: All children must be treated equally regardless

of race, gender, religion, disability, etc.

 The best interest of the child: This refers to putting children first even when
adults may need help. Because children are dependent on adults they must be
given priority for survival and development.

What is a Child?
The definition of “child” varies from culture to culture. Internationally a child is defined
as anyone under the age of 18. and this definition is followed by organisations and
individuals working for Child Protection and Child Rights. In South Sudan people
may consider anyone who is not initiated to be a child (however a 10 years boy can
be initiated) or anyone who is not married (however 12-year-old girls can be mar-
ried).

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The Role of Parents
When we speak of children we cannot separate them from their parents and families.
The three conventions on rights do not take away the role of parents and family in
protecting children. The family and community provide the best environment for
children’s basic development, care, protection, and socialisation (learning how to be-
have with others, learning history, language, culture and customs). The conventions
were developed to protect children in emergencies or in cases of child abuse, when
the role of family and community has broken down, when negative cultural practices
affect children’s development, and when children are otherwise mistreated.

The Effects of War on Children

In times of war parents, communities, organisations, and the government have a li-
mited ability to project their populations. War destroys social structures that normally
guarantee people’s safety. Children become more vulnerable to violations of their
rights because of their dependency on adult care. When there is war the danger to
children increases. Factors include conscription as soldiers, separation from family,
abduction, becoming orphans due to the death of parents, sexual abuse, malnutri-
tion, disease, illiteracy, disability, exploitation of child labour and effects of poverty.
These factors increase the mortality rate of children during times of war.
When there is war schools close. Many children leave school or aren’t able to
attend. War also results in under-resourced classrooms and untrained teachers and
this affects the quality of education.

The Role of Teachers and Schools

Children spend most of their time outside the family at school, so schools have a ma-
jor role in protecting children. Children who attend school are at less risk than those
who don’t because teachers can find cases of abuse and exploitation that others in
the community may not see.
Teachers therefore take the role of social worker in trying to find solutions to
problems that children have. Teachers and head teachers may have to take direct
action when they see children who need protection, or refer these children to a child
protection organisation if one exists in the community. In times of conflict most
teachers and school staff are survivors of crises themselves and are a good re-
source for solving children’s problems.

Steps to Promote Child Protection in School

Following are ways that teachers and other staff can promote child protection:

1. Promote rights: Promote children’s rights positively in your classroom. Teach

children about their rights and that they can advocate for their own rights. Pro-
mote workshops on child protection in the community to teach parents and other
people in the community about the rights of children.

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2. Never be prejudiced: Don’t discriminate against any child. Never make preju-
diced remarks or act in a prejudicial way against any ethic or religious group.

3. Be non-violent: Promote non-violence in the school and community. Discou-

rage fighting and arguing both in and outside school. Use alternative forms of
punishment instead of physical punishment.

4. Work together: Promote cooperation between children and within the communi-
ty as a whole. Have the learners in your class help each other both inside and
outside class.

5. Know the vulnerable children: Identify vulnerable children by learning about

the background of all the children in your class or school.

6. Give support: Provide medical help if a child is not healthy, and emotional sup-
port so children can feel accepted and valued. This includes providing daily
structure, purpose and meaning for learners.

7. Increase learner’s thinking skills: Provide opportunities for students to ex-

press their ideas and opinions.

8. Increase learner’s knowledge: Facilitate children’s understanding of local

events through subjects like history, geography and social studies.

9. Advocate against negative cultural practices: These include important issues

like physical violence against children and early marriage.

10. Advocate for education and learning: Encourage school enrollment. Bring as
many eligible learners into the school as possible. Work with parents and com-
munity groups to promote education and rights for children.

11. Be a good role model: Always work to promote Child Protection so other adults
will follow your model and do the same. Follow positive cultural practices your-
self and discourage negative cultural practices.

12. Monitor the learners: Monitor students’ progress and attendance from day to
day.

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 Section C

The Basic Facts about HIV/AIDS

What is HIV/AIDS?
HIV stands for the Human Immuno-deficiency Virus.

