IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE Literacy Training Service (LTS)

NATIONAL SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM -A program designed to train students to become teachers of literacy and numeracy skills
to school children, out of school youth, and other segments of society in need of their
(IRR) of NSTP service.

RULE 1: GUIDING PRINCIPLES Civic Welfare Training Service (CWTS)

Section 1-Guiding Principle -It is composed of programs or activities contributory to the general welfare and the
betterment of life for the members of the community or the enhancement of its facilities,
-Duty of the government to serve and to protect its citizen, in turn it shall be the
especially those devoted to improving health, education, environment, entrepreneurship,
responsibility of all citizens to defend the security and promote the general welfare of
safety, recreation and morals of the citizenry.
the state

Program Component
Section 2-The Role of the Youth
-Refers to the service components of the NSTP as defined herein.
- In recognition of the State shall encourage civic awareness and defense preparedness
among young and shall improve their physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual, and social
well-being in recognition of the crucial role that youth play in nation-building.
Clustering
- In pursuit of these goals, the youth, the most valuable resource of the nation, shall be
motivated, trained, organized and mobilized in military training, literacy, civic welfare -Refers to the management and supervision of one (1) group of students who are
and other similar endeavors in the service of the nation. enrolled in separate schools but are participating in the same NSTP components.

Cross Enrollment
RULE 2: DEFINITION OF TERMS
-System of enrollment where a student is officially enrolled in an academic . program of
Section 3-Definition of terms an origin school hut is allowed to enroll in the NSTP component.
National Service Training Program (NSTP)

-Is intended to encourage qualities like self-control, cooperation, leadership, and Non-Government Organization (NGO)
acceptance for a variety of cultures.
-A group that functions independently of any government. It is usually non-profit.
Reserve Officer's Training Corps (ROTC) NGOs, sometimes called civil society organizations, are established on community,
-Refers to the program components designed to provide military training to tertiary level national, and international levels to serve a social or political goal such as a
students in order to motivate,train,organize and mobilize them for national defense humanitarian cause or the protection of the environment.
preparedness
RULE 3: PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION Section 6- Duration and Equivalent Course Unit

Section 4-Coverage Three (3) units per semester, for fifty-four (54) to ninety (90) training hours per
semester.
a). Students, male and female, of any baccalaureate degree course or at least two (2)-
year technical-vocational courses in public and private educational institutions shall be
required to complete one (1) of the NSTP components as requisite for graduation (RA
Section 7-Clustering and Cross Enrollment
9163).
Clustering
b). Under the NSTP Program, both male and female college students of any
baccalaureate degree course or technical vocational course in public or private higher - Refers to the grouping of students enrolled to different schools and taking up the same
educational institutions are obliged to undergo one of three program components for an NSTP component into one group under the management and supervision of a designated
academic period of two semesters. school. The host school is responsible for the students. Usually, it is done for various
reasons such as, semestral conflicts, unavailability of the preferred program from the
c). The Philippine Military Academy (PMA), Philippine Merchant Marine Academy
school of origin etc.
(PMMA), Philippine National Police Academy (PNPA) and other State Universities and
Colleges of similar nature will be exempted in the NSTP subject to the approval of the It is stated that this is a collection of students from various schools who will take the
Department of National Defense. same NSTP component. As an illustration, if you want to join ROTC, the administration
of a certain institution will assign you to the ROTC group. However, if you signed up for
d). Private Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) and technical Vocational education
LTS or CWTS, you'll probably be a part of their group.
Institutions with at least 350 student cadets may offer the ROTC component
Cross enrolment

- Is a system of enrollment where a student who is officially enrolled in an academic

Section 5-Program Components
program of a school is allowed to enroll in the NSTP component of another school. For
a). The NSTP shall have the following components which the students can choose from, reasons including but not limited to; the inability of the school to offer the preferred
as defined in Rule II, Section 3 hereot The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC), program of the student, inability to offer a certain program due to the lack of enrollees.
Literacy Training Service (LTS), and Civic Welfare Training Service (CWTS)
- Basically, it is applying for the nstp program or other elective of other
b). All program components, the ROTC in particular, shall give emphasis on citizenship school/university. Given that they understand and have to abide by the rules and
training and shall instill patriotism, moral virtues, respect for the rights of civilians, and regulations of the former and latter school.
adherence to the Constitution.

c). The CHED, TESDA in consultation with the DND, and PASUC, COCOPEA, and
Section 8-Monitoring and Evaluation
other condemned government agencies, may design and implement such other non-
military training components as may be necessary for the consonance with the a). The school authorities shall exercise academic and administrative supervision over
provisions of RA 9163. the design, formulation, adoption and implementation of the different nstp components
in their respective schools.
d). Within thirty (30) days from the approval of this revised IRR, the CHED, TESDA,
and the DND shall jointly issue the minimum standards for the three (3) NSTP b). In the case of ROTC, these school authorities and DND, subject the policies,
components, which shall form part of these guidelines. regulations and programs of DND on the military component the training shall exercise
joint supervision over its implementation.
 Rule 5: Organization of NSTP Graduates
c). Schools that have contracted CHED boorddited or TESDA recognized NGOS to Section-11 Organization of NSTP Graduates
formulate and administer training modules for any of the NSTP Components shall joint
exercise such academic and administrative supervision with the thos NGOS within forty- a). Graduates of the non-ROTC components of the NSTP shall belong to the National
five (45) days Service Reserve Corps (NSRC) that could be tapped by the state for literacy and civic
welfare activities through the joint efforts of DND, CHED and TESDA in coordination
d). CHED regional office TESDA provincial/district office and dnd,afp through the with DILG, DSWD, and other concerned agencies/associations.
major service reserve commands, shall oversee and monitor the implement of the nstp
under their respective jurisdiction to determine if the training. b). The CHED, TESDA and DND, in consultation with other concerned government and
non-government agencies, shall issue the necessary guidelines for the establishment,
organization, maintenance and utilization of the National Service Reserve Corps.
Rule 4: Fees and Incentives c). Graduates of the ROTC program shall form part of the Citizen Armed Force pursuant
Section 9-Fees to R.A. 7077, subject to the requirements of DND.

No fees shall be collected for any of the NSTP components except basic tuition fees,
which should not be more than fifty percent of the charges of the school per academic Rule 6: Transitory Provision
unit.
Section-12 Suspension for ROTC Requirement
The completion of ROTC training as a requisite for graduation is set aside for students
Section 10-Incentives who have completed all their academic requirements for their respective courses as
a). A program of assistance/incentives for ROTC students shall be provided and certified by the school on or before the affectivity of the NSTP Act of 2001, which is
administered by DND, in accordance with existing laws and regulations and subject to March 23, 2002, The concerned students may apply for graduation with their respective
the availability of funds. schools.

b). Schools authorities concerned, CHED and TESDA, shall ensure the safety of the Section 13 Transitory Provisions
students. Hence, health and accident group insurance are provided for students enrolled -Male students who are not covered by section 12 of this rule and are currently enrolled
in any of the NST components. but have not taken any of the Military Service (MS), Civic Welfare Service (CWS) or
Pedagogy of death is usually not considered relevant content in the academic curriculum Law Enforcement Service (LES) program shall be covered by the NSTP Law.
of schools. Cultural sensitivity, age appropriateness, limited time resources, and -Male students who have completed two semesters of the Expanded ROTC
curriculum priorities are some reasons why it is not considered relevant academically. (E_ROTC)/National Service Program (NSP) and deemed to have complied with the
Schools that already provide health and accident group insurance and collect the NSTP requirement.
necessary fees for the purpose from their students as of the affectivity of these rules, are
-Male students who are not covered by section 12 of this rule and have taken only one
deemed to have complied with this requirement. semester of Basic ROTC or EROTC, NSP shall take one more semester of any of the
A special scholarship program for qualified NSTP students shall be administered by NSTP components to qualify for graduation.
CHED and TESDA, with funds for the purpose to be included in the annual regular
-Students who want to qualify for enlistment in the Reserved Force or attend the
appropriations of the two agencies, subject to the availability of funds. advanced ROTC program shall undertake a special program for this purpose.
Rule 7: Miscellaneous Provisions
Section 14 Information Dissemination
The CHED, TESDA and DND shall provide information on these Act and IRR to all
concerned through the different modes of disseminating information.

Section-15 Separability Clause

If any section or provision of this IRR shall be declared unconstitutional or invalid, the
other sections or provisions not affected thereby shall remain in full force and effect.

Section-16 Amendatory Clause

a). Section 35 of Commonwealth Act No. 1, Executive Order No. 207 of 1939, Section 2
and 3 of Presidential Decree No. 1706, and Section 38 and 39 Republic Act No. 7077, as
well as all laws, decrees, orders, rules and regulations and other issuances inconsistent
with the provision of the ACT are hereby deemed amended and modified accordingly

b). These rules may be amended, modified or replaced jointly by CHED, TESDA and
DND in consultation with PASUC, COCOPEA, NGOS and recognized student
organizations.

Section-17 Effectivity
These rules shall take effect immediately upon adoption and issuance.

These rules shall take effect (15) days after publication in a news- papers of general
circulation and shall remain in force and effect until revoke or amended.
Business and Finance

• concept and functions Allocating Capital

• the finance manager At the center of every business operation is the need for funds. Business-wise, the term
funds has a wider connotation than the layman’s concept of cash. Funds refer to the
This is a textbook for an introductory course in Business Finance. As you read through
means of payment, whether in cash or credit, for goods and services.
this book, you will know of basic financial principles and their applications in a
Philippine business setting. To those who will take higher courses in Finance and The need for funds, which is loosely synonymous to capital, remains a foremost concern
Investments, this book provides a comprehensive foundation, to others, a basic of a business entity from its organization to its dissolution. Virtually no business activity
background. is planned without any fund-raising problems. Regardless of size or nature, a firm’s
financial needs can be classified into the long-term and the short-term. Long-term capital
At the end of each chapter you will find, aside from the summary and the review
financing. Long-term capital usually supports expansion expenditures where the payback
questions and exercises, an English-Filipino glossary of important terms and concepts
period (or investment cycle) takes several years. The payback period refers to the length
introduced in the chapter. Since the use of such a glossary is an innovation in this book,
of time it takes to recoup the cost of a project from the earnings it generates. Or the
the author will be glad to receive comments on its effectivity as a teaching/learning aid.
period from the time the sum of money spent on the project was first used to the time
Emerging Thrust in Business Education this amount is fully recovered.

There are three significant aspects in the emerging thrust of business education in the Capital expenditures, as allocations for expansion expenditures are called, involve
Philippines. First, there is a more serious attempt at an analytical and quantitative investments in fixed assets requiring a large outlay of funds. Hence, it takes a longer
approach. Second, Philippine business experiences are used to illustrate the applications time for the company torecover its investment.
of the basic principles and tools. Third is the building up of entrepreneurships an Capital expenditures do not usually come one after the other. More often, a company is
academic goal. This book attempts to provide all three. faced with a line-up of essential projects requiring long-term capital financing. Plant
In this introductory chapter, we shall discuss the concept and functions of business facilities may have to be replaced or may need major repairs. New branches may have to
finance and the role of the finance manager in the firm. be established. New product lines may have to be adopted.

