APPENDIX B P E R I O D I C TA B L E O F T H E E L E M E N T S

Atomic number 6 Atomic mass

(number of protons) (number of protons plus
C number of neutrons averaged
Element symbol 12.01 over all isotopes)
Metals Metalloids Nonmetals
Representative elements

Groups: Elements in a vertical column have the same number of

Alkali Alkaline Halogens Noble
metals earth electrons in their valence (outer) shell and thus have similar gases
metals chemical properties.

1 Periods: Each horizontal row contains elements with the same 18

Period Group total number of electron shells. Across each period, elements Group
number 1A are ordered by increasing atomic number.
8A
13 14 15 16 17

Appendix B Periodic Table

1
2 2
Group Group Group Group Group Group
1 H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
He
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Transition elements B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57* 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89† 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn — Fl — Lv — —
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (271) (272) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (292) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
†Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) 252 257 258 259 260

Name Atomic Name Atomic Name Atomic Name Atomic Name Atomic
(Symbol) Number (Symbol) Number (Symbol) Number (Symbol) Number (Symbol) Number
Actinium (Ac) 89 Copernicium (Cn) 112 Iodine (I) 53 Osmium (Os) 76 Silicon (Si) 14
Aluminum (Al) 13 Copper (Cu) 29 Iridium (Ir) 77 Oxygen (O) 8 Silver (Ag) 47
Americium (Am) 95 Curium (Cm) 96 Iron (Fe) 26 Palladium (Pd) 46 Sodium (Na) 11
Antimony (Sb) 51 Darmstadtium (Ds) 110 Krypton (Kr) 36 Phosphorus (P) 15 Strontium (Sr) 38
Argon (Ar) 18 Dubnium (Db) 105 Lanthanum (La) 57 Platinum (Pt) 78 Sulfur (S) 16
Arsenic (As) 33 Dysprosium (Dy) 66 Lawrencium (Lr) 103 Plutonium (Pu) 94 Tantalum (Ta) 73
Astatine (At) 85 Einsteinium (Es) 99 Lead (Pb) 82 Polonium (Po) 84 Technetium (Tc) 43
Barium (Ba) 56 Erbium (Er) 68 Lithium (Li) 3 Potassium (K) 19 Tellurium (Te) 52
Berkelium (Bk) 97 Europium (Eu) 63 Livermorium (Lv) 116 Praseodymium (Pr) 59 Terbium (Tb) 65
Beryllium (Be) 4 Fermium (Fm) 100 Lutetium (Lu) 71 Promethium (Pm) 61 Thallium (Tl) 81
Bismuth (Bi) 83 Flerovium (Fl) 114 Magnesium (Mg) 12 Protactinium (Pa) 91 Thorium (Th) 90
Bohrium (Bh) 107 Fluorine (F) 9 Manganese (Mn) 25 Radium (Ra) 88 Thulium (Tm) 69
Boron (B) 5 Francium (Fr) 87 Meitnerium (Mt) 109 Radon (Rn) 86 Tin (Sn) 50
Bromine (Br) 35 Gadolinium (Gd) 64 Mendelevium (Md) 101 Rhenium (Re) 75 Titanium (Ti) 22
Cadmium (Cd) 48 Gallium (Ga) 31 Mercury (Hg) 80 Rhodium (Rh) 45 Tungsten (W) 74
Calcium (Ca) 20 Germanium (Ge) 32 Molybdenum (Mo) 42 Roentgenium (Rg) 111 Uranium (U) 92
Californium (Cf) 98 Gold (Au) 79 Neodymium (Nd) 60 Rubidium (Rb) 37 Vanadium (V) 23
Carbon (C) 6 Hafnium (Hf) 72 Neon (Ne) 10 Ruthenium (Ru) 44 Xenon (Xe) 54
Cerium (Ce) 58 Hassium (Hs) 108 Neptunium (Np) 93 Rutherfordium (Rf) 104 Ytterbium (Yb) 70
Cesium (Cs) 55 Helium (He) 2 Nickel (Ni) 28 Samarium (Sm) 62 Yttrium (Y) 39
Chlorine (Cl) 17 Holmium (Ho) 67 Niobium (Nb) 41 Scandium (Sc) 21 Zinc (Zn) 30
Chromium (Cr) 24 Hydrogen (H) 1 Nitrogen (N) 7 Seaborgium (Sg) 106 Zirconium (Zr) 40
Cobalt (Co) 27 Indium (In) 49 Nobelium (No) 102 Selenium (Se) 34

