Module 4 – Fluid Flow Solution:

A. Characteristics of Fluids Since the density of milk is greater than that of water by a factor of 1.032, K
1. Density – (mass per unit volume, ρ) is perhaps the most important becomes 9.807kpa/m × 1.032kg/m3.
fluid property. SI units for density are kg/m3. Variations of liquid
Thus: Pd = Ps + Kd = 100 kPa + (9.807 × 1.032) kPa/m × 2 m = 120.2 kPa
density with pressure can usually be ignored but variation with
temperature may be significant. A secondary property, specific C. Conservation Equations
weight (w), is derived from the density. It has units of force per  a conservation equation must account for all components being
unit volume (i.e., lbf /ft3) and may be taken as numerically equal to “conserved.”
the density in equivalent mass units.  two conservation equations significant to our consideration of
2. Compressibility – the change in density of a fluid due to a change flowing liquids are the Conservation of Mass and the Conservation
in temperature or pressure. This property is especially important of Energy.
for gases but can usually be ignored for liquids. When  also referred to as mass and energy balance equations.
compressibility effects are not significant, the governing laws of
fluid mechanics can be greatly simplified. 1. Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)
3. Viscosity – the tendency of a fluid to resist any motion within the
 Equation simply states that we must account for all material.
fluid. For many common liquids, such as water, viscosity varies
 Every kilogram of fluid added to a system must be stored or
with temperature. For some fluids, the viscous effect cannot be
removed from the system.
evaluated in terms of a numerical value for viscosity. These fluids
 liquids are essentially incompressible; the equation is usually
are called non-Newtonian fluids.
written in terms of volume rather than mass.
B. Pressure vs. Depth Consider application of this volumetric analysis to three different physical
1. Gage Pressure – pressure that would be indicated by gages such as arrangements:
those used to measure tire pressure and water pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is the reference pressure for these  flow in a single channel with area change;
measurements. Therefore, these gages are actually measuring the  flow into a channel with more than one exit;
difference between pressure at the point of measurement and  flow with accumulation.
atmospheric pressure. Thus, gage pressure measurements indicate a
The key relationship for the volumetric flow analysis is that the flow rate
vacuum if pressure is below atmospheric and a positive pressure
• Q (m3/s) is equal to the average velocity in the channel or pipe, u (m/s),
for pressure above atmospheric.
multiplied by the channel area A (m2). • Q = uA
2. Absolute pressure – indicates a pressure measurement referenced
to a perfect vacuum. Thus, atmospheric pressure has a numeric
value of 101.325 kPa or 14.696 psi absolute. Absolute pressure is
then the sum of gage pressure and atmospheric pressure. Pressure
below a fluid surface is closely related to the depth below that Milk flows at a rate of 2.0 L/s through a 50-mm diameter pipe. At a tap in the
surface. pipe, 0.7 L/s is removed. What is the flow rate and velocity of the milk
A milk storage tank is pressurized such that the air pressure above the liquid downstream of the tap?
surface is 100 kPa. What is the pressure at a depth of 2 m below the milk Solution
surface? The milk has a density of 1032 kg/m3.
(1) Since 0.7 L/s is removed from the 2.0 L/s flowing in the pipe, 1.3 L/s  Fluid properties
must flow through the downstream section.  fluid velocity
(2) The velocity is found by solving for u in the continuity relationship:  type and size of the pipe

•Q = A × u. If the Reynolds number is small (low velocity, high viscosity, or both), flow
is laminar. (Laminar flow occurs when all particles of fluid are moving
along parallel paths.)
If the Reynolds number is large, flow is turbulent with particles
“bouncing” about as they move in the general direction of flow.
Flow is usually laminar for Reynolds numbers below 2000 to 2300.
Calculation of Friction Losses

 three dimensionless parameters: relative roughness, Reynolds

number, and friction factor.