With only a limited supply of capital available, a firm has to choose between these
Concept and Functions of Business Finance
projects. It resorts to capital budgeting, a process of ranking projects in the order of their
Business finance is a branch of study concerned with the allocation, procurement and urgency, feasibility and profitability.
efficient management of business capital so that a firm can maximize profit, increase its
Business finance plays a decisive role in the implementation of such a first-things first
value and fulfill its social role. Business finance involves techniques of estimating and
policy. Financial management is concerned with estimating capital needs, strategies for
acquiring adequate capital from alternative sources at the best possible terms for the
capital procurement and projecting the profitability of and particular uses of capital in
users and their most profitable employment in business operations.
each project.
The study of business finance, therefore, covers three major spheres:
Short-term capital financing. Short-term capital financing provides working capital
• the allocation of an adequate supply of capital for business needs, both short term and where there is an expectation of investment flow back within one year or less. Short-
long-term; term capital supports expenditures expected to be recovered within usually less than a
year. Short-term funds provide working capital which finances day-to-day operations.
• the procurement of funds at the most favorable terms at least cost to the business; and
Unlike capital expenditures financed by long-term funds, short-term funds are in vested
• the efficient management of capital for profit-maximization and increasing the value of in current assets such as the stock of goods intended either for processing or for sale.
the firm. Planning for the adequacy of funds for maintaining required inventory levels and for the
payment of taxes, salaries, insurance premiums and interest on borrowed capital is a The owner of Aseca is considering the expansion of his business so they can sell pre-
continuing challenge to the expertise of finance officers. mixed feeds. Estimated expenditures amount to P500,000. Assuming that the cost Of
capital is 18% per annum (16% on interest and other expenses related to securing the
Receivables and inventories must be kept moving towards cash. Efficient management loan and 2% as allowance for anticipated increases in taxes), the anticipated in come
of\money position requires avoiding shortage of funds or keeping capital idle. Delays in from the expansion must be substantially higher than 18% per annum for the project to
the flow of\funds in the form of slow-moving inventories or gaps in receivables be viable. When the cost of capital exceeds or is at par with the expected income, the
collections are common headaches that plague even the most affluent business firm. The firm may completely abandon the project. Or defer its implementation to a more
of operating and long-term capital requirements is one of the imperatives of financial opportune time, when the cost of capital is less or when expected earnings are higher.
planning. Traditionally, working capital needs are financed by tapping such sources as
commercial banks, financing companies and the money market, or by availing of trade Raising the right amount of capital at the right time and at the least cost to a firm
credits to minimize interest charges. On the other hand, capital expenditures are financed depends primarily on two factors: the build-up of a healthy relationship between the firm
from long-term borrowings, the issuance of bonds or stocks, or purchases of fixed assets and the financial institutions from which it secures capital and the maintenance of the
on an installment basis. firm’s financial position in tip-top shape. Current and prospective creditors and future
investors must be assured that the company can pay its obligations and that it has growth
The 1970s saw increasing acceptance of financing short-term needs from long term potential.
sources. This has been largely influenced by the growing number of investment outlets
for excess, and otherwise idle, capital. Unemployed capital need not remain locked up Using Business Capital Efficiently
when it has a chance to earn yields higher than the interest expense paid on it. Additional
income for the firm can be generated. Procuring adequate capital at least cost gives a firm an excellent start. But the ultimate
objective is the efficient use of funds so profit can be maximized and the value of the
What would be highly risky and too expensive is financing long-term capital enterprise raised accordingly. Investors, whether part-owners or creditors, expect
requirements from short-term funds. Can you guess why from our definitions of short- earnings from the funds they have invested. Moreover, the owners the proprietor, the
term capital? partners, the stockholders-anticipate growth of the business to increase the value of their
proprietary interests in the firm.
Procuring Funds
In recent years, a new dimension has been added to a firm’s obligations: social
There are alternative sources of capital. There are also a number of financing methods responsibility. The pressures of public conscience and government legislation have led to
that may be employed. Business finance is concerned with choosing the best source and salary hikes. Better working conditions and direct participation of business firms in civic
employing the most effective financing scheme at the least cost possible. There may be a and community affairs.
combination of sources, a consortium of lenders, or a combination of financial schemes
to get the best terms for the user. The social constraints to business operations have broadened immensely since the
energy crisis which started in 1973. In the Philippines, these came in the form of
In other words, funds should be obtained at the least cost of capital, with convenient emergency allowances (eg, PDs 390, $25 and 1123), a 13th-month pay (PD 851),
terms of payment and the least burden on the company’s assets. The cost of capital is of minimum wages, a formidable array of government taxes, plus the multifarious
prime importance. This refers to the aggregate expenses incurred in obtaining the funds, donations expected from the more affluent companies. They have been cutting deeply
including but not limited to: interest expense, service charges, selling expenses and into the profit margins of business firms. For instance, Atlas Consolidated reported
underwriting commissions in the case of security issues, anticipated in crease in relevant expenditures of more than P2.0 million in its 1978 Annual Report in direct contributions
taxes, printing costs of documents and certificates, and legal and government fees. to civic affairs. This was aside from financing community projects involving 4-H agri-
Procuring sufficient capital is just the means. The end is maximum profit. The cost of business, cottage industries, health care programs, day care and community sports
capital must be considered relative to the anticipated income from the project. To programs, reforestation, and slope stabilization. For its employees, Atlas built housing
illustrate: Aseca Enterprises is engaged in importing chemicals used in preparing animal units, recreation centers, a chapel.
feeds which it sells to livestock farms and poultry raisers. Their customers Obtain the Medium and small-scale businesses may not incur such massive expenditures in
chemicals from them themselves and mix them in appropriate quantities. community development programs. But other requirements may put a significant dent on
their incomes, such as environmental and anti-pollution requirements, minimum wages, from risk and uncertainty. Fire may burn down office buildings. Goods in transit may be
and social security contributions. damaged. Marketing strategies of competitors and changes in business climate are
always uncertainties. The higher the expected yield, the greater are the risks, the greater
But this problem is world-wide. Carl-Henrick Wingwist, secretary general of the are the uncertainties.
International Chamber of Commerce, told the fifth session of the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development: Preoccupation with profitability has led to the development of numerous techniques to
evaluate a firm’s profit performance. Such as the Earning per Share (EPS) and the
“The profits squeeze that ensued (in the early 1970s) seriously undermined business Returns on Investment (ROI) etc.
confidence-particularly its confidence in the willingness of governments to encourage
wealth creation. The fashion of the age was security and equality, and its impact cut Some words before the next section. The EPS and the ROI are but two of the
sharply into business profitability and flexibility. The so-called social legislation enacted quantitative tools used in financial analysis; there are many more. Their use is a
during the period and since extended has introduced important rigidities and distortions hallmark of the present era of management. But their use is not meant to downgrade the
into labor markets and has contributed in no small measure to the difficulties the role of intuition in business decisions. As an author’ commented:
developed countries are now experiencing in adjusting to new production techniques and
trading patterns.” Intuition is liberally spiced with instinctive judgment. As such, it is a valid tool in the
decisionmaker’s repertoire, provided the logic is not dulled by fad rules-of-thumb or
We may argue with Mr. Winqwist as to whether it is social legislation or restrictive unrecognized bias. Confidence generated by industrial applications indicates that
business practices that introduce “rigidities and distortions” into a national economy. But analytical decision-making tools are also needed. We can set the two approaches in
there is no arguing over the fact that social legislation has been at least. An perspective by stating that analytical methods should be employed whenever they are
inconvenience to business, even big business. technically feasible and economically warranted. Outside these limits, intuition and
judgment are necessary and legitimate recourses.
We may then sum up the primary goals of business, in present times and climes, as
follows: The Role Of The Finance Manager
• to promote the financial welfare of the investors through adequate returns on Capital is said to be the lifeblood of a business. Capital is to a business what gasoline is
investments through dividends to stockholders, profit shares to partners and proprietors to a car; without funds, business does not move. Naturally, major financial decisions are
and interest payments to creditors, and increasing the value of the proprietary interest of undertaken by the owners or by top management.
the investor in the business through accumulation of assets and increases in the market
value of shares: In a single proprietorship, say a small grocery store, the proprietor decides on the
amount of capital needed, the allocation of funds for purchasing merchandise, and raises
• the fulfillment of its civic and social responsibilities to improve the quality of life of it himself. He marks up his goods, determining the margin of profit he would like to
the people through have. Except, of course, for goods under price control, where there is price control.
- better working conditions, hikes in wage and salary scales, fringe benefits, bonuses, In a medium-sized manufacturing concern, perhaps in a partnership, the principal
sick and vacation leaves, etc., and partner with financial know-how makes the major financial decisions. He may be
assisted by the accountant or the executive who is next in line.
-direct participation in civic and community affairs: providing scholarships, donations to
worthy causes, financial assistance during national calamities, etc. In big corporations – multinationals or conglomerates – the finance function may be
handled by specific departments under which are a number of sections. At the head is the
Measuring Profitability. It cannot be over-emphasized that profit is the key to meeting
treasurer, sometimes called the comptroller or the vice-president for finance.
these goals. Allocating and procuring funds and other resources has the generation of
earnings as its ultimate objective. Financial decision-making is spread among a number of positions within a corporation.
The board of directors undertakes such major financial decisions as dividend distribution
While the firm cannot expect to maximize income with every business endeavor, it
to stockholders, purchase of or merger with another firm, and the establishment of new
should aim at optimizing over all profitability. Investment yield cannot be separated
branches or new product lines.
But the decision of the board relies heavily on the feasibility study and recommendations can lend out at interest. Idle corporate funds may be invested in the money market for a
made by the finance department. And the man at the helm is the finance manager. For time.
the sake of convenience, we shall refer to the financial decision-maker whether he be the
sole proprietor, the partner, or the vice-president for finance – as the finance manager. In brief, the finance manager must be aware of the flow of funds in the firm each day.
The assistant treasurer of Benguet Consolidated is tuned up by the hour to the firm’s
Functions cash balances which should not decline below nor exceed the P2.0 million mark.

The finance manager is the overall administrator of the firm’s resources. Three principal Designing Fund-raising Strategy
functions: There is a growing number of alternative sources of funds. Recent years saw the
development of financing packages from which a firm may choose. It is the task of the
• the efficient allocation of resources among various assets;
finance manager to be aware of these packages and to pick out the best alternative in
• management of money position; and terms of the least cost of financing, the least burden on the company’s asset and the least
threat to the position of current management.
• the design of financial strategy for raising capital.
For instance, Glori’s Supermart may need to increase its inventory outlay for its
In such big concerns as corporations and conglomerates, the finance manager aid top newlyestablished branch in Quezon City. The finance manager has to choose between
management in financial decision-making; attends to the portfolio management of the borrowing from the bank, purchasing merchandise on credit from suppliers, inviting
security investments of the firm. additional investors to put up the funds, or a combination of these strategies.

Allocating Resources Efficiently For another, Black Mountain Inc., a mining firm, may need P5.0 million to provide anti-
pollution devices required by legislation. The finance manager decides on whether to
A business author opined that the finance manager is concerned with the entire asset recommend to the board the issuance of bonds or of additional shares of stock to raise
mix, that is, with all items owned by the firm which have a monetary value. “He will be the necessary amount.
concerned with the overall asset balance and the process of seeking the optimal mix. He
has to achieve the best blend of expected returns and risk.” Aids to Business Decision
In 1968, the University of the East had a choice of increasing its assets either by Business projects entail financial support. The finance manager plays a decisive role in
constructing the Administration building or buying computers to modernize its choosing which project to implement with his expertise in projecting capital needs,
registration facilities. Such financial factors as cost and availability of funds and the planning financial strategy in raising the capital needed, and most important.
expected return from either project played primary roles in the final decision. Determining the profitability of the project.