In simple terms it means that it is a virus which attacks our body's natural defense
system (immune system). The virus attacks the white blood cells which leads the
immune system to be weakened, or deficient. The virus can remain dormant in our
bodies for several years before it replicates and attacks white cells. This makes it dif-
ficult for our bodies to fight infections. This is when a person becomes ill and devel-
ops AIDS.

AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

Acquired means to get from.

Immune means protected. Our bodies are protected against many diseases by our
natural defense system.
Deficiency means lack of. Somebody who is infected with AIDS lacks the normal
immunity against diseases.
Syndrome means a group of common signs and symptoms.

Transmitting the Virus

HIV is transmitted in blood, semen (sperm), vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The main
routes of HIV transmission are:
1. Sexual contact with someone who is infected with HIV. This is the most
common way that HIV is transmitted (about 85% of cases).
2. From an HIV-infected mother to her fetus during pregnancy or childbirth, or
to the infant during breastfeeding.

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 3. Through other contact with blood (e.g. blood transfusions, use of unsterilised
needles or syringes or any instrument that can cut the skin)

HIV is not spread through everyday contact such as: shaking hands; living, playing
or eating together; coughing or sneezing; through water; toilet seats; sharing cups or
plates; or through mosquito and animal bites. It is not spread through dry kissing but
can be spread through deep kissing if one person has sores or cuts in their mouth.
Sharing of items like toothbrushes and combs are unlikely ways to spread HIV but
people should be discouraged from sharing them.

Symptoms of HIV and AIDS

Other than the initial flu-like symptoms associated with acute HIV infection, most
people in the first months or years of HIV infection have few if any symptoms. In
these months or years that they appear healthy, but they can continue to spread HIV
to others without their knowledge. It is very important for you to know that you can be
infected with HIV from someone who looks completely healthy but is HIV positive.
The only way for a person to know their status (if they are positive or negative) is if
they get a test.

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As the immune system weakens, a variety of symptoms can develop, such as:
 persistent swollen lymph nodes
 lumps, rashes, sores, or other growths on or under the skin
 unexplained weight loss
 fever and drenching night sweats
 dry cough and shortness of breath
 persistent diarrhea
 easy bruising and unexplained bleeding
 profound fatigue
 changes in mood and other psychological symptoms
 persistent or recurrent pain

Every person shows different symptoms and has differing levels of illness.
Some people will develop AIDS shortly after becoming infected and others will be
healthy for many years. People who have AIDS eventually die of opportunistic infec-
tions that their body cannot fight off. The most common infection often seen among
people with HIV is tuberculosis (TB).

Treatment
There is still no medicine to cure AIDS. Scientists are still finding out more about the
disease and trying to find a cure or vaccine. There is also no traditional herb that can
cure AIDS at the moment.

a) ARV Therapy: Researchers have developed drugs referred to antiretroviral

(ARV) therapy, which can help people live healthfully for a long time. These
drugs do not cure HIV/AIDS but stop the harmful effects of the virus. Govern-
ments in Africa are now promoting ARV treatment and it is available in some
areas.

b) Keeping Healthy: People can live long healthy lives with HIV if they follow some
simple rules:
 Eat a healthy, balanced diet that includes lots of fruits and vegetables.
 Get regular exercise.
 Have plenty of rest.
 Be positive about yourself and your situation.
 Do not infect anyone else. Cover any wounds or cuts. Do not have unpro-
tected sex. Re-infection can worsen your condition.
 Spend time with friends and family. Talk about your situation. Find counsel-
ing and/or a support group.

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Prevention
Although AIDS is currently incurable, it is preventable. You can protect yourself by
avoiding behaviors that may bring you into contact with HIV.

To prevent the spread HIV/AIDS, we should do the

following:
 Abstain from sex until marriage.
 Have sex with one faithful partner. Having one
partner for life is the surest way to prevent
HIV/AIDS.
 Use condoms to reduce the risk of getting AIDS
but remember that they are not 100% reliable.
Learn how to use them properly before use.
 Treat sexually transmitted infections immediately.
Having sex with untreated STI's greatly increases
your chances of contracting HIV.
 Sterilize all needles and syringes before giving injections as well as traditional
instruments used for circumcision, ear piercing, removing teeth, or making scar-
ring marks.
 Do not accept blood transfusions unless the blood is first tested for HIV.

