UNIT-4: THERMOELECTRICAL

• Thermo-electrical and thermionic Conversions

• Principle of working
• Performance and limitations.
• Wind Energy
• Wind power and its sources
• Site selection
• Criterion
• Momentum theory
• Classification of rotors
• Concentrations and augments
• Wind characteristics
• Performance and limitations of energy conversion systems.
The various thermoelectric effects are as follows:
1. Seebeck Effect
2. Peltier Effect
3. Thomson Effect
4. Joule Effect
Seebeck Effect: If two dissimilar materials are joined to form a loop and two junctions maintained at different temperatures,
an e.m.f. will be set up around the loop. The magnitude of current depends on the materials (1 and 2) and the temperature
difference between the junctions as shown in Fig. This effect has been used in thermocouples to measure temperatures.
The magnitude of e.m.f. (E) is given by
E = 𝛂s ∆T
where, ∆T = Difference between hot and cold junction, and
𝛂s = Seebeck coefficient.
Peltier Effect: When an electric current flows across an isothermal junction of two dissimilar materials, there is either an
evolution or absorption of heat at the junction. This effect is called Peltier effect. The Peltier effect is a reversible effect
because heat is evolved when current flows in one direction, the same amount of heat is absorbed at the junction if the
current flow is reversed. The Peltier effect is shown in Fig.
Peltier Coefficient: The heat evolved or absorbed at the junction per unit current flow, per unit time is defined as the Peltier
coefficient α.
 Thomson Effect: Any current carrying conductor with a temperature difference between two points will either absorb or
emit heat, depending upon the material. This phenomenon is called the Thomson effect. The Thomson heat is reversible
because reversing the direction of current flow reverses the direction of heat transfer without change in magnitude. The
Thomson coefficient σ is defined as the Thomson heat absorbed (or evolved) per unit time per unit electric current and per
unit temperature gradient.
It states that “Any current carrying conductor with a temperature difference between two points will either absorb or emit
heat, depending upon the material”.
Thomson Coefficient: The Thomson coefficient (σ) is defined as the heat absorbed or evolved per unit time per unit
electric current and per unit temperature gradient.
Mathematically:

Joule Effect: In a closed electrical circuit, if the current I flows through a resistance R, the heat generated by the resistance is
equal to I2R. It is known as Joule effect.
Q = I2 R
where, I = Current flow, R = Resistance.
Basic principle of thermoelectric power conversion : in thermoelectric generator, heat energy (thermal energy) is
converted into electrical energy through semiconductor or conductors. This process is based on the Seebeck effect. In 1821,
Seebeck discovered that when heat is applied to junction (hot junction) of two dissimilar metals, an e.m.f. is generated which
can be measured at the other junction (cold junction). The two dissimilar metals form an electric circuit, and a current flows as
a result of the generated e.m.f. This current will continue to flow as long as T₁ > T₂. Metal B is described as negative with
respect to metal A if current flows into it at the cold junction.
Thermoelectric generator: Consider a metal bar where one side is kept at a higher temperature than the other. If the free
electrons in the metal are considered to behave as a gas, the kinetic theory of gases predicts that the free electrons in the hot
side of the bar will be on higher kinetic energy and will be moving at greater speed than those in the cold side of the bar. As
the fast moving electrons flow from the hot side to the cold side of the bar, it results in an accumulation of negative charge at
the cold side, preventing further build-up until circuit is closed. In a closed circuit the current will flow to reduce the charge
built up and will continue as long as the temperature is maintained. In a practical thermoelectric converter, several
thermocouples are convected in series to increase both voltage and power. If the output voltage is insufficient to operate a
particular device or equipment, it can be increased, with little loss of power, by an inverter-transformer combination. The
direct current generated by the thermocouples is first changed into alternating current (A.C.) of essentially the same average
by means of an inverter. The alternating current and voltage is then increased to the desired value with the help of a
transformer. The high voltage alternating current can be reconverted into direct current if required, by the use of a rectifier.