Managing Money Position We have spoken of capital budgeting as a process for an orderly ranking of capital
expenditures. A number of approaches and devices are available to the finance manager
The finance manager must watch his cash flow as the weather man watches his to make projects comparable. The concept of “payback period”, which pro jects the
barometer. How much funds could be tied up in raw materials and office supplies and length of time the company will be able to recover what it has invested, has been
equipment? To what extent should receivables be accommodated? How strict should touched upon earlier. Two other concepts which we will become more familiar in the
credit terms be enforced? How will sales be stimulated and receivables kept moving chapter on capital budgeting are net present value approach and internal rate of return.
towards cash so enough funds will be provided for installment payment on fixed assets
and interest charges on the firm’s debt as they fall due? How much should be kept as a Briefly, an approach using the net present value calculates the present value of a stream
margin of safety for the unexpected? of income expected over a given period to result from the project. It is premised on the
time value of money which we shall discuss in chapter four. On the other hand, using the
At the same time, the finance manager must be on the lookout for lucrative outlets for internal rate of return gives you the discount rate that will equate the present value of the
funds which would otherwise be idle. A grocery storeowner may have excess funds he costs and benefits, or the cash outflow and the expected income, from the project.
Modern financial management in big corporations uses much more sophisticated of indebtedness (CBCI). Choice securities from the private sector include so called blue
techniques employing computers which are elaborations of these two concepts. chips in equity issues, fixed-income bonds, trust ventures and other money market
instruments.
Among them are mathematical programming of capital budgets, a capital asset pricing
model, and a method using multiple internal rates of return. Management and Technocrats

Portfolio Management of Securities A final word before we close this chapter. It would not be surprising if the reader by now
is resigned to close encounters with more equations and formulae that have become the
The word “portfolio” came from a French word meaning a portable case for holding hallmarks of modern business analysis. While quantitative tools are important, they are
drawings, writing materials, documents, and similar whatnots. Perhaps, businessmen of not the end-all of management, even financial management. We can take a cue from
earlier times came to use such a brief case to carry their whatnots around. So it came to Peter F. Drucker’
pass that the word portfolio now also refers to earning assets, in the form of corporate
securities as stocks or bonds, held by a firm. Managers practice management. They do not practice economics. They do not
practice quantification. They do not practice behavioral science. These are tools for the
Portfolio management refers to the techniques used for the placement of funds among manager. But he no more practices economics than a physician practices blood testing.
diverse securities investments to maximize overall profitability while minimizing risk. He no more practices behavioral sciences than a biologist practices the microscope. He
The finance manager in modern business is not only expected to obtain funds for no more practices quantification than a lawyer practices precedents. He practices
operations and for business projects. He also has to keep excess funds in perpetual management.
gainful employment, after allowing a margin of safety for emergencies and uncertain
ties. The manager cannot be a mere technocrat, not a mere fact-finding fault-finding “expert”.
The manager is a craftsman. He shapes the policies of the institution he manages, gives
For excess working capital, investment in marketable securities is the most com mon direction to it, and indirectly shapes the society where this institution is found.
outlet. Marketable securities are fixed-income securities where earnings are relatively
higher than interest on bank deposits while there is an assurance that the securities could The importance of the manager may be discerned from a slogan popularized in
be converted to cash any time without loss of value.
Latin America: the developing countries are not underdeveloped: they are under
Internal sources of investible funds other than excess working capital are unutilized managed.
reserves, sinking funds for long-term debts, pension funds, and unappropriated earnings.
Summary
The finance manager must be able to distribute these funds among available investments
in different securities to maximize overall earnings while minimizing risk. Investors Business and Finance/11
should seek a portfolio of securities, according to Markowitz, that lies in the efficient
frontier” that is, where no other pattern of allocation of investment is possible without a Business finance, as a branch of study, encompasses a wide spectrum of financial
decline in income. In other words, an optimum efficient portfolio? Is one which provides activities: funding requirements of business projects, procurement of capital at least cost
the highest possible overall return given a predetermined level of risk the investor is and efficient management of capital for profit maximization. Capital provisions cover
willing to assume. both short-term needs for operating funds and long-term requirements for expansion. A
business firm has twin primary obligations. One is to promote the financial interest of its
Portfolio management is a much more serious concern of finance managers in investors who expect an adequate return to and the eventual growth of their investments.
investment houses, trust companies, mutual funds and insurance companies, and other In addition, the modern business firm has an obligation to improve social conditions in
financial institutions which include securities investments among their primary the community and country in which it operates. To carry out these goals, a business
operations. For other firms, income from security investments are only secondary firm must operate profitably. There are a number of techniques developed to determine
sources for maximizing over-all profitability of operations. profitability: the return on investments (ROI); the internal rate of return (IRR); earning
per share of common stock (EPS), and others.
In the Philippine securities market, marketable securities are mostly government issues
such as treasury bills issued by the national government and the Central Bank certificate
Finance functions are undertaken by the finance manager, who may be the proprietor, the
major partner in a partnership, or the finance department in a big corporation which is
headed by the finance manager or treasurer. The finance function inter twines with those
of other activities such as production, marketing and management. The finance
manager’s sphere of operations includes: the management of money position, the
allocation of scarce resources among various assets, the financial strategy in raising
capital, aid top management in major financial decision making and portfolio
management. Portfolio management is the efficient diversification of investments to
maximize overall profitability while minimizing risks.
 Lesson 1- Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations
Changed the Course of Science and Technology Historical Antecedent of Science and Technology during Pre-Historic
Discussion Times
Science, Technology and Society Stone Age. Ancient humans were able to discover and invent tools from stones: flint,
chert, basalt and sandstones. They develop tools gradually from single to all-purpose
Science, technology, and society (STS) are also referred to as science and technology tools to a collection of varied and highly specialized types of tools, each designed to
studies. It is the study of how social, political, and cultural values affect scientific serve a specific function: cutting, chopping, scraping and sawing. Stone tools were
research and technological innovation, and how these, in return, affect society. Science shaped or chipped (flaking) into: flakes, blades, hand axes, spears, darts, arrows and
Technology and Society scholars are interested in a variety of problems that include the other projectile weapons, wood, bone, shell, antler and other materials were widely used,
relationships between scientific and technological innovations and society, and the as well. Many important inventions appeared, such as needles and thread, skin clothing,
directions and the risks of science and technology. The field of STS is related to the the harpoon, the spear thrower, and special fishing equipment. Fire was the most
history and philosophy of science although with a much broader emphasis on social important discovery and invention of man in the Stone age. The use of fire led to various
aspects of science and technology. ways of preparing and cooking food and inventions of suitable food containers and
Science is an organized and dynamic inquiry (following scientific method). It is a human utensils.
activity and a social enterprise that leads to formation of concepts, methods, principles, Bronze Age is the period marked with the beginning of mining and metallurgy.
theories, law and procedures which seek to describe and explain nature and its Bronze denotes the first period in which metal was used, man begun the smelting copper
phenomena as well as lead in the development of apparatuses, equipment and and alloying with tin or arsenic to make bronze tools and weapons: sword, axes, plows,
technologies. Technology is a material product as result of scientific inquiry. It is the locks and chariot. Bronze was harder and more durable than other metals available at
application of knowledge in solving scientific and practical problem that will help the time, thus providing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a technological advantage.
humans to survive and improve his life. Technology is a complex system of knowledge,
skills, people, methods, tools, materials and resources applied and allocated to the Iron Age is the period of time when the dominant tool making material was iron. Iron
development, operation and production of a new or improved product, process or age Technology is characterized by the production of tools and weaponry using ferrous
services. metallurgy or iron working. This distinctive dark metal brought significant changes to
daily life in ancient society from the way people grew crops to the way they fought wars.
Early humans attempted to understand the unknown world, they were curious about In those days, this iron metal made life a lot easier. Humans had settled into small village
their nature. They observed and started to record patterns, cycles and repetitions of what life, toiling the soil with Iron farming tools, such as sickles and plough tips, made the
is happening in their environment and started to look for an answer. With this experience process more efficient and allowed farmers to exploit tougher soils and try new crops.
they were able to learn to analyze and organize information which led to the
understanding of science.

Because early humans were able to organize and learn information, they used the Historical Antecedent of Science and Technology during Ancient
information they acquired in starting the primitive technology, thus gave way to the birth Times
of technology. Therefore, technology has come to reality because of the desire of early
humans to thrive and survive, which later improved and made their life easier. First civilization emerged independent of one another along fertile river of Tigris-
Euphrates, Nile, and Yangtze river. People of each civilization developed a unique way
Humans (Homo sapiens) are an ingenious species who dreamed up and created some of life, religion, form of government, language and system of writing, arts, crafts, and
amazing and far-out things. It is from the moment someone bashed a rock on the ground advances in science and technology such as astronomy, agriculture, medicine,
to make the first sharp-edged tool, to the debut of the wheel, to the development of Mars mathematics, engineering, and architecture.
rovers and the progression of Internet where several key advancements stand out as
particularly revolutionary.
 Sumerian Civilization Science and Technology Development based on the appearance and disappearance of the star Sirius which help them forecast
the seasons and predict the annual flooding on the Nile river: agriculture was supported
The Sumerian were the first to produce writing system called cuneiform, which consist mainly by extensive irrigation system and planted wheat and barley; they build houses
of pictograms or drawings representing actual things. Sumerians' clay tablet contain the made of sun dried mud bricks, pyramids still stand today as the monumental evidence of
Sumerian historical information and culture. The potters' wheel is a mechanical device the scientific expertise and technical skills of the ancient Egyptians in geometry,
that the Sumerians had invented shortly after 3500 BC. -as a means of practical method engineering architecture and labor management; they engaged in ship building and
for moving heavy objects from one location to another. They started using sail boats, construction of canals, dikes and ditches with outlet system; they raised ducks, geese,
needed water transportation for travel and trade. They were among the first pigs, goats, cattle and sheep; and manufactured soaps, creams. oils, perfumes and eye
astronomers, mapping the movement of stars, planets and moon into sets of makeup.
constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the
ancient Greeks. Sumerians were also recognized for building the foundations of logic,
mathematics, engineering, architecture, agriculture, transportation and medicine. They
use sexagesimal system of counting in units of 60 which served as the basis of 360
Cretan (Minoan) Civilization Science and Technology Development
degree circle and the 60 minute hour. Developed systematized technique of farming seed The Minoans were primarily a mercantile people engaged in overseas trade of tin,
plow and irrigation and convert wool from sheep made into textiles, then mastered the alloyed of tin with copper, exporter of wine, oil, jewelry, and highly crafted works.
arts of bleaching and dyeing Minoans built the first major navy ship in the world for the purpose of trading; they
made sophisticated carved statues, ceramics, frescoes, jewels, and inscription which
revealed these knowledge of mathematics, engineering, and architecture that were
Babylonian Civilization Science and Technology Development applied scientifically and artistically, they constructed a well drainage system, public
halls courtyards, and religious shrines; streets were drained and water and sewer
Hammurabi Law serves as rule and standards which maintain a period of stability in facilities were available to the upper class through clay pipes, houses were built from
this region. They constructed the famous "Hanging Gardens of Babylons" (one of the sandstone, gypsum, or limestone often had flat tiled roof; raised cattle, sheep and goats
seven wonders of the world) and the Isthar Gate. They have several contribution to the and grew wheat, barley, lettuce, celery, asparagus carrots, peas, grapes, pears, figs,
development of science and technology such as irrigation system of canals flanked by olives, poppies and perhaps opium; and they domesticated bees. The Minoans practiced
earthen dikes system of book keeping, double entry accounting, drew up multiplication polyculture, wherein they planted more than one crop at a time, this method of farming
and division tables and making calculations using geometry, make accurate predictions maintains the fertility of the soil, as well as offers protection against low yields in any
of solar and lunar eclipses and other astronomical phenomena. single crop. They are known to have a varied healthy diet that resulted in the healthy
growth of their population.