HIV/ AIDS in Sudan

HIV/AIDS has been reported in all states in South Sudan. The Sudan National AIDS
Control Program (SNAP) estimates the HIV prevalence rate at around 1.0% of the
total population of 30 million, although the actual prevalence rate is probably much
higher. Recent data from VCT centers in South Sudan have shown infection rates
between 5 and 19% of the population, which is very high. With populations returning
from refugee camps and neighboring countries of Sudan, it is expected that the pre-
valence rates will increase. Knowledge about the virus is very low and people be-
lieve many myths. There are also cultural practices, such as polygamy, sharing cut-
ting instruments, and wife inheritance, that can encourage the spread of HIV/AIDS.
If the population of Sudan is not educated on this epidemic, the situation could be-
come very serious in the country and lead to many deaths.

Fighting HIV/AIDS in Your Community

Following are steps you can take to fight the spread of HIV/AIDS in your country and
community:

Talk openly: Discuss HIV/AIDS openly in your school and community, with your
partner and family, and especially with young people. HIV prevention requires us to

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discuss and consider taboos and complex issues in society, such as sexuality and
related beliefs that are rooted in religion, values, and culture.

Fight for Gender Equity: Some people, especially young women, have trouble
keeping themselves safe because of their subordinate position in society. They may
feel that they do not have the power to say no to sex or demand safe sex. Fairer so-
cial and economic conditions decrease the vulnerability of women and help to stop
the spread of AIDS.

Fight stigma:. “Sigma” refers to making something disgraceful or shameful. In many

places it’s considered a stigma to have HIV or AIDS or to have contact with people
who have the disease. In some communities children from families whose members
have HIV/AIDS may not be allowed in school. In truth there is no need for persons
with AIDS to stay alone. The disease is not easily spread and people who are in-
fected need love and support to cope and live positively. Stigma in the community
keeps people from being tested and keeps them from admitting that they are HIV
positive.

Be a role model for others: Keep learning about HIV/AIDS and encourage others
to learn about it. Practice responsible behavior. Educate others about the dangers of
HIV/AIDS.

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 Section F

Mines Awareness

Mines are a source of danger in South Sudan for people living in former areas of
combat. Mines can cause injury or death if people aren’t aware of their location and
how dangerous they are. People living in former combat areas should understand
where mines have been placed and what to do if they see one.
The people most vulnerable to landmines are children because them roam
about without thinking of possible dangers, and farmers who work the ground with
hoes which can strike mines. There are very few people who are trained to recognize
landmines, so many people are injured or killed when they see a landmine but don’t
know what it is. Children may even play with landmines because they don’t know
they are dangerous.
In former combat areas there may be landmines sitting exposed on the
ground. These mines were either placed on the ground or buried and uncovered by
the action of rain on the soil. Mines can be hidden in overgrown vegetation or coated
in dust and sand, making them difficult to see. Everyone living in former combat
areas should share information about places where mines may be located.

Types of Mines
A mine is a bomb place under the ground (called a landmine) or in the water that will
explode when touched, hit, or when pressure is applied to it. A landmine is a simple
device consisting of a container made of metal, plastic, or wood with high explosives
inside and some kind of firing mechanism. The shape, size, material, content, and
explosive power vary.

There are two main types of landmines:

1. anti-personnel mine (APM or AP mine): This type of landmine is designed to
kill or injure people by exploding when someone steps on it or when a tripwire is
touched. These mines are usually buried under the ground but fragmentation
mines, which send out metal fragments when they explode, are usually placed
above ground.

149
2. anti-tank mine or anti-vehicle mine: These mines are designed to destroy or
immobilise heavy fighting vehicles such as tanks. These days civilian vehicles
can be destroyed by anti-tank mines resulting in injury and loss of life. This type
of mine is usually buried in the ground, and is placed along roads and in other
places where vehicles pass.