APPENDIX B Periodic Table of the Elements B-1

 APPENDIX C THE METRIC SYSTEM

Metric Prefixes: 109 = giga (G) 10−2 = centi (c) 10−9 = nano (n)
106 = mega (M) 10−3 = milli (m) 10−12 = pico (p)
103 = kilo (k) 10−6 = micro (μ) 10−15 = femto (f)

Metric-to-English English-to-Metric
Measurement Unit and Abbreviation Metric Equivalent Conversion Factor Conversion Factor
Length 1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 (103) meters 1 km = 0.62 mile 1 mile = 1.61 km
2
1 meter (m) = 100 (10 ) centimeters 1 m = 1.09 yards 1 yard = 0.914 m
= 1,000 millimeters 1 m = 3.28 feet 1 foot = 0.305 m
1 m = 39.37 inches
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 (10−2) meter 1 cm = 0.394 inch 1 foot = 30.5 cm
1 inch = 2.54 cm
−3
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 (10 ) meter 1 mm = 0.039 inch
1 micrometer (μm) = 10−6 meter (10−3 mm)
(formerly micron, μ)
1 nanometer (nm) = 10−9 meter (10−3 μm)
(formerly millimicron, mμ)
= 10−10 meter (10−4 μm)
Appendix C The Metric System

1 angstrom (Å)
Area 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 square meters 1 ha = 2.47 acres 1 acre = 0.405 ha
1 square meter (m2) = 10,000 square centimeters 1 m2 = 1.196 square yards 1 square yard = 0.8361 m2
1 m2 = 10.764 square feet 1 square foot = 0.0929 m2
1 square centimeter (cm2) = 100 square millimeters 1 cm2 = 0.155 square inch 1 square inch = 6.4516 cm2
Mass 1 metric ton (t) = 1,000 kilograms 1 t = 1.103 tons 1 ton = 0.907 t
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams 1 kg = 2.205 pounds 1 pound = 0.4536 kg
1 gram (g) = 1,000 milligrams 1 g = 0.0353 ounce 1 ounce = 28.35 g
1 g = 15.432 grains
1 milligram (mg) = 10−3 gram 1 mg = approx. 0.015 grain
1 microgram (μg) = 10−6 gram
Volume 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1,000,000 cubic centimeters 1 m3 = 1.308 cubic yards 1 cubic yard = 0.7646 m3
(solids) 3
1 m = 35.315 cubic feet 1 cubic foot = 0.0283 m3

1 cubic centimeter = 10−6 cubic meter 1 cm3 = 0.061 cubic inch 1 cubic inch = 16.387 cm3
(cm3 or cc)
1 cubic millimeter (mm3) = 10−9 cubic meter
= 10−3 cubic centimeter

Volume 1 kiloliter (kL or kl) = 1,000 liters 1 kL = 264.17 gallons

(liquids and
1 liter (L or l) = 1,000 milliliters 1 L = 0.264 gallon 1 gallon = 3.785 L
gases)
1 L = 1.057 quarts 1 quart = 0.946 L
−3
1 milliliter (mL or ml) = 10 liter 1 mL = 0.034 fluid ounce 1 quart = 946 mL
= 1 cubic centimeter 1 mL = approx. 1⁄4 teaspoon 1 pint = 473 mL
1 mL = approx. 15–16 drops (gtt.) 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL
1 teaspoon = approx. 5 mL
−6 −3
1 microliter (μL or μl) = 10 liter (10 milliliter)
Pressure 1 megapascal (MPa) = 1,000 kilopascals 1 MPa = 10 bars 1 bar = 0.1 MPa
1 kilopascal (kPa) = 1,000 pascals 1 kPa = 0.01 bar 1 bar = 100 kPa
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 newton/m2 (N/m2) 1 Pa = 1.0 × 10−5 bar 1 bar = 1.0 × 105 Pa
Time 1 second (s or sec) = 1⁄60 minute
1 millisecond (ms or msec) = 10−3 second
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) (0 K [Kelvin] = −273.15°C) °F = 9⁄ 5°C + 32 °C = 5⁄9 (°F − 32)

