Linear Momentum and Impulse

Linear Momentum
During collisions, colliding objects can undergo change of their states of motion
and/or their masses become deformed and/or fractured. This can affect other
physical quantities like energy and linear momentum.
Linear momentum, p, is a physical which is a product of mass, m, of an object and
its instantaneous velocity, v; i.e. p = mv. Thus, linear momentum is a vector quantity,
whose SI unit is kg.m.s-1.

e.g. 1 A 75 kg athlete runs at 5.3 m.s-1 due north.

1.1 Determine the athlete’s linear momentum.
1.2 Later, the athlete is observed running due east at 4.7 m.s-1, what is the
change of the athlete’s linear momentum?

Soln. Given: m = 75 kg, v1 = 5.3 m.s-1 due north (from point A to B) and v2 =
4.7 m.s-1, due east (from B to C).

1.1 p1 = mv1 = (75 kg)(5.3 m.s-1) due north N (+y)

= 397.5 kg.m.s-1, due north. C
B E (+x)
p2
1.2 Δp = p2 – p1; where p2 = (75 kg) ×
(4.7 m.s-1) due east = p1

Thus, magnitude: A
Δp = [(Δpx)2 + (Δpy)2]0.5

= (+4.7 X 75)2 + (+397.5)2 kg.m.s-1

Direction: θ = tan-1(Δpy/Δpx) = tan-1(397.5 ÷ (352.5)) =

Therefore, Δp = 531.3 kg.m.s-1 at 48.4o north of east.

Impulse

Recall, according Newton’s second law of motion: A body will continue in its
instantaneous state of motion or of rest, unless an external unbalanced force is
applied upon it.

This law implies that when a net non-zero force acts on a body, the body accelerates
as its velocity changes; leading to Fnet = ma = m(vf - vi)/Δt, where Δt is time during
which the net force acts on a body.

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Rearranging the above equation, we obtain: Fnet(Δt) = mvf - mvi = Δp.
Product of average net force on an object and duration during which it acts, Fnet(Δt)
is known as the net impulse, Jnet upon the object.

The above equation is linked to a theorem known as the impulse-momentum

theorem; which states: Net impulse experienced by an object, due to a net force
acting upon, is equal to the change of the object’s linear momentum.

e.g. 2 A footballer kicks a 410 g ball, that approaches him at 15.2 m.s-1, directly
backwards. If magnitude of the ball’s velocity becomes 17.6 m.s-1,
2.2 what is the net impulse on the ball?
2.2 If the kicker’s foot was in contact with the ball for 580 ms, how much
force was exerted on the ball by the foot?

Soln. Given: vi = -15.2 m.s-1, vf = 17.6 m.s-1, m = 0.410 kg,

and Δt = 0.580 s (we take direction of the
ball after being kicked to be positive)
Δt
2.1 Impulse = Jnet = Δp = pf – pi = m(vf – vi) = i f

2.2 Since Jnet = Fnet (Δt); therefore, Δt = (Jnet ÷ Fnet) =

Collisions and Linear Momentum Conservation

Whenever two or more particles, within a system, collide; such that total linear
momentum magnitude and direction just before and after collision is the same, linear
momentum of the system is said to be conserved. This is observed if net external
force on the system is equal to 0.0 N.

Note: A system is part of the universe which is being investigated.

e.g. 3 Two particles, A (m = 128 g) and B (m = 96 g), moving along a horizontal

frictionless table, collide head-on. At the instant they collide, particle A
moves at 4.6 m.s-1 along +x-axis and B at 4.8 m.s-1 in the opposite direction.
3.1 Determine total linear momentum of the system, just before they
collide.
3.2 If, just after collision, particle A bounces back at 3.9 m.s-1, what will be
the momentum of particle B then?
3.3 Instead, suppose that before collision, particle B was headed at 30o
above -x-axis; and after collision, particle A is observed traveling at
2.7 m.s-1 at 18o above +x-axis. What shall be the velocity of B after
collision?