E. Losses in Pipes with Fittings

 pressure drop caused by valves and fittings is usually much greater
than the loss through an equal length of straight pipe.
2. Conservation of Energy  We can then find the pressure loss for the total length of pipe,
 Liquid may possess energy in three forms. including the hypothetical sections added to replace the fittings.
 Liquid is moving, it has kinetic energy that may be used to do work. Nomographs and tables to convert fittings to equivalent lengths of
 Liquid is elevated, it has potential energy that may also be used to pipe are available.
do work.
 Liquid is under pressure; this pressure can be used to do work. F. Selecting the Correct Pipe Size
 Normally the only source of added energy is a pump, and the only  a smaller pipe—with its higher-pressure losses – may be used in
energy removed is that lost due to friction. place of a larger, more expensive pipe.
 pipe sizes that result in a pressure drop per unit length of between
General eq. E1 + Ep − Ef = E2 (energy present at the entrance (location 1) 100 and 1000 Pa/m – be suitable for flow of water and similar
plus energy added by the pump minus energy lost due to friction must equal liquids.
energy remaining at the exit (location 2).
 systems with friction losses near the upper end of this range – should
D. Fluid Friction be used only for very short distances due to the high energy losses.
 a pressure difference is required to produce flow of fluid in a pipe.
 any flow of fluids in a pipe must have a pressure drop. G. Power Requirements for Pumping
 This pressure drops, commonly called friction loss, is often  may be determined by using the energy conservation equation pump
significant and must be considered in any flow analysis.\ power (Pw) = Epm or =PtQ

Factors Affecting Friction Losses H. Pump Types and Characteristics

1. Suction Pumps –
 2. Positive Displacement Pumps – use a piston, gear, screw, or similar pressure is converted to a high velocity stream flowing through a small
device to force fluids through the pump. This feature causes positive opening.
displacement pumps to have the following unique characteristics:
I. Selecting a Pump – Pump selection is based upon
 constant capacity (if pump speed is constant) regardless of pump head (or
 capacity required,
pressure difference across the pump);
 pressure difference (sometimes called pump head) required, and
 constant efficiency;
 other special factors such as fluid to be pumped, sanitary
 power requirement that varies linearly with pressure difference across
requirements, space limitations, noise restrictions, etc.
pump; and
 discharge pressure that is limited only by power input and pump Note:
construction.
 positive displacement pump is to be used; pump pressure difference
Piston Pump – operate in the same manner as the hand pumps. is usually not a factor.
 For a centrifugal pump, other factors must be considered. Depending
Gear Pump – uses rotating gears to force the pumped fluid through the
upon the type and number of impeller stages, a given pump will
pump.
develop a certain pressure difference. Thus, if a greater pressure
Screw Pump – refinement of the Archimedes Screw developed centuries difference is necessary, a different pump must be selected.
ago. It is essentially a rotating screw mounted inside a tube. As the screw  Performance Curve – typical centrifugal pump develops maximum
turns, material is forced up through the tube. High pressures can be attained pressure difference at zero flow, as flow increases the pressure
in this type of pump. The screw pump is commonly used in the food industry. difference produced by the pump decreases. This curve, which may
It can be used to “pump” dough-like materials that cannot be handled by be expressed in units of pressure, is called the pump performance
many pumps. curve.

Peristatic Pump – uses rollers to squeeze fluids along a length of tubing J. Pump Performance vs. System Curves
mounted in the pump. This permits complete isolation of the pumped fluid
from the pump body.
3. Centrifugal Pumps – a stream of water will be propelled out the
hole due to the centrifugal force produced by the rotation. The
operating characteristics of centrifugal pumps are significantly
different from those of positive displacement pumps:
 Capacity decreases as pump head (pressure difference) increases.
 Efficiency decreases as pump head (pressure difference)
increases.
 Power requirement increases with flow rate.
 Pumps can be readily installed in series.
Jet (ejector) Pump – refers not to the pump but to a jet-like mechanism,
usually placed at the bottom of the pump intake. Used with a centrifugal
pump which recycles a certain amount of the flow to the jet where the high