Egyptian Civilization Science and Technology Development

Greek Civilization Science and Technology Development
Ancient Egypt depended on the waters of the Nile River which flows through harsh and
arid desert. The early settlers were animal hunters with weapons and traps and nomadic. Greece is known as the cradle of western civilization, they gifted the world with
Later change their lifestyle to be farmland settlers. They learned to heat metal ore important discoveries and inventions. These foremost contribution is the foundation of
(copper, gold and bronze) and made weapons, pottery and utensils; first people to learn Olympic games, first recorded in 776 BC; they developed astrolabe used to make
how to make glass (glass-blowing) such as glass jars and glass beads; they wrote with astronomical measurements and location; they established theatre, water clock, the
ink and brushes on paper made of papyrus reeds; their writing was in the form of Greek fire which was a flaming liquid used to destroy fleet of soldiers, levers, crane,
pictorial symbols known as hieroglyphics; their knowledge of human anatomy, water mill, catapult use as assist in throwing heavy objects over a long distance, and the
physiology, surgery and medical plants enabled them to master the art and science of Archimedes screws used for lifting materials upward. They developed a technique of
embalming their dead, created calendar based on the phases of the moon, consisting of surveying and mathematics. During this time. Greek produced many philosophers, some
29 and 5 days, the first to divide the day into 24 hours, calculated the time by means of of the well-known philosophers include: Hippocrates was regarded as the father of
water clock; their interest in Astronomy was focused on the stars and early calendar was
medicine; Aristotle was regarded as the father of Biology and introduced a method of Emergence of the first universities that trained middle class in theology, medicine, and
scientific thinking and wrote "scala naturae" or Great Chain of Being viewed as one law later on modern universities such as Oxford and Cambridge established during this
of the first theories in biology; Archimedes discovered the laws of the lever and the time in England.
pulley that resulted in the invention of machines (screws) which could easily move
loads; and Theophrastus regarded as father of plant science, wrote "History of Plants" In the 14th century, there was the crisis of the Late Middle Ages with the Black Death
which describe the forms, behaviour, morphology, and properties of some 500 food and that wiped out so many lives and affected the entire system. It brought a sudden end to
medicinal plants, and "Causes of Plants" which describe grafting methods, seeds, effect the previous period of massive scientific change. The plague killed 25-50% of the people
of temperature upon plants, the relations of weather to soil and the taste and perfumes of in Europe, especially in the crowded condition of the towns, where the heart of
plants. innovations laid. Quarantine technique was established, initially a 40-day-period, the
Quarantine was introduced by the Republic of Ragusa to prevent the spreading of
diseases like the Black Death. Venice began quarantines, then the practice spread around
in Europe.
Roman Civilization Science and Technology Development
The Romans used water power and watermills for making cereals milling, sawing timber
and crushing ore. They exploited wood and coal for heating. They constructed numerous Historical Antecedent of Science and Technology during Renaissance
aqueducts to supply water, dams. bridges, and amphitheaters. They studied astronomy, Times
astrology, geography, and other sciences and used sundials to tell time and even created
portable versions. They also used tools for measuring, manual drills, and metal spikes. The Renaissance was a time of creativity and rebirth of cultural and intellectual pursuits
Advanced glassblowing techniques brought new technology to Rome in the form of centered in Italy during 1300s before spreading throghout Europe. The Renaissance
window glass, hanging glass oil lamps, and other objects made of glass. Rome's military produced a golden age with great advances in art, literature, science, geography,
benefited from technological improvements to weapons, shields, armour, and other astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing, anatomy and engineering,
items. Their contributions were crucial to future generations and have helped us to but most importantly, it produced a new concept of how people thought of themselves,
collect the knowledge we have today. each other, and the world around them.

The most important technological innovation of the time was the invention of the
printing press by Johann Gutenberg, it began printing the Bible in everyday language.
Historical Antecedent of Science and Technology during Medieval This invention led to a higher literacy rate among people, and helped with the spread of
Times Renaissance ideas which gave birth to the invention of newspaper.

Medieval Times, Middle Ages, and Dark Ages generally refer to the same period of time Some important Renaissance technologies include both innovations and improvements
from 500 to 1500 AD. That is 1000 years! It covers the time from the fall of the Roman on existing techniques and branches of science: mining and metallurgy: blast furnace,
Empire to the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Europe experienced an intellectual finery forge, slitting mill, arquebus, firearms, musket; the inventions of nautical
revitalization, especially with regard to the investigation of the natural world and major compass, mariner's astrolabe, dry dock and floating dock. Alchemy refers to the
technological advances. transformation of other base substances such as-sulphur, or copper into gold and to
discover a cure for disease and ways of extending life. In Medicine with an increase in
Agricultural Innovations comprise of heavy wheeled plough, three field crop rotation experimental investigation, principally in the field of dissection and body examination,
system, horse collar, stirrup, horseshoe Artesian well, and wheelbarrow were developed. thus advancing the knowledge of human anatomy. Andreas Vesalius who described the
Military technology include the counterweight trebuchet for hurling huge stones to very anatomy of the brain and other organs gave birth to Neurology. William Harvey
long distance; longbow and steel crossbow for hunting and weapon; complete full plate provided a refined and complete description of the circulatory system and few effective
armour for body protection and the skills involved in working metal. Other inventions drugs existed beyond opium and quinine.
consist of vertical windmills, spectacles, mirrors, mechanical clocks, hourglass, greatly
improved water mills, spinning wheel, blast furnace.
 Historical Antecedent of Science and Technology during Modern 8. The Law of acceleration states that a net force on an object will accelerate it—that is,
Times change its velocity. The acceleration will be proportional to the magnitude of the force
and in the same direction as the force of Newton
Science and Technology during the Scientific Revolution
9. The law of Interaction states that an object experiences a force because it is
The scientific revolution was the appearance of modern science during the early interacting with some other object. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 must be of
modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and the same magnitude but in the opposite direction as the force that object 2 exerts on
chemistry took place during the 16th and 17th centuries which transformed views of object 1 of Newton
society and nature. The scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the
10. Law of Universal Gravitation states that the pull of the Earth on objects at its
Renaissance period, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the
surface is its pull of gravity of Newton
Enlightenment or Age of reason.

There were revolutionary developments that occurred, using scientific methods sought to
Science and Technology during the Industrial Revolution
investigate or answer certain questions implied in the framework of certain theories. Industrial Revolution was the transition to new technological processes in Europe-Great
Using experiment and observation to uncover phenomenon, discover new ideas, new Britain and United States that took place during 1750-1900. It is a historical period
inventions that began to disprove inadequate old beliefs or theories. The systematic where the pace of change and innovation appeared to speed up and the merger of
experimentation was slowly accepted by the scientific community. technology with industry occurred. The acceleration in the processes of technical
Scientific revolution led to the inventions of microscope, barometer, thermometer, and innovation produces an array of new tools and machines. An outstanding feature of the
Industrial Revolution has been the advance in power technology. Industrial Revolution
telescope. These instruments helped in the creation of new intellectual knowledge such
as: magnetism, electricity, Heliocentric theory, elliptical orbit of celestial body, was the most profound revolution in human history because of its sweeping impact on
discovery of planets and moons. people's daily lives.

The Scientific Revolution gave emphasis on the following theories:

The following are some key inventions and innovations served to shape virtually every
1. Heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus
existing sector of human activity along industrial lines:
2. The planets travel around the Sun in elliptical orbits, one focus of the ellipse being
occupied by the Sun of Kepler 1. Energy and the power of wind and water during the early period of the Industrial
Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind using waterwheel,
3. A planet moves in its orbit in such a manner that a line drawn from the planet to the windmills and water turbine. The most popular energy source was water power, it was
Sun always sweeps out equal areas in equal times of Kepler used for grinding grain and other types of mill work during preindustrial Europe.

4. The square of the period in which a planet orbits the Sun is proportional to the cube of 2. Steam power or Steam engine was first installed for purpose of pumping water out
its mean distance from the Sun of Kepler of coal mines but now high pressure engine had a high power making it suitable for
transportation. A Watt steam engine became widely [Link] Great Britain during the
5. There are innumerable stars invisible to the naked eye, sunspots, phases of Venus and Industrial Revolution.
Moons of Jupiter of Galileo
3. The discovery of Petroleum and natural gases enhanced internal- combustion
6. The observation of minute living things that cannot be seen by naked eye of engine lay in the need for a light locomotive engine.
Leeuwenhoek
4. The internal combustion engine - the combustion of a fuel releases a high-
7. The Law of Inertia states that if the vector sum of the forces acting on an object is temperature gas, which, as it expands, applies a force to a piston, moving it. Thus,
zero, then the object will remain at rest or remain moving at constant velocity of Newton combustion engines convert chemical energy into mechanical work. The engine steered
in the Industrial Age, which enabled the invention of a huge variety of machines, 15. The development of biochemistry and molecular biology paved the way to the
including modern cars and aircraft. recognition of important biological processes at molecular level and the discovery of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a molecule that carries the genetic material of the living
5. The development of electricity as a source of power preceded this conjunction with things.
steam power late in the 19th century.
16. Modern medicine has profited from this explosion of knowledge in biology and
6. Agriculture technology such as seed drill and plough, crop rotation system and biochemistry which led to the development of new methods of treating diseases ranging
animal husbandry bring about a substantial increase in agricultural productivity from production of penicillin, insulin, and a vast array of drugs to pacemakers for weak
capable of feeding a rapidly growing population with improved nutrition. hearts and implantation of artificial or donated organs.
7. Textile industry was the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of 17. In astronomy, ever larger telescopes were invented and used to study the sun and the
employment, especially in the production of fabrics and cotton. The boom in huge collection of stars called the Milky Way. Through space travel astronomers were
productivity began with a few technical devices, including the spinning jenny, spinning able to study and discover the nature of the universe beyond Earth. The space age began
mule, power loom, and cotton gin. Steam power was applied to operate these machines with the launch of the first artificial satellites in 1957 A human first went into space in
and other specialized equipment. 1961. Since then cosmonauts and astronauts have ventured into space for further study
8. In order to be efficient in delivering agricultural products, overland roads were of the
improved, canals were dug to create maritime corridors between existing waterways and
railroads were constructed. Wagon, automobile, rail transit and the early airplane were
manufactured. Science and Technology in the 20th Century science and technology
9. Manufacturing of chemicals such as sulphuric acid used for pickling (removing rust) There are heaps of developments of science and technology during this century and it
iron and steel, explosives, bleaching solutions, sodium carbonate, solvents, fertilizers, keeps on upgrading. The following are some of the remarkable invention that had major
and medicines, including pharmaceuticals were established. impact on human being:
10. Metallurgy: there are more changes in the metal industries during the Industrial 1. The electronics industry was introduced in the early 20th century and had greatly
Revolution era, it was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a advanced. The complex device like computers before could fill an entire room, but now
given amount of heat, coal required much less labor to mine than cutting wood and it can be carried in an attaché case, and it is even included in the cell phone. The
converting it to charcoal, and coal was more abundant than wood. electronic computer has become one of the important tools of the modern industry. A
computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it, processes it
11. Machine tools: screw cutting lathe, cylinder boring machine and the milling
according to the instructions provided by a user, and then returns the result.
machine created a demand for metal parts used in machinery which led to the
development of several machine tools. 2. Electronics have been fundamental in developing innovative communications devices
such as radio, intercoms, television, headphones, microphones, and laser.
12. Invention of cement by heating mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400°C,
which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Cement is used on 3. An airplane was invented by the Wright brothers, Wilbur and Orville. It is a powered
a large scale in the construction of buildings. fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller.
Commercial airlines are a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of
13. In glass making, a new method of producing glass known as the cylinder blown
passengers daily. The extensive uses of airplanes include recreation, transportation of
sheet was invented to make window pane glass and plate glass.
goods and people, military, and research.
14. The discovery of the atomic nucleus in 1911 and the numerous subatomic particles
4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive medical test that physicians
including electron opened up to the field of atomic and nuclear physics.
use to diagnose medical conditions or presence of certain disease and abnormalities or
monitor treatment for a variety of conditions within the body. It uses a powerful
magnetic field, radio waves or pulses and a computer to produce detailed pictures of the
inside of your body such as organs, soft tissues, bone and virtually all other internal Lesson 2 - Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society
body structures.
Discussion
5. The Internet was the work of dozens of pioneering scientists. programmers, and
engineers. This technology paved the way for wireless communication, which helps the Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) is a German scientist mathematician, astronomer
users to communicate with their relatives and friends and also learn news and scholar, who formulated the theory of "Heliocentric" theory, a model of the universe,
informations both locally and globally. This technology, with its new features eventually that the earth revolved around the sun. Sun is the center of the universe. His book De
merged to become the "information superhighway" we know today. Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres)
contained his writing regarding this theory. History has it that he was presented with the
6. Optic fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone final printed pages of his book on the very day that he died, allowing him to take
signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Today, Optic fiber is farewell of his life's work in 1543. Copernicus's heliocentric idea was very controversial
present in virtually every nation on the Earth, forming the absolute strength of the because the prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus's lifetime was the one
modern communications infrastructure. founded by Ptolemy known as the "geocentric" theory that was published in his work
Almagest in 150 CE, and it stated that the Earth was the stationary center of the
7. Air Conditioning system - in 1902, an engineer from New York named Willis Carrier
universe, stars, planets, and the sun rotates around it. Heliocentrism disproved Ptolemy's
invented the first modern air- conditioning system, which sent air through water-cooled
geocentric model of the universe. It was the start of a change in the way the world was
coils, it was designed to control humidity. In 1922, he followed up with the invention of
viewed. It was a major event in the history of Science and Copernicus came to be seen as
the centrifugal chiller. Carrier's innovation shaped 20th-century America.
the initiator of the Scientific Revolution.
8. 3D Metal Printing is one of the advances in technology that provide instant metal
Charles Darwin (1809-1882), is an English naturalist who proposed natural selection as
fabrication. This innovation enables the ability to create large, intricate metal structures
an explanation of evolution. In the mid-19th century a modern t ???
on demand and therefore could revolutionize manufacturing.
Theory of evolution took hold, Darwins complete theory is published in his book "On
9. Genetic engineering or genetic modification is a process of modifying the genetic
the Origin of Species" in 1859. He described the evolution of life as a process of natural
material of a certain organism by inserting new gene into it. The resulting new organism
selection. According to him, life is a competitive struggle to survive, often in the face of
is called genetically modified organism (GMO) that shows changes in it according to the
limited resources, and living things must compete for food and space. Living things must
gene's function in the body. GMOs are produced using recombinant DNA technology
evade the ravages of predators and diseases while dealing with unpredictable shifts in
and cloning technology.
their environment, such as changes in weather and climate. According to his book, all
10. Artificial Embryos are made from stem cells alone without using egg or sperm organisms have the tendency to overproduce in reproduction, some pieces of evidence to
cells. It is a breakthrough that will open new possibilities for understanding how life these are the fishes producing countless eggs and ferns producing millions of spores.
comes into existence- but clearly also raises vital ethical and even philosophical Even with overproduction, the total population of the world seems to remain about the
problems. same.