Advantages and disadvantages of thermoelectric generator
Advantages:
1. Highly reliable
2. Free from noise due to the absence of moving parts
3. Compact and durable
4. Minimum maintenance
5. It is portable as it can be used at any location
6. Uses low grade thermal energy
Disadvantages:
1. Low output
2. Low efficiency
3. High cost
Thermionic conversion system :The emission of electrons from heated metal and some oxides surfaces is known as
thermionic emission. Thermionic generation is another form of direct conversion of heat energy into electrical energy using the
concept of thermionic emission. Thermionic emission is common in all materials and occurs at all temperatures. However, the
current that can be produced are extremely small except in cases in which the metal attains high temperatures (above 1000°C).
In such a device, electrons act as the working fluid in place of a vapour or gas. In this device electrons are emitted from the
surface of heated metal. The energy required to extract an electron from the metal is known as work function and expressed in
electron volt. The work function depends upon the nature of metal and its surface condition.
It consists of two metal electrodes, one cathode and other one anode. These electrodes with different work functions are placed
in a sealed container containing an ionized gas or cesium vapour. The cathode is heated by concentrating rays on it. Electrons are
emitted from the hot cathode and travel to the anode. A voltage is thus developed between the two electrodes and a direct
current will flow in the external circuit as shown in the figure. The heat energy is therefore converted directly into electrical
energy. The emission of electrons from the electrode is inhibited by the accumulation of electrons in its vicinity. This
accumulation of electrons is known as space charge. Generally, the cathode is made up of tungsten and the anode is a cesium
coated tungsten electrode. The emitter temperature should be at least 1000°C so as to achieve a substantial electron emission
rate per unit area. This results in a significant current output and higher efficiency.
Advantages of thermionic generator :
[Link] does not contain any moving parts.
2. High conversion efficiency.
3. They operate at high power densities, which leads to compact devices.
4. Quiet in operation and durable.
5. Compact device.
6. Low cost and less maintenance required.
7. Operates at high temperatures.
8. It can be developed for very low power to very high power generation.
9. Long life, as there is no wear and tear.
10. Can operate in remote areas and harsh environments.
Disadvantages:
1. Metal is costly as it has to withstand high temperature. 2. The efficiency of a nuclear-fuelled thermionic converter is about
15% and may be improved to 40% in future. 3. Needs high operating temperatures at anode. 4. Needs special seal to protect the
cathode from corrosive gases. 5. It is expensive. 6. Needs cesium vapour in the tube to reduce the space charge.
application of thermionic converters has been limited to space power system because of their high operating temperature
and relatively low efficiency. Several recent advances n thermionic energy conversion technology have greatly improved the
efficiency of these devices. Potential areas of application identified for thermionic converters are as follows:
1. Centralised and distributed power generation.
2. Residential and commercial purposes.
3. Aerospace and military system.
4. Electronics and telecommunication.
5. Automobiles, Marine and air vehicles.
Wind power :
Site selection criteria for wind energy:
The site selection for a wind energy conversion system (WECS) is very important. If the sites are not selected properly, then
the net annual electricity generated may not be optimal resulting in high capital and energy cost. Technical, economical,
environmental, social and other parameters should be considered before deciding a particular site. Some of the main
considerations are:
1. High annual average wind speed: The power available in the wind increases greatly with the speed of wind. It is
proportional to the cube of wind velocity. The daily wind at a given site may be highly variable but the monthly and the annual
average speeds are nearly constant. Areas with moderately high or high value of annual average wind speeds are the most
suitable sites for wind turbines.
2. Altitude of proposed site: Altitude affects the air density. Also, the winds at higher altitude have higher velocity. Both the
factors, particularly the velocity, affect the power output of the wind turbine.
3. Terrain: Aerodynamics depends on the terrain of any site. The direction of wind flow on to the turbine blade is also affected
by the terrain. A hilly terrain may be utilized to obtain a higher wind power.
4. Local ecology: Trees or other vegetation tend to obstruct the wind and necessitate the use of higher support structure for
the WECS. This increases the cost of the system. There should be no tall obstructions to the wind within a radius of 3 km.
5. The proposed site should have approachable roads for easy movement of equipments, materials etc.
6. The site should be close to local centres so as to reduce the transmission line cost and its losses.
7. Site should be reasonably close to power grid.
8. Nature of ground: The ground surface of the proposed site should be stable and free from erosion. It should provide a
secured foundation for the WECS.