Avoiding Landmines
The most important point to teach ALP learners about landmines is:

If you see a device that you suspect is a landmine,

notify local authorities immediately. Do not touch,
move, or approach it.

Other important points:

 Learn what landmines look like and where they may be placed.
 When walking, stay on roads or paths where other people have traveled.
 Know all the dangerous areas in your community where there may be landmines
or other battlefield items. Do not go into these areas.
 Be cautious around structures or buildings in former conflict zones where there
may have been military activity. These include power stations, radio stations,
warehouses, government offices, bridges, and airstrips.
 Never attempt to collect battlefield items. Do not touch or play with any battlefield
items.
 Learn what official mine warning signs look like. Authorities may place these
signs in areas that have mines, however the signs may not show the entire area
where the mines have been placed.

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 Section E

Peace Education

The following information was taken from an article on Peace Education Programs
implemented in Kenyan Refugee Camps by the UNHCR. The article is included in
the book “Helping Children Outgrow War” published by USAID.

Questions:
 What is Peace Education?
 What are the goals of Peace Education?
 What is the psychology of peace and conflict and how does it apply to educa-
tion?
 How can the classroom become a venue for peace building?
 What are the classroom objectives of Peace Education?

Part 1: Overall Goals of Peace Education

Peace Education programs take place in both schools and communities as part of
reconstruction activities following conflict. Following are the main goals of Peace
Education programs:
a. To contribute to peaceful and sustainable reconstruction and development.
b. To help people develop the skills and attitudes needed for a democratic, non-
violent life.
c. To prevent future conflicts; to stop aggression and violence among people.
d. To help people move beyond traumatic experiences.
e. To contribute to the development of conflict resolution skills among people and
communities.
f. To counter old prejudices and change negative cultural practices.
g. To promote peace as a way of life and build a culture of peace and hope.

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Part 2: Learned Behavior and Peace/Conflict
Peace Education is based on the assumption that conflict is a learned behavior and
that, in place of prejudice and aggression, students can learn strategies for conflict
resolution and values of caring for others. The following points explain how learning
and conflict/peace are linked.
 A “learned behavior” is acquired through experience. A person sees others
behaving in a certain way and copies the behavior if it is viewed as acceptable
or good by the group. For example, if a boy sees his father hitting his mother,
he may in turn hit his own wife if the people around him see the behavior as
acceptable.
 The opposite of learned behavior is “innate behavior”, which refers to beha-
viors that are inborn and not learned. People often debate whether certain be-
haviors are innate or learned.
 As they grow older, people may become aware that learned behavior is varia-
ble and adaptable. For example, they may see that in the same situation some
people use physical violence while others don’t. They may understand that
they can choose how to react in various situations. In Peace Education pro-
grams teachers and community workers can discuss aspects of behavior in-
cluding why people behave in certain ways, the effect certain behaviors have
on other people, which behaviors should be considered acceptable or unac-
ceptable by the community, and how people can be encouraged to change
negative behavior.

Part 3: In the Classroom

In schools, Peace Education is both a specific subject with immediate outcomes
and a process without immediate outcomes but which develops through day-to-day
interaction and learning. As a process, Peace Education reaches into every aspect
of learning: how people interact, songs that are sung, stories that are told and read,
games that are played, things that are said by the teacher and other learners, reac-
tions to things said and done, and how and why learners are punished.

Students can learn the concepts of Peace Education in four ways:

 from ideas and lessons taught in class
 from the teaching methods used in the classroom
 from the ways teachers interact with learners, and from the ways teachers fa-
cilitate learners to interact with each other
 from the behavior of teachers and other school staff in the school and com-
munity.

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►“Pedogogical practices convey important messages. Teachers who demand un-
questioning obedience or use physical punishment may undermine the development
of nonviolent, democratic behaviors among students. To be effective, classroom
practices should model the values espoused in Peace Education programs.”

► “Every experience, activity, and interaction among students, parents, and teach-
ers can be a step toward peace or a step toward aggression.”