C–1 APPENDIX C The Metric System

 A C O M PA R I S O N O F T H E L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E
APPENDIX D AND THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

Eye
Electron source

Ocular lens
Condenser lens
Specimen
Objective lens
Intermediate image
Objective lens Projector lens

Eye
Specimen
Binoculars
Condenser lens

Final image on
digital detector,
fluorescent screen,
Light source or photographic film

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

In light microscopy, light is focused on a specimen by a In electron microscopy, a beam of electrons (top of the

Appendix D Microscopes
glass condenser lens; the image is then magnified by an microscope) is used instead of light, and electromagnets are
objective lens and an ocular lens for projection on the eye, used instead of glass lenses. The electron beam is focused on
digital camera, digital video camera, or photographic film. the specimen by a condenser lens; the image is magnified
by an objective lens and a projector lens for projection on a
digital detector, fluorescent screen, or photographic film.

APPENDIX D Microscopes D–1

 Appendix E C l a s s i f i ca t i o n o f L i f e

This appendix presents a taxonomic classification for the Various alternative classification schemes are discussed in
major extant groups of organisms discussed in this text; not Unit Five of the text. The taxonomic turmoil includes debates
all phyla are included. The classification presented here is about the number and boundaries of kingdoms and about the
based on the three-domain system, which assigns the two alignment of the Linnaean classification hierarchy with the
major groups of prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, to findings of modern cladistic analysis. In this review, asterisks
separate domains (with eukaryotes making up the third (*) indicate currently recognized phyla thought by some sys-
domain). tematists to be paraphyletic.

Domain Bacteria Domain Eukarya

• Proteobacteria In the phylogenetic hypothesis we present in Chapter 28, major clades of eukaryotes
are grouped together in the four “supergroups” listed in bold type below and on the facing
• Chlamydia
page. Formerly, all the eukaryotes generally called protists were assigned to a single kingdom,
• Spirochetes Protista. However, advances in systematics have made it clear that some protists are more
closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. As a result, the
• Gram-Positive kingdom Protista has been abandoned.
Bacteria
Excavata Archaeplastida
• Cyanobacteria
• Diplomonadida (diplomonads) • Rhodophyta (red algae)
• Parabasala (parabasalids) • Chlorophyta (green algae: chlorophytes)
• Euglenozoa (euglenozoans) • Charophyta (green algae: charophytes)
Kinetoplastida (kinetoplastids) • Plantae
Euglenophyta (euglenids) Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts)
Nonvascular
Phylum Bryophyta (mosses) v plants (bryophytes)
“SAR” Clade
Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)
• Stramenopila (stramenopiles)
Phylum Lycophyta (lycophytes)
Chrysophyta (golden algae) Seedless vascular
Phylum Monilophyta (ferns, horsetails,v plants
Phaeophyta (brown algae)
whisk ferns)
Bacillariophyta (diatoms)
Phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgo)
Phylum Cycadophyta (cycads)
Domain Archaea v Gymnosperms

v
Phylum Gnetophyta (gnetophytes) Seed
Appendix E Classification of Life

• Korarchaeota Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers) plants

Phylum Anthophyta (flowering
• Euryarchaeota plants) v Angiosperms

• Crenarchaeota
• Alveolata (alveolates)
• Nanoarchaeota Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates)
Apicomplexa (apicomplexans)
Ciliophora (ciliates)
• Rhizaria (rhizarians)
Radiolaria (radiolarians)
Foraminifera (forams)
Cercozoa (cercozoans)