Summary of Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection

1. Species have the ability to produce a large number of offspring.

2. The resources of the natural world are limited.

3. Because of limited resources, the organismis then have to compete and those that can
adapt to environmental stress continue to live.

4. No two individuals are exactly alike. Many of traits are inherited by chance
distribution.
5. The organisms that have survived and produced offspring are those that have inherited
beneficial traits for survival.
Olmec Civilization Science and Technology Development
6. The population gradually becomes better adapted to the environment as the process of
evolution continues. The name Olmec means "rubber people". The term "rubber people" refers to the ancient
practice, spanning from ancient Olmec to Aztecs. Rubber is Latex extract from Castilla
elastica, a rubber tree in the area is mixed with juice of Ipomoea alba, to create rubber
as early as 1600 BCE,.Common among places is the colossal heads that is made from
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is probably the most well known theorist when it comes to
basalt which symbolizes thrones. They are known to cultivate cacao, rubber, and salt.
the development of personality. Freud believed that we develop through stages based
Olmec trade goods such as obsidian, ceramics, jade, serpentine, mica, rubber, pottery,
upon a particular erogenous zone. During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means
feathers and polished mirrors of limenite and magnetite. It also observed that they had
that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over- or under-
elaborate water and drainage system. They manufacture chocolate drinks. They practiced
indulges once he or she becomes an adult.
human sacrifice and cannibalism. The calendar used in Mexico may also have originated
Freud proposed the psychological development in childhood in five psychosexual with the Olmec. They also studied astronomy since they are obsessed with thet timing of
stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. religious ritual.

Stage Age Erogenous Personality

Zone/Activities
Oral Stage Birth to 18 Mouth/sucking, These individuals may Maya Civilization Science and Technology Development
months biting, chewing become overly dependent The Mayas were credited with a number of remarkable scientific achievements in
upon others, gullible, and
various scientific fields such as astronomy, engineering, medicine, and mathematics. The
perpetual followers
architectural and engineering skills were manifested in the grandeur of their tall
Anal Stage 18 months to Anal and bowel The child has to learn to
pyramids of limestone, with small temples on the top constructed like an arch supported
three years control control anal stimulation/can
result in an obsession with by two side walls bridged by a row of flat stones and ornamented by steeples or roof
cleanliness, perfection, and combs made of cherts, obsidian, silicified limestone, and jade. They planted corn, beans,
control squash, and cassava. As far as astronomy, they tracked the movement of the stars and
Phallic Stage Ages three Pleasure zone Boy develop unconscious planets across the sky and were able to accurately predict celestial events such as
to six switches to genitals sexual desires for their eclipses. Venus was the most important astronomical object, it was the patron planet of
mother become rival with his warfare to the Mayans. The Mayans invented a calendar consist of different lengths, the
father/Oedipus complex ritual calendar 260 days count is known as the "Tzolkin". The "Haab" calendar was
Latency Stage Age six to Repression of Children interact and play made up of eighteen months of 20 days. This calendar gave each day a name, much like
puberty sexual feelings mostly with same sex peers our days of the week. There were 20-day names, represented by their respective
Genital Stage Puberty on Maturation of Adolescents direct their symbols.
sexual orientation sexual urges onto opposite
sex peers

Aztec Civilization Science and Technology Development

Science and Technology of the Mesoamerican Civilization (Pre-
The Aztecs established themselves in Tenochtitlan city, now known as Mexico City.
Columbian times) They are best known as violent people and expanded their empire through ruthless
Mesoamerican Civilization composed of diverse group of indigenous people who lived warfare. They are also known for practicing human sacrifices in elaborate rituals that
in parts of present-day Mexico, Peru, Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras. It is often involved the removal of beating hearts made to appease their many gods. Their
comprised of four civilization: Olmec, Maya, Aztec and Inca first technology includes: making tools made of obsidian and chert stone. Advances in
Aztec technology had led to the experimentation of making tools with copper, producing Asian Science and Technology
ax blades, and bows and arrows used as a weapon. Aztec accomplishments include
development in mathematics; they even made drills which were made of reed or bone; Japan, China and India are some of the most important civilizations when it comes to
they were familiar with the concept of a wheel, however, only used in toys; they were science and technological development and contributions to the world.
advanced in the development of medicine and remarkably found in many forms such as
ointments, drinks, and salves. Aztecs made a water transport vehicle called canoes with
which they transported themselves and their goods throughout the many canals, lakes, Chinese Civilization Science and Technology Development
and waterways found in the Valley of Mexico. Aztec Astronomy was also an important
component of their calendar, which reflected heavily on their gods and rituals. The Chinese introduced various forms of sciences such as astronomy. physics,
chemistry, meteorology, and seismology. They have contributed various inventions and
technology such as: flying machines, kites (carry messages), and lanterns; clock puppet,
giant water clock, gunpowder and fireworks, cross bow, fans made of bamboo spines,
Inca Civilization Science and Technology Development seed drill, iron plough, and wheelbarrows. They made magnetic compass, porcelain,
Machu Picchu is one of the Inca civilization's most famous surviving archaeological pottery; silk made from the cocoons of silkworms. Their contributions in mathematics
sites and was built as a retreat for an Incan emperor. They are known for producing include: the base ten number system and abacus, a calculator that used sliding beads to
maize (corn), dried llama, coca leaves, sweet potatoes, quinoa, beans, chili peppers, and help compute math problems quickly. Paper and printing, their early script contained
alcohol. Coca leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during 80,000 different characters and went on to invent books and had book shops in every
work, but were mostly used for religious and health purposes and as anesthetic. city. They develop seismological detectors an earthquake detecting tool called
Mummification of individuals was an important part of Inca funerary rites. Striking seismoscope. Other inventions included umbrella, iron casting, hot air balloon, matches,
artistry were its textiles and clothes were woven out of wool from dried llamas and stirrups s for riding horses, lacquer, paper money and acupuncture.
alpaca or vicuna wool and cotton. Inca craftsmen fitted building stones together Confucius (551 BCE-479 BCE) was an influential Chinese philosopher, teacher and
perfectly without using any mortar, such that an object as thin as a razor blade could not political figure known for his popular aphorisms and for his models of social interaction.
be inserted between the stones. Objects made out of gold and silver survive. Inca His Analects, focused on creating ethical models of family and public interaction and
calendars were strongly tied to astronomy and lunisolar, equinoxes, solstices, and Venus setting educational standards. Family is the bases of ideal government and that there
cycle were observed. The Inca used assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu, should be a strong solidarity among family members. Man must have virtue of kindness,
used as mnemonic devices to record numerical data and also believed to record history uprightness, decorum or decency, wisdom and faithfulness. Confucius Analects provide
and literature. They made many discoveries in medicine and performed successful skull rules for thinking and living that focus on love for humanity, worship of ancestors,
surgery, which involved cutting holes in the skull in order to alleviate fluid buildup and respect for elders, self-discipline and conformity to rituals. Confucius social philosophy
inflammation caused by head wounds. The Inca weaponry were: Bronze or bone-tipped was based primarily on the principle of "ren" or "loving others" while exercising self-
spears, two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges, clubs with stone and spiked discipline. He believed that "ren" could be put into action using the Golden Rule: "What
metal heads, woolen slings and stones, and stone or copper headed battle-axes and you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others."
Bolas.

Indus-Hindu civilization Science and Technology Development

Evidence showed that Indus valley civilization have public wells provided with regular
supply of water for all the inhabitants and sanitation. All houses had their own private
toilet and also evident was the presence of public and private baths, sewage and
sophisticated water management system. There were several mathematicians that
contributed in the study of astronomy, they discovered lunar and solar eclipse and
propounded the Heliocentric theory of gravitation. The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is one of
six major observatories built by the Maharajah. Its use not only follows the movements building and constructed on the first large-scale in Persia because of the belief it is
of the sun and the moon but also help determine auspicious dates for events, it also associated with heavens. Various structures such as mosques, mausoleums, bazaars,
helps map out the position of the stars in the sky. bridges, and different palaces have mainly survived from this period. A wind tower is a
chimney-like structure positioned above the house to catch the prevailing wind.