9. The cost of the proposed land should be favourable.
10. The environmental conditions of the proposed site should not adversely affect the machinery and other apparatus. The
sites best suited for wind electric generation are found off shore and the sea coast. Next to them in suitability are mountain
areas.
Classification of rotor:
There are four types of rotor used in wind turbines. The first two are installed in horizontal axis turbines, while the last two in
vertical axis turbines.
Multiblade Rotor: The multi blade rotor is high solidity rotor used for pumping the water because of high starting torque
characteristic, as needed for water pump. These turbines have low tip speed ratio. The multi blade rotors are less efficient
because of interference of blades in each other but they are less noisy. The multiblade rotor is fabricated from curved sheet
metal blades. The width of blades increases outwards from the centre. Blades are fixed at their inner ends on a circular rim. They
are also welded near their outer edge to another rim to provide a stable support. The number of blades used ranges from 12 to
18 The multiblade rotors have the following advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:
(i Energy cost/kWh is lower
(ii Higher power generation
Disadvantages:
(1) Its design is very complex and involves control problems.
(2) High stress develops at the time.
(3) Repair, installation and maintenance are difficult.
Propeller Rotor: The propeller rotor comprises two or three aerodynamic blades made from strong but light weight material
such as fibre glass reinforced plastic. The diameter of the rotor ranges from 2 m to 25 m. The blade slope is designed by using the
same aerodynamic theory as for aircraft. Propeller rotor installed on a tower. Three-blade machines are highly efficient but
costlier, nearly by 1.3 times, and range from small, 15 kW to large units of 3 MW. The pitch control is provided to the blades for
controlling shaft speed. To change the generator shaft speed, a gear chain is provided from the turbine shaft. A 3-phase
synchronous generator or a 3-phase induction generator is provided, that operates at constant speed.
Savonious Rotor: The Savonious rotor comprises two identical hollow semi-cylinders fixed to a vertical axis. The inner sides of
two half-cylinders face each other to have an S-shaped cross-section. Savonious vertical-axis rotor. respective of wind direction,
the rotor rotates due to pressure difference between the two sides. This vertical axis rotor was developed by an engineer
Savonious of Finland in the year 1920. It is self-starting and the driving force is mainly of drag type. The rotor possesses high
solidity so as to produce a high starting torque and hence this rotor is suitable for water umping.
These rotors are useful for grinding grain, pumping water and many other applications, but are not good for generating electricity
because of low rpm. The rpm above 1000 is generally best for producing electricity. However, drag-based vertical rotors usually
turn below 100 rpm. The advantages of this rotor are:
(i) Low wind speed is sufficient to operate the machine.
(ii) Pitch and yaw control not required.
(iii) Generator can be mounted on ground.
(iv) Low system cost.
Darrieus Rotor: This rotor has two or three thin curved blades of flexible metal strips. It looks like an egg beater and operates
with the wind coming from any direction. Both the ends of the blades are attached to a vertical shaft. It has an advantages that it
can be installed close to the ground eliminating the cost of the tower structure.
Lift is the driving force, creating maximum torque when the blade moves across the wind. This rotor was designed by a French
engineer G.M. Darrieus in 1925. It is used for decentralized electricity generation.
The advantages and disadvantages of Derrieus rotor are as follows:
Advantages:
(1) The generator, gearbox etc. are placed on the ground.
(2) No need of yaw mechanism to turn the rotor against the wind.
Disadvantages:
(1) Wind speeds are very low close to ground level, so although you may save a tow your wind speeds will be very low on the
lower part of your rotor.
(2) The overall efficiency of the vertical axis machines is low.
(3) The machine is not self-starting (e.g., a Darrieus machine will need a "push" before starts or by other means).
(4) The machine may need guy wires to hold it up.
(5) The unusually shaped blades are difficult to manufacture, transport and install.