E–1    a p p e n d i x e   Classification of Life

 Domain Eukarya, continued
Unikonta Ecdysozoa (ecdysozoans)
• Amoebozoa (amoebozoans) Phylum Loricifera (loriciferans)
Myxogastrida (plasmodial slime molds) Phylum Priapula (priapulans)
Dictyostelida (cellular slime molds) Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)
Tubulinea (tubulinids) Phylum Arthropoda (This survey groups arthropods into a
Entamoeba (entamoebas) single phylum, but some zoologists now split the arthropods
• Nucleariida (nucleariids) into multiple phyla.)
• Fungi Chelicerata (horseshoe crabs, arachnids)
*Phylum Chytridiomycota (chytrids) Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes)
*Phylum Zygomycota (zygomycetes) Pancrustacea (crustaceans, insects)
Phylum Glomeromycota (glomeromycetes) Phylum Tardigrada (tardigrades)
Phylum Ascomycota (ascomycetes) Phylum Onychophora (velvet worms)
Phylum Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes) Deuterostomia (deuterostomes)
Phylum Hemichordata (hemichordates)
Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
Asteroidea (sea stars, sea daisies)
Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
Echinoides (sea urchins, sand dollars)
Crinoidea (sea lilies)
Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
Phylum Chordata (chordates)
Cephalochordata (cephalochordates: lancelets)
• Choanoflagellata (choanoflagellates) Urochordata (urochordates: tunicates)
• Animalia Cyclostomata (cyclostomes)
Phylum Porifera (sponges) Myxini (hagfishes)
Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies) Petromyzontida (lampreys)
Phylum Cnidaria (cnidarians) Gnathostomata (gnathostomes)
Medusozoa (hydrozoans, jellies, box jellies) Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays, chimaeras)
Anthozoa (sea anemones and most corals) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)
Phylum Acoela (acoel flatworms)
Phylum Placozoa (placozoans)
Actinistia (coelacanths)
vVertebrates

Appendix E Classification of Life

Dipnoi (lungfishes)
Lophotrochozoa (lophotrochozoans) Amphibia (amphibians: frogs,
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) salamanders, caecilians)
Catenulida (chain worms) Reptilia (reptiles: tuataras, lizards, snakes,
Rhabditophora (planarians, flukes, tapeworms) turtles, crocodilians, birds)
Phylum Nemertea (proboscis worms) Mammalia (mammals)
Phylum Ectoprocta (ectoprocts)
Phylum Brachiopoda (brachiopods)
Phylum Rotifera (rotifers)
Phylum Cycliophora (cycliophorans)
Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
Polyplacophora (chitons)
Gastropoda (gastropods)
Bivalvia (bivalves)
Cephalopoda (cephalopods)
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
Errantia (errantians)
Sedentaria (sedentarians)
Phylum Acanthocephala (spiny-headed worms)

a p p e n d i x e   Classification of Life    E–2
 APPENDIX F SCIENTIFIC SKILLS REVIEW

Graphs
Graphs provide a visual representation of numerical data. They may reveal patterns or trends
in the data that are not easy to recognize in a table. A graph is a diagram that shows how one
variable in a data set is related (or perhaps not related) to another variable. If one variable is
dependent on the other, the dependent variable is typically plotted on the y-axis and the
independent variable on the x-axis. Types of graphs that are frequently used in biology
include scatter plots, line graphs, bar graphs, and histograms.

▶ A scatter plot is used when the The dependent Each piece of data is represented by a point on the
data for all variables are numerical graph. The point's horizontal position equals the
variable is
value of the independent variable, and its vertical
and continuous. Each piece of data plotted on the
position equals the value of the dependent variable.
vertical axis (also
is represented by a point. In a line called the y-axis).
graph, each data point is connected

Number of species
to the next point in the data set with Each axis has a 20
a straight line, as in the graph to the label that

present
identifies the 15
right. (To practice making and inter- variable plotted
preting scatter plots and line graphs, 10
on that axis.
see the Scientific Skills Exercises in 5
Chapters 2, 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 19, 24, 34,
Each axis is divided 0
43, 47, 49, 50, 52, 54, and 56.) into equal intervals, 1963 ’64 ’65 ’66 ’67 ’68 ’69 ’70 ’71 ’72 ’73
which are indicated
Year
by numbered tick
marks along the axis.
The independent variable The range of each axis
is plotted on the horizontal covers all the data that
axis (also called the x-axis). are plotted.