Science and Technology in Japan

Arabic Civilization Science and Technology Development
Science and technology in Japan were mostly focused and prominent in consumer
electronics, robotics, medical devices, space exploration, and the film industry. Japan Arabic Civilization originated in the Arabian Peninsula-present-day- Saudi Arabia in
Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary resey, aviation 622 A.D. The Arabian scientific achievements covered a wide range of subject areas:
research, and development of space and satellitea. It has developed a series of rockets astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included
and built the Japanese Experiment Module which was launched to space in 2007 and in alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography, pharmacology, physics,
2008. zoology, and science of mechanics. They have invented and contributed the following:
astrolabe use to observe stars, the water wheel, water irrigation, invention of the
Japan Nuclear power which started since 1973, and in 2008, after the opening of 7 brand pendulum, and the water clock, leading in the papermaking industry, weaving wool,
new nuclear reactors in Japan, it became the third largest nuclear power user in the world producing silk, pottery, jewelry, leather, and perfume production. They have great
with 55 nuclear reactors. These provide 34.5% of Japan's electricity. knowledge of architecture as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus.
Japan is one of the leading nations in the fields of scientific research, technology,
machinery, and medical research and received the most science Nobel prizes in Asia.
Japan electronics is well known throughout the world, and Japanese electronic products Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khawaarizmi is an Islamic mathematician that made
account for a large share in the world market that includes: MP3 player, CD player, advances in mathematics/Algebra, astronomy, and geography around 820 CE. His
Karaoke, calculator, electric rice cooker, and the worlds' leader in developing robots. contributions comprised of popularizing treatise on algebra (The Compendious Book
on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) and presented the first systematic
Japan has large international corporate conglomerates such as Fuji and Sony, other solution of linear and quadratic equations, introduced the methods of "reduction" and
companies are Panasonic, Canon, Fujitsu, Hitachi, Sharp, NEC, Nintendo, Epson, and "balancing" since then has been described as the father of algebra. His name gave rise to
Toshiba. Well-known automobile companies in the world: Toyota, Honda, Nissan, the terms algorism and algorithm as well. In addition, he worked on listing the
Mazda, Mitsubishi, Suzuki, and Subaru are from Japan. longitudes and latitudes of various cities and localities and further produced a set of
astronomical tables, astrolabe and sundial. He also made important contributions to
trigonometry, producing, accurate sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents.
Science and Technology of the Middle East Civilization
Persian Civilization Science and Technology Development Hasan Ibn al-Haytham was an Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist of the
Persia is the former name of Iran. It has one of the oldest and richest cultural heritages in Islamic Golden Age. He is referred to as "the fatherof modern optics", he paved the
world history and encompasses many disciplines including architecture, painting, way for the modern science of physical optics. He wrote the "Book of Optics" which
weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking, and stonemasonry. Qanat is a water contained his significant contributions to the principles of optics and visual perception in
management system invented by the Persians. It is used for providing drinking and particular. He was the first to explain that vision occurs in the brain when light reflects
agricultural water for irrigation. They were the first inventors of the first battery. Persian from an object and then passes to one's eyes. He was an early proponent of the concept
rugs have always been a vital part of the Persian culture. Nas'taliq is the most beautiful that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or
Persian Calligraphy style and is also technically is the complicated. They learned Pottery mathematical evidence - an early pioneer in the scientific method.
with unique designs, earthenwares, ceramic art objects such as figures, tiles, and
tableware made from clay and other raw materials. Domes were an important part of a
Science and Technology of the African the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant. They used terraced hillside cultivation to
prevent erosion. They cultivated sorghum, African rice, oil palm, raffia palm, black-eyed
The oldest stone tool was possibly of Australopithecus afarensis origin dating back to peas, groundnuts, gourds, watermelon, castor bean, kola nuts, yams, okra, and cotton and
3.3 million years ago in eastern Africa. Afterward, several hominid ancestors develop cotton cloth were being produced.
stone tool-making industry specifically hand-axes. Homo erectus also begins using fire.
The use of bone tools and backed blades eventually became the characteristic of later Textiles
Stone Age tool industries.
They wore linen from the flax plant, wool, cotton, beaded leather and used looms.
Cotton textile were dyed with fermented mud of tree sap and teas. Raffia clothes were
weaved and used the fibers of the leaves of the raffia palm tree. Some use animal hide
Astronomy and skins for clothing, hides came from cattle, sheep, goat, elephant, and jangwa. Skins
Africans have invented the astrolabic quadrant, recorded astronomical events, including of animals were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads.
a meteor shower in August 1583 and had a heliocentric view of the solar system and Maritime Technology
diagrams of planets and orbits made use of complex mathematical calculations. There
were three types of calendars found in Africa: lunar, solar, and stellar. Egyptian was the In 1987, the Dufuna canoe was discovered in Nigeria, it was made from African
first to develop a 365-day, 12 month calendar, it was a stellar calendar created by mahogany. It is the third oldest canoe in the world and the oldest in Africa. Early
observing the stars. South Africa has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community and Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BCE.
hosted the Southern African Large Telescope, the largest optical telescope in the Most West African canoes were of single log construction, carved and dug-out from one
southern hemisphere. massive tree trunk.

Metallurgy Architecture

They used iron, brass, and bronze in making tools and weapons. They also manufactured The Great Mosque of Djenné is the largest mud brick or adobe building in the world
glass and glass beads. Copper smelting was independently developed in Africa. Gold and is considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudano-
was the main source of wealth and power. They produced coins around 270 CE, issued Sahelian architectural style, albeit with definite Islamic influences. The Great Pyramid
in gold, silver, and bronze. The elders created a furnace using mud and grass when burnt is the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years.
provided the carbon needed to transform the iron into steel.
Egyptian hieroglyphs is the Africa's first writing system and with the arrival of Islam,
In Medicine came the Arabic alphabet. The Arabic script was used to write native African languages.

The knowledge of inoculating oneself against smallpox seemed to have been known to Warfare
West Africans. They were able to identify the mosquito that causes malaria. Removal of
cataracts was a common surgical procedure. They have knowledge of anatomy, injuries, Weapons were from stone, wood, copper, later bronze and iron. Weapons included bows
and stitched wounds by bandaging with white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs and arrows, with low bow strength that compensated with poison-tipped arrows,
soaked with honey to prevent infection, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs throwing knives, spears that could double as thrusting cutting weapons, and swords.
and practical treatments. They used opium to relieve pain, garlic, and onions were used They also made heavy clubs when thrown could break bones, and shields of various
regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. sizes. Later they used guns, muskets and matchlock. Fortification was a major part of
Tetracyline was being used to treat infection and they have developed a vaccine against defense and integral to warfare. Biological warfare was extensively used in many parts
yellow fever in 1937. of Africa, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, and poison powder. This bio
warfare is spread on the war front or poisoning the water supply of the opponents.
Agriculture

They domesticated cattle, donkeys, and guinea fowl. They developed irrigation system.
Ox drawn plows seem to have been used. Ethiopians were the first to have discovered
 Lesson 3 - Science and Technology in Philippines Society 200 = dalawang daan

Science and technology in the Philippines is about the scientific and technological 30 = tatlong pu
development programs under the direction of the Department of Science and Technology
300 = tatlong daan
(DOST). It involves the study forestry, agriculture, metal industry, textile, nuclear
research, food and On nutrition, meteorology, volcanology and seismology. 10,000 = laksa
In the country, it has evolved from different eras and greatly influenced by different 10,000,000 = kati
culture from Ancient time to Spanish era, and eventually by Americans.
100,000 = yuta
The following timeline briefly describes the evolution of our science and technology
education in the Philippines (Pagador, 2017). 100,000,000 = bahala

Pre-Colonial Period (900-1521)

Before the colonization of the Philippines there were evidences that the Filipinos had Spanish Colonial Period (1565-1898)
practices associated with science and technology such as awareness of the medicinal and The growth and development of science and technology improved during the
therapeutic characteristics of plants and their unique methods of extracting medicine colonization of the Philippines. Formal education and scientific, institution were
from herbs. They already had an alphabet, number system, a weighing and measuring introduced by the Spaniards. Parish schools run by the Catholic church were established
system and a calendar, based on the phases of the moon. Filipinos were already engaged where religion, reading, writing, arithmetic and music, sanitation and new methods of
in scientific farming as evidenced in the design of Banaue Rice Terraces, shipbuilding farming were taught. Colleges and university were launched and one of which is the
with the famous balangay, a famous watercraft, mining and weaving. University of Santo Tomas.
• Baybayin a pre-colonial Philippine writing system (Tan, 2014) In 1580's, Spanish friars documented that astronomy was already known and practiced
prior to their colonization citing the local names of constellations, such as Moroporo for
the Pleiades and Balatik for Ursa Major.
Tomas Pinpin as cited by Morrow 2016, was a writer and printer, who noted that early
manner of counting things in Tagalog are not expressed in digits but by describing the As cited by Manapat (2011), he wrote that in 1687, Isaac Newton referred to the
amount as munti't marami ( few and many) written in Baybayin, an ancient pre-colonial Philippines in his classic Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, under
Philippine writing system. It was an indigenous writing form invented by Filipino great Proposition XXIV, Theorem XIX, by explaining the theory of gravitation, mentioned
grandfathers. There were also orders of numbers such as: that Leuconia, was the ancient Ptolemaic name for the Philippines (Manapat, 2011).

In the latter years of the Spanish colonization era, it was noted that the study of medicine
in the Philippines was given priority. Technology in the area of engineering was evident
10 = pu in the construction of public buildings, churches, roads, bridges and forts.
100 = daan The study of Biology was also given importance. Noted 19th first Filipino Augustinian
priest and botanists included: century
1000 = libo
1. Fr. Ignacio Mercado. He helped in recording 200 plants found in the Philippines. No
1,000,000 = angaw one knew the names or benefits of these plants during this era but his works greatly
1,000,000,000 = gastos contributed to the discovery of other Philippine medicinal and endemic plant species
(Leon, 2017).
20 = dalawang pu
2. Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, was a Filipino physician and author of Plantas the Laboratorio Municipal, established under the Spanish era. The Bureau focused on the
Medicinales, a book of 341 pages, published in 1892 in Madrid. The book contains a list study of tropical diseases and laboratory projects. On October 26, 1905, was renamed
of medicinal plants, their scientific names, and local names with its uses and description; as the Bureau of Science which became the primary research center of the Philippines
until World War II. On December 8, 1933, the National Research Council of the
3. Leon Ma Guerrero, first Filipino industrial scientist, forensic chemist who earned the Philippines was established.
title "Father of Philippine Pharmacy" and "Father of Botany" because of his
experiment on medicinal properties of 174 plants as substitute for synthetic medicines Science during the American period did not emphasize the development of industrial
found in his book "Medicinal Plants" published in 1918 (Philippine News Agency, technology due to free trade policy with the United States that focused more towards
2012); agriculture, food processing. medicine and pharmacy.

4. Anaclento del Rosario, was a leading chemist during the Spanish era in Philippine In 1940's-After World War!!, one hundred twenty (120) pupils were accommodated in
history. He was known as the "Father of Philippine Science and Laboratory", and was elementary level. No science subjects were offered in grades 1-4 levels but included in
recognized as the inventor of a formula for producing a pure kind of alcohol from tuba grades 5-6 levels with 30 minutes teaching time. One teacher handles 60 pupils in the
taken from a nipa palm that earned him as first prize winner in World Fair in France in morning and another 60 students in the afternoon sessions.
1881 (Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2017):
In 1946-The Secondary level of instruction on general curriculum included the following
5. Medicine scholar, Dr. Manuel Guerrero, conducted laboratory experiments on the subjects such as: Home Economics, Language and Vocational with optional subjects
heart of a frog by feeding it with mother's milk afflicted with beriberi, a deadly disease such as geometry, advanced algebra and physics.
which caused nerves and heart inflammation among infants. This disease was common
during the last years of the Spanish regime and 20 years of American colonization. There In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science. In a report by the
was a high rate of mortality of 80% infant deaths before they could celebrate their one US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, it observed that the country was
year of birth, and the illness was commonly known as "taon". This disease was deficient in basic information which were needed for the country's industries. And this
addressed by giving Vitamin B, supplement which is also known as Thiamine. was due to lack of support on experimental work and minimal budget for scientific
research and low salaries of scientist employed by the government.
Trade was opened to Acapulco, Mexico during the Spanish time using big ships called
galleon and this activity of exchanged of goods with the country was called Galleon 1948-1949. Educational act was drafted to help restore grade 7 but was approved.
Trade which produced huge profits from selling spices, porcelain, ivory, gold, silver, tin, Early 1950's-Philippine scientists noted their observations that teaching science from
copper and lacquer wares. Tobacco industry prospered under the strict monopoly of the grade school to college levels in both public and private schools was very inadequate.
government and exclusively planted in specific provinces in the North of Luzon, This Primary school curriculum offered fundamental handiwork in grades 2, 3 and 4. It
industry made Philippine tobacco famous all over Asia. The trade industry also made emphasized community living and economic life.
Filipino seamen earn the title of Ablest Asiatic seamen. The opening of the Suez Canal
attracted the visit of other Europeans to the Philippines and gave opportunities for some In response to this deficiency in science learning, a community school movement started
Filipinos to study in Europe. This brought exchange of ideas caused by the rapid in Bohol and Iloilo which emphasized understanding and appreciation of simple facts
development of scientific ideals influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and thought of and methods thru observation, experimentation, critical thinking, planning and
independence from Spain (Philippine History,2020). experimentation.

The secondary level in community schools focused on health, sanitation, community and
home beautification.
American Period and Post-Commonwealth Era (Wikipedia, 2020)
1953 - The Bureau of Public schools required local schools to establish laboratory
The development of science and technology in the Philippines continued under branch centers in Philippine Normal School, and 8 public Normal Schools in Iloilo,
American colonization by establishing on July 1, 1901 under the rule of the Philippine Cebu, Albay, Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, Bukidnon, Zamboanga and Leyte.
Commission, the Bureau of Government Laboratories which was supervised under
office of the Department of Interior. The Bureau of Government laboratories replaced
1954 - Construction of Science Laboratory apparatus in Vocational shops were set up. 1964. Ford Foundation approved the request of Carlos P. Romulo to set up a Science
Biology became a live subject covering health and sanitation, food production and home Teaching Center at University of the Philippines with a cash grant of 310,000 dollars for
beautification. Physics was integrated with mechanics. two years.