(Note: A head-on collision is a collision in which particles travel along

the same straight line before they collide)

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Soln. Data: mA = 0.128 kg, mB = 0.096 kg, vA/b = +4.6 m.s-1, vB/b = -4.8 m.s-1,
vA/a = -3.9 m.s-1 (all velocities along x-axis)

A B A B
Before After

3.1 Total linear momentum, ptotal = pA/b + pB/b = mAvA/b + mBvB/b =

= (0.128 X 4.6 - 0.096 X 4.8) kg.m.s-1
=

3.2 Conservation of linear momentum implies: pA/b + pB/b = pA/a + pB/a,

with vB/a = -3.9 m.s-1

Leading to: pB/a = pA/b + pB/b - pA/a

= {0.128 X 4.6 - 0.096 X 4.8 - (0.128 X (-3.9)} kg.m.s-1
=

3.3 Still pA/b + pB/b = pA/a + pB/a. Before

+y
+x
Thus, along x-axis:
A 30o
pA/b(x) - pB/b(x) = pA/a(x) + pB/a(x) . . . (i) B

And along y-axis: pB/b(y) = pA/a(y) + pB/a(y) . . . (ii)

(i) leads to: [(0.128 X 4.6) - (0.096 X 4.8)cos(30o)] m.s-1

= (0.128 X 2.7)cos(18o) + (0.096) m.s-1 × vB/a(x)

Therefore, vB/a(x) =

(ii) leads to: (0.096 X 4.8)sin(30o)] m.s-1

= (0.128 X 2.7)sin(18o) m.s-1 + (0.096)vB/a(y)

Therefore, vB/a(y) =

Thus, magnitude of velocity of particle B after collision:

vB/a = vB/a(x)2+ vB/a(y)2 = and direction: θB/a = tan-1(vB/a(y) /vB/a(x)) =

Types of Collisions; Conservation of Linear Momentum and Kinetic Energy

Two or more particles can collide when, at least one of them, is in motion, as seen in
e.g. 3. Collisions for which both total linear momentum and total kinetic energy of
the system are conserved (i.e. do not change their magnitudes, and direction in the
case of linear momentum) are classified as elastic collisions.

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 For an elastic collision: Σpbefore = Σpafter and ΣKEbefore = ΣKEafter

e.g. 4 A 0.22 kg ball moving at 5.5 m.s-1 collides elastically head-on with another ball
that travels at 4.9 m.s-1 in the opposite direction. Immediately after collision,
the 0.22 kg ball bounces backward at 3.8 m.s-1. Calculate
4.1 velocity of the other ball just after the collision, and
4.2 its mass.

Soln. Given: mA = 0.22 kg, vA/b = +5.5 m.s-1, vB/b = -4.9 m.s-1, vA/a = -3.8 m.s-1

A B A B
Before After

Conservation of linear momentum: pA/b + pB/b = pA/a + pB/a

Therefore: mAvA/b + mBvB/b = mAvA/a + mBvB/a . . . (i)

And, conservation of linear momentum: KEA/b + KEB/b = KEA/a + KEB/a

1 1 1 1
Therefore: 2mA(vA/b)2 + 2mB(vB/b)2 = 2mA(vA/a)2 + 2mB(vB/a)2 . . . (ii)

From equations (i) and (ii) we have two unknowns (mB and vB/a); thus, we can
determine their magnitudes.

A collision for which total kinetic energy is not conserved, though linear momentum is
conserved, is classified as an inelastic collision. For such type of collision, part of
initial kinetic energy is converted to potential energy or other form of energy, e.g.
heat and deformation.