▼ Two or more data sets can be plotted on the same line graph to show how two dependent
variables are related to the same independent variable. (To practice making and interpreting
line graphs with two or more data sets, see the Scientific Skills Exercises in Chapters 7, 43, 47,
49, 50, 52, and 56.)

The plotted data sets are identified by labels on the

graph (as shown here) or by a key.

Different colors or If the second data set has a

styles distinguish 50 2,500 different dependent
Appendix F Scientific Skills Review

different data sets Wolves Moose variable or different units,

on the same graph. it may be plotted on the
2,000
Number of moose

40
Number of wolves

right vertical axis.

30 1,500

20 1,000

The dependent 10 500

variable for one data
set is plotted on the
left vertical axis. 0 0 Because both data sets
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 have the same independent
variable, there is only one
Year
horizontal axis.

F–1 APPENDIX F Scientific Skills Review

▼ In some scatter-plot graphs, a straight or curved line is drawn through the entire data set
to show the general trend in the data. A straight line that mathematically fits the data best
is called a regression line. Alternatively, a mathematical function that best fits the data may
describe a curved line, often termed a best-fit curve. (To practice making and interpreting re-
gression lines, see the Scientific Skills Exercises in Chapters 3, 10, and 34.)

80 The regression line can be

expressed as a mathematical
70 equation. It allows you to

Percent of mass lost

predict the value of the
60
dependent variable for any
50 value of the independent
Dependent variable variable within the range of
40 the data set and, less
30 commonly, beyond the range
of the data.
20
10
0
–15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15
Independent variable Mean annual temperature (°C)

▼ A bar graph is a kind of graph in which the independent variable represents groups or non-
numerical categories and the values of the dependent variable(s) are shown by bars. (To prac-
tice making and interpreting bar graphs, see the Scientific Skills Exercises in Chapters 1, 9, 18,
20, 22, 25, 27, 29, 33, 35, 39, 51, 52, and 54.)

Each piece of data is represented by a bar If multiple data sets are

on the graph. The top of the bar aligns plotted on the same bar
with the value of the dependent variable. graph, they are distinguished
by bars of different colors
As in a line graph or
plant biomass (%)

300 or styles and identified by

scatter plot, the labels or a key.
Sugar maple
Increase in

vertical axis is
usually used for the 200 Red maple The groups or categories of the
dependent variable. White ash independent variable are
100
usually spaced equally along
The axis for the 0 the horizontal axis. (In some
dependent variable is bar graphs, the horizontal axis
Invaded Uninvaded Sterilized Sterilized
labeled and divided into is used for the dependent variable
invaded uninvaded
equal intervals indicated and the vertical axis for the
Soil type independent variable.)
by numbered tick marks.

▶ A variant of a bar graph called a histogram can be made The height of this bar shows the percent of individuals
for numeric data by first grouping, or “binning,” the vari- (about 4%) whose plasma LDL cholesterol levels are in
the range indicated on the x-axis.
able plotted on the x-axis into intervals of equal width. The

Appendix F Scientific Skills Review

“bins” may be integers or ranges of numbers. In the histo-
25
gram at right, the intervals are 25 mg/dL wide. The height
Percent of individuals

of each bar shows the percent (or alternatively, the number) 20

of experimental subjects whose characteristics can be de- 15
scribed by one of the intervals plotted on the x-axis. (To 10
practice making and interpreting histograms, see the Scien-
5
tific Skills Exercises in Chapters 12, 14, and 42.)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Plasma LDL cholesterol (mg/dL)

This interval runs from 50 to 74 mg/dL.