In 1958, during the term of President Carlos P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed A law was also enacted, RA 5506 establishing a Science Education Center at UP
the Science Act of 1958 which established the National Science Development Board and Diliman with annual fund of Php 250,000. This helped organized Summer Institutes
highlighting the following objectives for teaching of science education such as: conducted at the Science Center to help enhance science teaching through conducting
demonstration lessons, preparing teaching aids and assessment activities. It also helped
a. Integration of teaching science in classrooms established five Regional Science Teaching Centers in Notre Dame University in
b. Acquisition of more science equipment Cotabato, Ateneo De Davao College, Siliman University, St. Louis University and
Aquinas University.
c. Coordination with other government agencies

d. Establishment of science Institute for teachers

Marcos Era and Martial Law
e. National talent search to teach science
During President Ferdinand Marcos term, Philippine Constitution was amended giving
f. Higher compensation for science and mathematics teachers more importance to the development of science and technology as a priority to national
development, cited in Article XV, Section 9 (1) of the amended 1973 Constitution
(Congress, 1976).
In 1960's a group of biological science educators organized them- selves to adapt a
Biological Science Curriculum Study to help students understand the nature of the living After being proclaimed tenth President of the Philippines, and during the year 1967, in
world and production of science laboratory manual. The group was composed of writer- his Second State of the Nation Address (SONA) on January 23, 1967, President Marcos
specialist, teachers, administrators and illustrators. To further improve science declared that science was necessary for the development programs, and ordered the
curriculum, the Philippine Association of Science Teachers held a conference to identify Department of Education of strengthen the science courses in public schools. The
suggestions and recommendations for the improvement of science teaching by Department of Education, with the National Science Development Board (NSDB),
developing inquiry and critical thinking skills focusing on cognitive, affective and selected high schools and provided them with science teaching equipment over a four-
psychomotor skills. year period.

Chemistry was newly introduced as a subject and Filipino was the medium of instruction In President Marcos' Third State of the Nation Address on January 22 1968, he provided
in grade 1 for non-Tagalog provinces and grade 3 in Tagalog provinces. additional funds to support projects in applied sciences and science education as he
acknowledged the importance of technology in economic development.
In 1962 a science laboratory manual was adapted and distributed 1,600 copies to ten
public schools. On April 6, 1968, he proclaimed 35 hectares in Bicutan, Taguig Rizal as the site of the
Philippine Science Community. It became the venue for government seminars for public
1963-1964. Problems noted by a science educator from Wheelock College in Boston and private high school and college science teachers, training programs and scholarships
Massachusette was the 3-5 languages a student must learn in school like Filipino, for graduate and undergraduate science scholars, and workshops on fisheries and
English, Spanish and Local dialect that entail a lot of time before a student can focus on oceanography.
other subject matter like science. Another problem raised was the shortage of textbooks
which are needed to help guide the students in their lessons as these were shared by four In his Fifth State of the Nation Address on January 26, 1970, he called on upgrading the
students per book in Manila schools and 10 students per book in rural schools. science curricula and teaching equipment in response to the science development
program. He also instructed the NSDB to set up the Philippine Coconut Research
Institute to help modernize the coconut industry. Eventually, NSDB also established the
Philippine Textile Research Institute, Philippine Atomic Energy Commission to explore
the uses of atomic energy for economic development. Marcos sent local scientists to In 1979, he constituted the Health Sciences Center created by R.A. No. 5163 as an
study nuclear science and technology abroad, and providing basic training to 482 autonomous member within the University of the Philippines System consisting of the
scientists, doctors, engineers, and technicians Colleges of Medicine, Pharmacy and Dentistry, Institute of Public Health, Philippine
General Hospital, School of Allied Medical Professions, Institute of Ophthalmology,
In the Seventh State of the Nation Address on January 24, 1972, Marcos spoke about his Institute of Health Sciences (Tacloban), Comprehensive Community Health Program,
major development projects in reforming ectors of education such as research and Anesthesiology Center for the Western Pacific, National Teacher Training Center for the
development schools, technical institutes, science education centers, and agricultural Health Professions, and such other units of the University as may be approved by its
colleges and vocational high schools. He also established the National Grains Authority Board of Regents.
to conduct study on the development of the rice and corn industry to fully harness it for
the economy of the country. He also created the Philippine Council for Agricultural In 1980, he created the National Committee on Geological Sciences to advise
Research to support the progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries government and private entities on matters concerning development in geological
for the nation as attached to the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources for sciences. (Executive Order No. 625, s. 1980) which includes the different disciplines in
administrative purposes. He helped further support for the promotion of scientific the natural sciences on the study of the earth, its composition, physics, structure and
research and invention with Presidential Decree No. 49, s. 1972. This decree provided evolution. Its Scope will also include, other disciplines such as: Geochemistry;
protection of intellectual property for the inventor or publisher of written word. The Petrology; Mineralogy; Geophysics; Geodynamics; Structural Geology; Tectonics;
Philippine Atmosphere Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration Geomorphology; Volcanology; Seismology; Stratigraphy; Paleontology; Historical
(PAGASA) was also created under the supervision of the Department of National Geology; Economic Geology; and such interdisciplinary subjects as Marine Geology,
Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology, Petroleum Geology, Environmental Geology,
ensure the safety of the people. (Presidential Decree No. 78.,s. 1972. Mineral Economics, Mining Geology, Geomathematics, Geostatistics, Geobarometry,
Geochronology, Nuclear Geology, Geothermometry, Astrogeology, Remote Sensing in
In 1973, to address oil crisis, Marcos established the Philippine National Oil Company Geology and others.
to help promote industrial and economic development by sustaining the supply of oil and
promote the effective and efficient use of energy sources through exploration, In 1986, Marcos set up the Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science
exploitation and development of all energy resources in the country. (Presidential Decree High School to give opportunities to talented students residing in the Mindanao and
No. 334, s. 1973) Visayas areas to take up courses in science and technology Executive Order No. 1090, s.
1986).
In 1976, a law was passed under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976 to create the
National Academy of Science and Technology, which will serve as the highest advisory
body to the government and the science community on matters related to science and
technology. It is composed of scientists with scientific and technological interests with Fifth Republic
given authority to recognize outstanding Filipino scientists and their achievements in
In 1986, Corazon Aquino, renamed the National Science and Technology Authority as
science and technology in all fields of science.
the Department of Science and Technology highlighting its role in economic recovery
In 1978, Marcos created a Task Force on the formulation of a national action program on and its influence to sustain economic growth and help achieve as the newly
science and technology to assess policies and programs of science and technology. industrialized country status by the year 2000.
(Executive Order No. 512, s. 1978). The government invested funds and time in different
President Aquino encouraged scientists and inventors to help reclaim the Philippines
government organizations for scientific research, such as the NSDB, the Philippine
status as second to Japan in the field of science and technology and to achieve the status
Council for Agricultural Research and Resources, the Plant Breeding Institute, the
as being an industrialized country by year 2000.
International Rice Research Institute, the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the Bureau of
Forest Products. R.A. 6655 or also known as the Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988 was
enacted offering free education up to the secondary level, and integrated in the education
system called "Science for the Masses Program" to raise scientific and technological
literacy among Filipinos through the modernization of the production sector, upgrading
research activities, and development of infrastructure for science and technological
purposes. A Research and Development Plan was also designed to identify which areas
of research are to be prioritized, which includes the development of local materials, as The Science Technology and Innovation or STI helped schools and the education system
potential product in export market. like the Philippine Science High School (PSHS), that focuses in science, technology and
mathematics in their curriculum and encouraging the sponsorship of private sectors in
In 1998 SONA of President Fidel Ramos, he reported the significant increase in this endeavor to produce more scientists and innovators.
personnel specializing in the science and technology field numbering 3,000 competent
scientists and engineers, and two newly built Philippine Science High Schools in Environmental law enacted by Arroyo was RA 9367 of also known as Biofuels Act was
Visayas and Mindanao which promotes further development of young kids through acted upon to promote the use of biofuels throughout the country, benefiting the
advance S&T curriculum,3,500 scholarships grants for students who were taking up consumers as affordable alternative gasoline and cleaner gas emission compared to the
professions related to S&T. There was reported increase in number of with modernized traditional fuel.
schools by adopting teachers attending training programs, improved students In 2010-2016, President Benigno Aquino III after continuing the previous
achievements, and developed health care services through local programs such as administrations efforts and aspiration to develop more scientists, his administration
"Doctors to the Barrio Program" as manifested in recorded increase in life expectancy recognized the contribution of four scientists granting them such distinction as National
from 67.5 years in 1992 to 69.1 years in 1995. Scientists.
Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta for Science and Technology National Scientist and Academician Gavino C. Trono, is known for his outstanding
Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was established. The award was published in order contributions in the field of tropical marine phycology with focus on seaweed
to give incentives and rewards for people who have been influential in the field of S&T. biodiversity, biology, ecology, and culture. He helped many of families living in the
In his sixth SONA, Ramos enacted RA 8439, granting rewards and incentives such as coastal areas through his extensive studies on seaweed species (NAST, 2020).
National Program for Gifted Filipino Children in Science and Technology and another Angel C. Alcala, served as the pioneer scientist and advocate of coral reefs aside from
law creating a nationwide system of high schools specializing in the field of science and his contribution in the fields of systematics, ecology and herpetology. He invented
engineering Significant Science and Technology laws include: Magna Carta for Science artificial coral reefs to be used for fisheries in Southeast Asia. A Filipino ecologist and
and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439); (2) Science and Technology biologist with more than 30 years of contributions to the field of conservation biology.
Scholarship Law of 1994 (Republic Act No. 7687) and (3) Inventors and Inventions He was the first Filipino scientist to have great interest in researching native reptiles and
Incentives Act (Republic Act No. 7459). The Intellectual Property Code of the amphibians of the Philippines, and he was able to identify at least 50 new reptile and
Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293). amphibian species! (Bote, 2019).
In President Joseph Estrada's term,1998-2001, his first SONA, launched a full-scale In 2013, Ramon C. Barba, was awarded National Scientist for his achievement in
program based on cost-effective irrigation technologies and promised to facilitate the developing a process that caused the flowering and fruiting of mango trees three times a
provision of one science high school in every province. To protect the environment and year, an all year round of supply of mangoes which greatly improved the mango industry
ensure sustainable resources, he signed into law Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (Famous Scientists, The Art of Genius, 2020).
(Republic Act No. 8749) and promised to act upon the 15-year modernization program
of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. In his last SONA, Estrada endorsed the Edgardo D. Gomez, a coral reef conservation champion was awarded National Scientist
advancement of Internet Age and passed E-commerce Act of 2000 (RA Act No. 8792) for his effort to conduct national-scale assessment of damaged coral reefs which led a
that punishes computer hacking. national conservation to worldwide conservation awareness (Rappler, 2019).