LEARNING OUTCOMES
FOR
PEACE EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Following are some of the main educational objectives of classroom/school Peace

Education programs.
Through the school’s Peace Education Program, learners will be able to:

a. Understand and respect themselves and others

 understand their own and others’ emotions
 understand their own and others’ strengths and weaknesses
 understand their own background and the backgrounds of others and how
background can affect behavior
 understand the effects of violence/aggression on individuals and groups
 respect themselves and others through the understanding that different
people have different strengths, weaknesses, and backgrounds
 understand the effects of bias and discrimination
 be conscious of negative ideas held about other people or groups
 respect themselves and others through the understanding that all individuals
and groups are equal

b. Communicate effectively with others

 listen to others
 express themselves (ideas/feelings)
 have empathy for others (sympathy/compassion)
 know when to be assertive and when not to be assertive
 understand rules of social communication in various local communities

153
c. Cooperate with and care for others
 work together
 be fair to all sides
 trust others
 care for others
 resolve conflicts in non-violent ways (compromise, negotiate, mediate)
 help others, serve others
 understand responsibilities to family, community, nation, etc.

d. Apply critical thinking skills and knowledge appropriate to peace building

 analyse information
 separate fact from opinion
 develop problem-solving skills
 have knowledge on rights, justice, government, gender issues, cultural issues,
development, peace and conflict, interdependence, etc

The Importance of Service to Others

“Service to others is a useful strategy in promoting peace. Because
people’s experiences profoundly shape their actions toward others,
people who have the opportunity to assist others tend to engage in
more helpful behavior later, especially when the value of their efforts
to help others is expressed. They see themselves as helpful people,
and they tend to value the welfare of those they help.”

Peace Education in Schools

Teachers should actively promote Peace Education by discussing the benefits of
peace and harmony and how to attain it in their school, families, community, country,
and in the world. Following are points for promoting peace education in your school:
1. Promote positive outcomes of peace: Don’t let your learners think that conflict
is a natural state. Always encourage them to see how everyone benefits when
people live together in peace.

154
2. Never speak in a prejudiced way: A teacher should never make prejudiced
statements against other ethnic or religious groups. If you hear learners saying
things against other ethnic groups, have a discussion with them that leads to an
understanding that this type of behaviour can have serious negative outcomes.

3. Formulate peace rules: Have your class and school formulate rules that will
minimize conflict in the school. This is a good activity for learners: thinking of
how they should treat each other so that there are no conflicts.

4. Study different cultures and religions: Facilitate your learners to expand their
knowledge of other people in the world so that they understand how people’s
values differ and how all cultures and religions should have respect each for
other.

5. Practise non-violence: Never use violence against learners. Because learners

respect their teachers, they will follow your example of being non-violent. Explain
to the learners why you are using alternative forms of punishment so they will be
less violent when they punish their own children. In this way the idea of non-
violence will spread to new generations.

6. Practice gender equity: Never let learners think it’s alright to be violent to girls
and women. Be sure your learners understand that boys and men should never
hit or use other forms of violence against girls and women. Empower the girls
and women you teach to work actively against gender violence.

155
 Section F

Study Skills

Study skills are skills that help learners succeed in school and in their future work.
Study skills include setting goals, learning about higher education, managing time,
taking tests, and working constructively with others. Following are the important
study skills that ALP learners should have:
1. Learning Management Skills
2. Time Management Skills
3. Personal Interaction Skills
4. Academic Skills

LEARNING MANAGEMENT SKILLS

ALP students should understand that there are opportunities for learning everywhere
in their communities. They should also be able to plan goals for learning, set aca-
demic and career goals for themselves, and outline the process for reaching those
goals.