Savonious rotor Darrieus rotor

Component of wind energy conversion system:
Aero turbine: Aero turbines converts the energy contents of air into mechanical energy. These turbines are normally provided
with pitch control and yaw control. As the wind direction changes, the turbines should also be moved about the vertical or yaw
axis so as to face the turbine blades into the wind. This change of direction makes the area of the wind stream swept by the rotor
blades to a maximum. In small wind machines, the yaw action is controlled by tail vane, whereas in larger machines, this action is
done by a servomechanism assisted by wind direction sensors. The controllers sense the wind speed and direction, shaft speed
and torques, output electrical power and temperature of the electrical generator. Sensing of these parameters is necessary for
the proper matching of input wind energy and the electrical output. It is also essential to protect the WECS from strong winds,
electrical faults etc. Yaw control is only provided in horizontal axis wind turbines. Gears and suitable couplings are used for the
transmission of mechanical energy to the generator.
2. Generator: Generator converts the mechanical
energy of aero turbine to electrical energy. Commonly
used generators are induction generators,
synchronous generators and d.c. generators. Both
induction and synchronous generators are a.c.
generators. The choice of generator depends on the
condition. An induction machine when driven above
synchronous speed works as a generator.
3. Controller: A modern and large WECS requires a
reliable and versatile control system for: (1) The
orientation of the rotor and control of speed, (2) Start
up and cut-in of the equipment, and (3) Shut down
and cut out of the equipment.
Classification of WECS/ Types of wind turbine generator :The wind turbine generator units convert wind power into
electrical power. The wind passes through the propeller and produces the circumferential force and axial thrust. This
circumferential force, known as torque, converts the wind power to mechanical rotary power, which drives the generator to
produce the electrical power. WECS can be classified on the basis of their rated output.
Small Size Power Plant: Wind power plants with a power output up to 50 kW and a rotor diameter up to 16 metres are termed
as small size plants. They may be used in remote location or places requiring low power. For example to operate agriculture
pumps, navigation signals of lighthouse, remote communication, weather stations, etc.
Medium Size Power Plant: A plant with electrical power output in the range of 50-500 KW and rotor diameter from 16 to 50
metres is called medium size plant. They can be used to power isolated residential areas, small industries etc.
Large Size Power Plant: Large wind power plants are plants with electrical output in excess of 500 kW and rotor diameter greater
than 50 m. Electrical power output of such plants may go up to 5 MW and the rotor diameter may be as large as 130 m. They are
usually built to operate in parallel to electricity gird. Medium and large size wind generators are designed to give a stable and
constant electrical output over a wide range of wind speeds.
The Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) can also be broadly classified on the basis of their axis of rotation. Accordingly,
they are classified into two parts
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Generator (HAWT): Horizontal axis wind turbines are of monoblade type or multi blade type (two
or three aerodynamic blades). In the mono blade arrangement, a long composite blade is mounted on a rigid hub. These blades
are lighter in weight and their length varies between 15 and 25 m. Bending moments occur due to gravity and sudden change in
wind direction if the blades used are very long. Because of light weight, the cost is low and their installation is easy. They suffer
from the vibrations produced by aerodynamic torque. Also the starting torque produced is less, therefore requires higher wind
speeds. Mono blade HAWT are used in wind energy parks or used individually. A twin blade HAWT consists of two similar
aerodynamic blades.
Vertical axis wind turbine: a. Savonius vertical axis rotor
b. Darrieus rotor
Advantages and disadvantages of WECS
Advantages
1. It is a renewable source of energy and available in abundance.
2. Use of wind power generation has no adverse effect on the environment.
3. There is no fuel cost involved in a wind power generation. The maintenance cost is also low. Both make the cost of generation
economical in the long run.
4. Helps in distributed generation and reduces the transmission cost and losses.
5. Reduces the burden on conventional power plants and thus further saves the environment.
Disadvantages
1. The availability of wind power is non-steady and unreliable.
2. Some form of storage is essential to hold the excess energy generated during the periods of high wind.
3. Wind power generation or wind farms require large areas. Also, the area should not be close to forest or tall structure which
could hinder easy flow of wind.
4. Wind energy systems are noisy in operation. Some other negative impacts such as bird hits and land erosion are also recorded.
5. The electrical power output of wind power plants consists of harmonics, flickering and fluctuation of voltage and current.