Note. 1. During an inelastic collision: Σpbefore = Σpafter, but ΣKEbefore > ΣKEafter
2. An inelastic collision in which colliding particles stick together after
collision is classified as a complete inelastic collision

e.g. 5 A 144 g baseball moving at 28.0 m.s-1 strikes a stationary 5.3 kg brick resting
on small rollers, so it can move without significant friction. After being hit, the
brick moves forward at 1.1 m.s-1,
5.1 what is the baseball’s speed after the collision?
5.2 Is this collision elastic or inelastic? (Give a reason for your answer)

Soln. Before Data: mb = 0.144 kg, mB = 5.3 kg,

Ball (b) Brick (B) vb/b = +28.0 m.s-1, vB/b = 0.0 m.s-1
and vB/a = +1.1 m.s-1

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 5.1 pb/b + pB/b = pb/a + pB/a leads to: mbvb/b + mB vB/b = mbvb/a + mB vB/a
(0.144 × 28.0 + 0.0) kg.m.s-1 = (0.144 kg × vb/a) + (5.3 × 1.1) kg.m.s-1
Therefore, vb/a = -12.5 m.s-1

It bounced straight back at 12.5 m.s-1

5.2 To determine whether the collision is elastic or inelastic, compare total

kinetic energy of the system before and after collision.

1 1
KEbefore = 2mbvb/b2 + 2mBvB/b2 = 0.5(0.144 × 28.02 +0.0) J
= 56.4 J

1 1
KEafter = 2mbvb/a2 + 2mBvB/a2 = 0.5{0.144 × (-12.5)2 + 5.3 × (1.1)2} J
= 14.5 J

We note that total linear momentum of the system is conserved, but its
kinetic energy is not; therefore, the collision is inelastic.

e.g. 6 A 7.8 g bullet is short into a 220 g block, resting at the edge of a 900 cm tall
frictionless table. Upon striking the block, the bullet gets embedded within the
block, that eventually lands on the floor 1.7 m from the edge of the table.
6.1 What is linear momentum of the bullet, just before it strikes the block?
6.2 Show that the collision is completely inelastic.

7.8 g
220 g

0.9 m

1.7 m

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Soln. Data: m1 = 7.8 × 10-3 kg, m2 = 0.22 kg, x = 1.7 m, y = -0.9 m, g = -9.8m.s-2.

6.1 We note that as the block, with a bullet

lodged inside it, travels from the table +x
edge to the floor, it undergoes projectile A
motion from point A to B in the sketch.

For vertical component of motion,

B
vAy = 0.0 m.s-1, ay = g = -9.8 m.s-2
Therefore, y = vAyt + 0.5gt2 = 0.5gt2 … (i)
-y

Thus, for horizontal component (which is velocity of the block after

being struck by the bullet), vAx = x/t … (ii)

Eqns. (i) and (ii) imply: 2y/g = x/vAx, where vAx is speed of the block
just after being struck by the bullet;

Thus, vafter = vAx = (x / g/2y ); since the table is frictionless.

Conservation of linear momentum at the instant the bullet strikes the

block:
pbefore = pafter
m1vbullet + m2vblock = (m1 + m2)vafter

We note that vblock = 0.0 m.s-1, since the block initially was
stationary.

Therefore, pbullet-before = m1vbullet = vafter(m1 + m2) =

6.2 We note that: KEbefore = m1(vbullet)2/2 … (i)

And KEafter = (m1 + m2)(vafter)2/2 … (ii)

We observe from eqns. (i) and (ii) that KEbefore is greater than KEafter,
and that the bullet gets stuck inside the block, the collision is
completely inelastic.

Ex. Can magnitude of e (coefficient of restitution) be greater than 1.0? (If so, what
does it imply? if not, why?)

Centre of mass

Almost every object is composed of atoms, and each atom has mass. In addition,
there might be different types of elements and isotopes within any structure; and

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distribution of atoms and impurities might vary from point to point within a structure.
This can lead to an overall mass distribution within a structure not being uniform.

A position or point within (e.g. in a case of a die) or outside (e.g. in a hollow cylinder)
an object, relative to which mass of an object is uniformly distributed along any
direction (i.e. a point relative to which mass of an object can be taken to be located
at), is referred to as the object’s centre of mass. Centre of mass of an object is a
point at which net external force on a body is taken to be exerted at.

Note: Centre of mass of an object never changes its location, as long as relative
mass distribution of its constituent parts is not externally altered.