Objectives/Activities: Learners should:

a) list and discuss ways they can gain knowledge and skills in their communities,
including learning from peers, elders, craftsmen, and organisations.
b) identify knowledge and skills they would like to gain from people and organisa-
tions in their communities and plan a strategy for learning from these people and
organisations.
c) list the top three, top five, or top ten things they would like to learn (including
both skills and knowledge).
d) understand the systems of secondary and higher education in South Sudan and
foreign countries, including entry requirements, certificates or degrees that can
be obtained, and career possibilities for people holding various certificates and

156
 degrees. Learners who wish to continue in higher education should develop a
strategy for meeting their goals.
e) describe knowledge and skills needed for work and careers in their communities
and local area that do not require higher education, including farming, small
business, leadership positions, and working in local organisations. Learners who
wish to work in their communities should develop a strategy for meeting their
goals.
f) list and prioritise topics they would like to study that will help them reach their
goals, and add topics not included in the syllabus and textbooks that will also
help them reach their goals.

TIME MANAGEMENT SKILLS

ALP students should be able to manage time, balancing work, free time, and school
activities. They should also be able to discuss time management problems with par-
ents, family, and teachers.
ALP teachers should be role models for the learners in time management.
Teachers should arrive at school on time, start the class on time (even if all the
learners aren’t present), and end lessons and take breaks on time.

Objectives/Activities: Learners should:

a) list all the things they must do to be successful in the ALP course. These include
things expected by the teachers and school, and things their family and commu-
nity expect them to do.
b) make daily and weekly schedules show-
ing how they use their time (include work,
study, free time activities, eating, sleep-
ing, bathing and preparing for work or
school).
c) discuss ways to arrange their schedules
so they have adequate time for school
and homework.
d) role play discussions with parents, family members, and teachers about schedul-
ing work and other activities so they have time to study.
e) discuss the reasons why it’s important to be on time for school, work, appoint-
ments. etc.
f) discuss reasons why learners would want to come to class on time rather than
being forced to come on time by teachers and parents.

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 PERSONAL INTERACTION SKILLS
Learners should understand how to interact with teachers and peers in the class-
room, how to listen to and learn from others, why it’s important to work together in
groups or teams, and how to build a spirit of togetherness among groups and all
people.
ALP teachers should act as role models, being friendly to all the learners in
the classroom and school. Learners may perform poorly if the teacher’s attitude is
too harsh. Teachers should encourage the learners through flexibility and coopera-
tion.
Teachers should encourage activities that bring learners together through
group discussion and other activities that require teamwork and leadership, and that
build a sense of responsibility toward others. This can also be done through games
and sports and activities outside the classroom. The ALP teacher should initiate such
activities in the school to make it a place where all learners are welcome and all
learners are happy to come.

Objectives/Activities: Learners should:

a) state specific things they’ve learned from
other members of the class both inside and
outside the classroom,

b) list the strengths and special talents of each

learner in the class, and develop an aware-
ness that every member of the class has
something to offer others.

c) discuss and understand the benefits of

people working and living together harmo-
niously.

d) discuss and list ways groups can work together so that everyone has a chance
to express his/her ideas and opinions.

e) discuss the characteristics of a good leader, and list leadership skills and ways
to help everyone in the class develop leadership skills.

f) discuss and list their ideas about how the teacher and learners can work with
each other to gain maximum benefits from school.

g) formulate a list of rules for working together in groups including rules for speak-
ing and listening to each other.

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 ACADEMIC SKILLS
ALP Learners should develop certain skills that are necessary for success in aca-
demic environments. These skills are important because many ALP learners will
continue in secondary schools, teacher training institutes and universities. Academic
skills include knowing how to take a test, how to express yourself in writing, and
skills in speaking, reading, and organisation of ideas.
Academic skills are learned and practised throughout the ALP course as the
students take tests, write compositions, and read material from the ALP textbooks
and outside sources. Learners must also learn to listen to their teachers and other
students and develop the ability to express their own ideas and opinions.