APPENDIX F Scientific Skills Review F–2

 experimental group A set of subjects that has (or receives) the
Glossary of Scientific Inquiry Terms specific factor being tested in a controlled experiment.
See Concept 1.3 for more discussion of the process of hypothesis A testable explanation for a set of observations based on
the available data and guided by inductive reasoning. A hypoth-
scientific inquiry. esis is narrower in scope than a theory.
control group In a controlled experiment, a set of subjects that independent variable A variable whose value is manipulated or
lacks (or does not receive) the specific factor being tested. Ideally, changed during an experiment or other test to reveal possible
the control group should be identical to the experimental group effects on another variable (the dependent variable).
in other respects. inductive reasoning A type of logic in which generalizations are
controlled experiment An experiment in which an experimental based on a large number of specific observations.
group is compared with a control group that varies only in the inquiry The search for information and explanation, often focusing
factor being tested. on specific questions.
data Recorded observations. model A physical or conceptual representation of a natural
deductive reasoning A type of logic in which specific results are phenomenon.
predicted from a general premise. prediction In deductive reasoning, a forecast that follows logically
dependent variable A variable whose value is measured during from a hypothesis. By testing predictions, experiments may allow
an experiment or other test to see whether it is influenced by certain hypotheses to be rejected.
changes in another variable (the independent variable). theory An explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis,
experiment A scientific test, carried out under controlled condi- generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of
tions, involving manipulation of one or more factors in a system evidence.
in order to see the effects of those changes. variable A factor that varies in an experiment or other test.

Chi-Square (χ 2) Distribution Table

To use the table, find the row that corresponds to the degrees of freedom in your data set. (The degrees
of freedom is the number of categories of data minus 1.) Move along that row to the pair of values that
your calculated χ2 value lies between. Move up from those numbers to the probabilities at the top of the
columns to find the probability range for your χ2 value. A probability of 0.05 or less is generally consid-
ered significant. (To practice using the chi-square test, see the Scientific Skills Exercise in Chapter 15.)
Probability
Degrees of
Freedom (df) 0.95 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.001
1 0.004 0.02 0.06 0.15 0.45 1.07 1.64 2.71 3.84 6.64 10.83
2 0.10 0.21 0.45 0.71 1.39 2.41 3.22 4.61 5.99 9.21 13.82
3 0.35 0.58 1.01 1.42 2.37 3.66 4.64 6.25 7.82 11.34 16.27
4 0.71 1.06 1.65 2.19 3.36 4.88 5.99 7.78 9.49 13.28 18.47
5 1.15 1.61 2.34 3.00 4.35 6.06 7.29 9.24 11.07 15.09 20.52
6 1.64 2.20 3.07 3.83 5.35 7.23 8.56 10.64 12.59 16.81 22.46
7 2.17 2.83 3.82 4.67 6.35 8.38 9.80 12.02 14.07 18.48 24.32
8 2.73 3.49 4.59 5.53 7.34 9.52 11.03 13.36 15.51 20.09 26.12
9 3.33 4.17 5.38 6.39 8.34 10.66 12.24 14.68 16.92 21.67 27.88
10 3.94 4.87 6.18 7.27 9.34 11.78 13.44 15.99 18.31 23.21 29.59

Mean and Standard Deviation The standard deviation provides a measure of the varia-
Appendix F Scientific Skills Review

tion found in a set of data points. The standard deviation

The mean is the sum of all data points in a data set divided of a variable x (denoted sx ) is calculated from the following
by the number of data points. The mean (or average) rep- equation:
resents a “typical” or central value around which the data n
points are clustered. The mean of a variable x (denoted by
a (x i - x)
2
x) is calculated from the following equation: s = i=1
1 n H n - 1
x = a xi
n i=1 In this formula, n is the number of observations, xi is the
In this formula, n is the number of observations, and xi is value of the ith observation of variable x, and x is the mean of
the value of the ith observation of variable x; the “ a ” sym- x; the “ a ” symbol indicates that the n values of (x i - x )2 are
bol indicates that the n values of xi are to be summed. (To to be summed. (To practice calculating standard deviation,
practice calculating the mean, see the Scientific Skills Exer- see the Scientific Skills Exercises in Chapters 32 and 34.)
cises in Chapters 32 and 34.)

F–3 APPENDIX F Scientific Skills Review