Whenever an object is in motion, its centre of

mass traces path of its (i.e. object’s) motion,
even when components of its body might be
undergoing different motions with respect to
each other; as can be seen in the second
sketch on the right.

On the sketches on the right, dashed line

shows the path of a diver’s centre of mass
(which in this case is at the diver’s hip). Thus, motion of centre of mass is equivalent
to that of a point particle.

Note: i. For an object/structure with n-dimensions, its centre of mass has ‘n’
components; e.g, a three-dimensional object has a centre of mass whose
components are: xcm, ycm and zcm. We also note that location of the centre
of mass is fixed, as long as the structure is not altered by an external agent.
ii. A structure/system composed of substructures (or components) that are
linked or isolated from each other, its centre of mass is obtained by noting
centres of mass of each component/substructure; e.g. a two dimensional
structure/system composed of ‘n’ structural components, xcm = Σ(mixi)/m
and ycm = Σ(miyi)/m, where (i) xi and yi are individual particle/component
centre of mass along x- and y-axis, respectively, (ii) mi – individual
particle/component mass, and (iii) m – total mass of the entire particle/
system.

N.B. It is assumed that components/substructures are well-defined, and

mass distribution is uniform for each component/substructure.

e.g. 7 A uniform thin L-shaped construction brace is shown in

the figure on the right. Determine
7.1 centre of mass of the brace, and
7.2 is it (i.e. the brace centre of mass) located within
or outside the body (the brace).

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Soln. Using dimensions shown, we separate the brace into two parts, A and B (as
shown in the figure). Since the brace is uniform, and both parts A and B are
rectangular, centre of mass of each part shall be at its geometrical central
point along both x and y axis (i.e. centre of each rectangle). Relative to point
O, the origin: for rectangle A, (xcm(A), ycm(A)) = (+1.03 m, +0.10 cm), and for
part B, (xcm(B), ycm(B)) = (+1.96 m, -0.74 cm)

7.1 Therefore: xcm = (mA xcm(A) + mB xcm(B)) ÷ (mA + mB) . . . (i);

And, ycm = (mA ycm(A) + mB ycm(B))/(mA + mB) . . . (ii).

Note, that since the brace is uniform, its ratio of mass per unit area or
area mass density (i.e. m ÷ A) is uniform throughout; therefore, m/A =
mA/AA = mB/AB. (where m is total mass and A total area)

This leads to: mA = AA × (m/A) and mB = AB × (m/A)

Thus, eqn. (i) becomes: xcm = (AA xcm(A) + AB xcm(B)) ÷ A = ... (ia);

And, eqn. (ii): ycm = (AA ycm(A) + AB ycm(B)) ÷ A = ... (iia).

7.2 Homework

Motion of the centre of mass

Upon determining the centre of mass of a system of an object or system of objects,

we can determine the velocity of the body/system by noting that during time interval,
Δt, displacement of particle/element of a system is Δri = viΔt , where = vi is velocity
of the i-th particle of an object/system. Thus, for a body/system traveling along two
dimensions, velocity components of centre of mass, m, are: vx,cm = Σ(mivx(i))/m and
vy,cm = Σ(mivy(i))/m. Similarly, acceleration components of the centre of mass are:
ax,cm = Σ(miax(i))/m and ay,cm = Σ(miay(i))/m

e.g. 7 Consider two falling bodies, with masses 3.0 kg and 4.0 kg, respectively. At
time t = 0, the two are released from rest. What is the velocity of their centre
of mass at t = 3.0 s? (Ignore air resistance.)

Soln. For particles released from rest, their velocities at t = 3.0 s are: v = vo + gt

Each particle at t = 3.0 s will have v = 29.4 m.s-1 vertically downwards; therefore,

vcm = (m1v1 + m2v2) ÷ (m1 + m2); where m1 = 3.0 kg, m1 = 4.0 kg, v1 = v2 = -29.4 m.s-1

Therefore, vcm = -29.4 m.s-1

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