Objectives/Activities: Learners should be able to:

a) Complete classroom work and tests within a stated amount of time: When
doing classroom work teachers should give learners a certain amount of time (10
minutes, 30 minutes, etc) to complete the work. Give warnings (“five more mi-
nutes”) while the learners are doing the work.

b) Outline the major points of a topic or idea: When learners begin to write
compositions in class the teacher should help them outline the topic, noting
down the main points and ordering them in a
logical sequence before the learners start to
write. The teacher should guide the class
through this process many times until the
learners can do it themselves.

c) Express themselves in speaking: Teachers

should give all learners the chance to express
themselves in speaking. This requires planning activities where the learners
have time to think and talk, and where the atmosphere isn’t threatening to learn-
ers who haven’t developed the confidence to express themselves. Start with the
mother tongue: have the learners discuss topics in the mother tongue first so
they can develop the skills of developing their ideas and saying what they think.
Move into English when learners are able to use it, but let your classroom be bi-
lingual: accept either English or mother tongue when the objective is to develop
skills in expression. Teachers may have to work individually with some learners,
talking to them during breaks about topics that are interesting to them.

d) Read for comprehension and analysis: When learners are reading, teachers
should make sure everyone understands the meaning of what they’re reading.
Because the learners are reading in English it’s especially important to check
and correct their comprehension. Once they understand a passage or story they
should develop the skill of analyzing and critiquing what is written. Encourage

159
 the learners to compare what they’ve read with their own experiences and opi-
nions. Ask questions like:
Do you think that’s true?
What do you think about that?
How did you feel when you read it?
Do you agree with the writer?
Do you think differently from the writer?

e) Listen to others: Teachers should plan activities that require the learners to lis-
ten to each other, for example, when a learner is speaking have the other learn-
ers listen for the main points of what the person is saying. They should then re-
peat the points back to you when the person is finished speaking. You can also
have the class look for things they agree with and disagree with when another
learner is speaking.

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 TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Name _________________________________ Location ____________________

I understand I understand I’ve seen a I’ve tried this I’ve used the I feel I need to The students The stu- I can teach
the objective of the roles of the demonstration technique in technique know more like it when I dents don’t others how
PAGE
this technique teacher and of this tech- my class- successfully in before I can use this like it when I to use this
and how to learner in this nique. room. my classroom use it suc- technique use this technique
implement it. technique. cessfully. technique
.

Pair and group

93
work

Introducing
new 96
vocabulary

Questioning 98

Brainstorm 100

Whole-Class 100
Discussion

Dialogue 116

Role Play 102, 116

 I understand I understand I’ve seen a I’ve tried this I’ve used the I feel I need to The students The stu- I can teach
the objectives of the roles of the demonstration technique in technique know more like it when I dents don’t others how
PAGE this technique teacher and of this tech- successfully in
my class- before I can use this like it when I to use this
and how to the learner in nique. my classroom
implement it. this technique room. use it suc- technique use this technique
cessfully. technique

Teaching Eng-
lish to Begin- 103
ners

Teaching Read-
ing Compre- 110
hension

Ways to Prac-
115
tise Speaking

Debates 102

Teaching
119
grammar (PPP)

Teaching math
for understand- 122
ing

Homework 127

Outside
129
Projects

161
 LESSON PLANNING

Evaluate your lesson planning skills. Can you write and teach these steps?

Lesson Planning: pages 76-80

Assessment: pages 70-75

Points that need

Good Points Comments
improvement

Write Objectives for the lesson

1: Revision

2. Introduction

3. Present New Material

4. Other Steps/Practise

5. Assessment

6. Conclusion/Summary

162
 THE LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH

Ask yourself these questions:

1. I understand the ideas behind the learner-centered approach.  

2. I feel that the learner-centered approach can help my students learn English more quickly.  

Reasons: ___________________________________________________________________

3. I have used the learner-centered approach successfully in my classroom.  

Learner-Centered Checklist
Answer these questions after teaching a class to see if the class was truly learner-centered. (Check if the answer is “yes”.)

 Did the learners have a chance to express themselves or did I do most of the talking?
 Did I assess for prior knowledge and let them explain new material or did I explain things they knew already?
 Did the learners have a chance to think creatively and analytically?
 Did all the learners participate in the activities or only a few that I chose?
 Did the activities include the slower as well as the faster learners?
 Did the girls participate equally with the boys?
 Did I do activities that allowed different ideas and opinions to be expressed?
 Did the learners appear to be interested in the lesson and motivated to learn?

How could I improve the lesson to make it more learner-centered?

163