In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001-2010), administration, the several laws were Aquino also signed into law Republic Act 10692 or An Act providing for the
passed concerning the environment, science and technology to help the economy thus Modernization of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical
calling her administration as the "golden age" of science and technology by former Service Administration (PAGASA), Providing Funds Therefore and for Other
Health Secretary Estrella Albastro. Arroyo also pushed for making the Philippines Purposes, last November 3, 2015 in response to severe weather conditions afflicting the
become an innovation hub in Asia thus giving-the term "Filipinnovation". country.
 9. Improve social protection programs, including the government's Conditional Cash
Transfer program.
President Rodrigo Roa Duterte signed Balik Scientist law also known as Republic
Act No. 11035, an "Act Institutionalizing the Balik Scientist Program", to give more 10. Strengthen implementation of the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health
incentives to returning Filipino experts, scientists, inventors, and engineers who would Law.
share thier expertise in the country. Strengthen the implementation of the Department of
Science and Technology's (DOST) Balik Scientist Program which was first established
in 1975, to help facilitate agro-industrial and economic development of the country to Part of DuterteNomics policy is the Build! Build! Build! Infrastructure Plan which will
solve the country's problem on the low number of scientists who are experts in the field lead the way to "Golden Age of Infrastructure". The program aims to reduce poverty,
of space, technology, artificial intelligence, biomedical engineering, energy, agriculture, encourage economic growth and reduce congestion in Metro Manila. As of August 2019,
food technology, biotechnology, information and communications technology, only 12% of the flagship projects have construction underway caused by the delayed
pharmaceutical, disaster mitigation and management, environment and natural resources, passage of the 2019 national budget and the election ban on public works.
electronics, genomics, health, manufacturing, nanotechnology, cyber security, and
semiconductors (DOST, 2018). As of November 2019, starting with his assumption to his office, it recorded the
completion of a total of 9,845 kilometers (6,117 mi) of roads, 2,709 bridges, 4,536 flood
Dutertenomics is a term used to describe the socioeconomic policies of President control projects, 82 evacuation centers, and 71,803 classrooms under the "Build, Build,
Rodrigo Duterte. that refers to the development of infrastructure and industries to help Build" program (Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia, 2000).
the country attain the progressive status similar to neighboring countries at the end of his
term by 2022. At present time, the goal of science and technology remains a priority in the government
list of programs in order to improve quality of life and provide income opportunities by
DuterteNomics is anchored on the following ten principles: offering our innovative products to the international community.
1. Continue and maintain current macroeconomic policies, including fiscal, monetary,
and trade policies.

2. Institute progressive tax reform and more effective tax collection, indexing taxes to
inflation.

3. Increase competitiveness and the ease of doing business.

4. Accelerate annual infrastructure spending to account for 5% of GDP, with Public-

Private Partnerships playing a key role.

5. Promote rural and value chain development toward increasing agricultural and rural
enterprise productivity and rural tourism.

6. Ensure security of land tenure to encourage investments. and address bottlenecks in

land management and titling agencies.

7. Invest in human capital development, including health and education systems, and
match skills and training.

8. Promote science, technology, and the creative arts to enhance innovation and creative
capacity.
 Lesson 4 - Selected Indigenous Science and Technology in the Indigenous knowledge observed in the following activities of some selected ethnic
Philippines groups.

1. Indigenous people have knowledge acquired through experiences and

observations such as prediction of weather, treatment of diseases using herbal
Historically, indigenous people of ancient time are recognized as those responsible for plants, farming techniques and food preservation to name a few.
the development of many technologies/inventions that are used today and they have
substantially contributed to the advancement of science.

Indigenous peoples, equipped with years of personal experience together with the Northern Philippines Indigenous Practices
influence of their ancestors are known to have wider knowledge about the environment
and the ecological relationships existing around them to maintain balance that helps
Prediction of weather in Cordillera Region, Northern Philippines.
them to manage the use of natural resources. 1. Ibalois of Benguet have learned to predict the weather by observing their
Indigenous people greatly relied upon their knowledge about the environment which was environment. The forthcoming of a storm is associated with the appearance of a bird
manifested in their success in domesticating plants and animals for their needs such as called killing in local dialect. They call this event as pwek ni kiling or storm of the
medicinal plants that developed to the present time, especially in the area of killing. This said tropical storm that occurs late in the year, usually coincides with the
pharmacology, nutrition, and pain relief. immigration of the bird locally known as kiling. Another observation that helped
predicted the coming of bad weather is when the moon is encircled by a rainbow color or
Indigenous knowledge from olden times has played a huge role in providing cumulative appearance of bloody colored sunset. Their knowledge of the annual weather patterns
wisdom passed on from generation to generation and passed on through cultural tradition are essential indicators in the proper use and management of their resources.
expressed in poem, songs, stories told verbally.

The Philippines has an estimated 14-17 million Indigenous Peoples (IPs) belonging to
110 ethno-linguistic groups. They are found in Northern Luzon (Cordillera 2. Itogon farmers are knowledgeable of the annual weather that happens regularly. They
Administrative Region, 33%) and Mindanao (61%), with some groups in the Visayas can predict seasonal bearing of wild fruits, when edible plants and fungi are found on the
area (United Nation Development Programme, 2013). forest floor, and mating seasons of wild animals. The presence of different bird species
are also indicators that predicts the start or end of each season. Knowledge of the
The indigenous groups in the mountains of northern Luzon are generally known as seasons help in deciding the best varieties and species to plant or to prey on.
Igorot, and those in the southern island of Mindanao are called Lumads. There are
smaller groups collectively known as Mangyan (Tadyawans) in the central islands, and Ingrained in their belief systems, Igorot's view that use of natural resources is based on
scattered groups in the Central islands and Luzon, who are hunter-gatherers in transition. steward or tenant relationship which is practiced by taking only what is needed which
helps protect their natural resources from extravagant and wasteful exploitation. There is
The indigenous people have continuously practiced their traditional pre-colonial culture, constant awareness of providing for the next generation but securing the survival needs
social institutions and living practices until present time. They settle in isolated areas and of the present generation. This practice is guided by their belief that resources come
were not greatly affected by influences of foreign colonizers such as Spanish and from goodness of the spirits and the ancestors. Rituals of offering to the spirits are
Americans which helped them maintain their customs and traditions with less access to performed before they exploit natural resources (i,e. water and forests) which helped
formal education or deprived in political participation. Because of this, their natural them from getting more than what they actuall need. ([Link], n.d.)
resources remain unexplored such as minerals, forests and rivers are abundantly
preserved and untouched. Food Preservation

Igorots also have a unique way of preserving meat which is called Etag or inasin a
favorite ethnic food delicacy. It is a salted meat made from native pigs. It is a food
preservation method by curing a slab of pork with salt then smoked or sundried. It is also
called Bontoc smoked ham. This method is also used in mummification of dead bodies Observing the Celestial Bodies: Southern Philippines
of their ancestors (Castro, 2015).

Farming Practices in Northern Philippines

Observation Interpretation of Farmers
Banauwe Rice Terraces is a system of irrigated rice terraces in the mountains of north-
central Luzon. Mountains of Banaue, Ifugao, were carved by their ancestors to make
terraced pond fields designed with irrigation systems that help capture the flowing 1. Full moon Good weather for the succeeding
waters from mountain tops, producing a farming system reflecting the mastery of weeks
engineering techniques of the indigenous people more than 2,000 years ago. (UNESCO
WORLD HERITAGE CENTER, 2020). 2. Sun not viewed or viewed Bad weather is coming.
faintly, the moon and starts
are not visible in the sky
Prediction of Weather?

Southern Philippines: Samar ((Irene, 2017) 3. Red sunset or bloody red sky No rain and good weather will be
experienced during nighttime.
1. Prediction of Weather in Southern Philippines rely on observing celestial bodies and
observing the behavior of insects and animals as summarized below:
4. Yellowish color of the moon Bad weather is coming

5. Cloud shapes in different Good weather

forms

6. The night sky is black due to Bad weather is coming

eclipse

7. The moon is encircled by a Bad weather is coming

rainbow
Prediction of Weather by Observing Insects and Animals plant crops which make the forest significantly healthy thus avoiding unnecessary use of
artificial fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides during the short period of crop cultivation
(SEAMEO, 2015).

Observation Interpretation
Subanon is a tribe settling in the Zamboanga peninsula area, and they are found in the
1. Kasili (eel) is seen to appear as Bad weather is coming mountainous areas of Zamboanga del Sur and Misamis Occidental, Mindanao. They
flying above the ocean observe their agricultural cycle by following wind patterns, and their traditional methods
of meteorology, relying on the three different seasons in their agricultural cycle as:
pendupi, from June to September, with distinct winds blowing from the southwest;
2. Insects sush as crickets or Ngiya- Dry season is fast approaching
miyan, happens from December to January, featuring winds and northeast monsoon
ngiya in local dialect are very
rains; and pemeres, is a period from March to April, characterized by hot and dry
noisy
season. When sky is clear, Subanen predict agricultural time by watching the stars,
particularly the appearance of constellation Orion.
3. Loud croaking of frogs Rainy season is coming soon
Orion is clearly visible in the night sky from November to February. The star signals the
time for the clearing of a new swidden or a start of a new swidden cycle which is
4. Plenty of Moth or Raga daga in Rainy season is coming performed during the first month of the year (coursehero,2020).
local dialect are flying at night

5. Birds such as egret or talabong in Bad weather is coming 3. Medicine in the Southern Philippines
local dialect and swiftley
Plants that have healing properties s are still used at present time and those who make
[Link] in local dialect are
use of for healing, they are called herbalists or herbolarios/albularyo in local dialect.
uncontrollably flying
In traditional practice, an albularyo uses different practices in combination with
herbalism such as prayers, chanting, and mysticism through meditation to connect with a
6. Ants are crawling in the house Flooding will happen supreme being.

Other treatment practices include: "Tuob", Hilot, (Nomoto, 2020)

7. Birds called manau start chirping Bad weather may likely happen
a. Hilot is an ancient therapy in the Philippines. They are usually referred to as
magpapaank or midwife, and manghihilot or chiropractric praticioner who were trained
by their parents and passed on to the next generations. One limitation in this kind of
Farmers and fishermen in Samar rely on weather prediction to help them prepare for practice is the lack of facilty like x-ray machines for radiographic imaging of fetus or
disasters brought about by strong typhoons. broken bones.

b. Tuob is a boiling ritual which involves wrapping a sick person in a blanket or cloth
and sat over a jar heated by coal, or over a steaming pot. The healer rubs essential oils
2. Farming Practices over the heated patient and chants a healing mantra. Tuob benefits include
Swidden farming or also known as shifting cultivation or slash and burn method or detoxification, cleansing the skin, muscle relaxation, increasing body metabolism,
kaingin in local dialect, refers to a technique of rotational farming in which land is boosting the immune system, keeping mucous membranes from drying, and relieving
cleared by burning and then left to regenerate for few years. It is an old and worldwide comfort from asthma, allergies, and arthritis.
practice of clearing some areas of forest from weeds and pests to prepare it for future
 tranquility and stability. Red stands for bravery and violence, white for mourning, and
black for quite dignity and purity. (Gutierrez, 2017).
3. Pottery

Historically, Philippine ceramics or the making of pots out from molded clay and then
allowed to dry dates back 3500 years ago and considered one of the oldest and most
widespread of the decorative arts. They are one of the products that are being traded by
the Philippines to neighboring countries. Their uses vary such as some potteries are used
as ceramic jars with anthropomorphic designs to contain the remains of deceased
relatives. The jars are covered with shaped like human heads.

Filipino pottery making during the Neolithic period of the Philippines, has many uses
such as water vessel, plates, cups, storage container of liquids and dry foods. Such
storing practice helps protect the food from moist and pests compared to baskets and
animal skin. It has been widely acknowledged as one of practical tools that humans ever
invented.

Ceramic vessels of Kalinga are classified into three types according to the kind of food
or liquid it can store such as: rice cooking (ittoyom), vegetable/meat cooking (oppaya),
and water storage (immosso) pots (Savage, 2020).

[Link]

Before Spanish colonization, native Filipinos weaved using fibers from plants like
abaca, cotton, and bark cloth as clothing material to make garments. Different tribes
create traditional weaving patterns with distinct style, and with designs showcasing the
tribe's rich colorful heritage.

Yakan designs are derived from the natural landscape of Lamitan, Basilan. Fabrics
reveal geometric patterns of bright colors which are made from pineapple and abaca
fibers dyed with plant extracts. It is a tedious work that usually takes a week to finish a
meter of the fabric.

T'boli tribe of Lake Sebu, South Cotabato make their fabrics from abaca. T'boli
weavers believed that their designs and patterns are handed down to them by their
ancestors through their dreams. They are well known for their t'nalak cloth, which they
paired with wearing hilets, or belts with brass small bells, which they believed drive
away bad spirits.

The Maranao, associate color of fabrics with their social status and how they feel.
Yellow color fabric is associated with royalty and high status, In the early practice, a
commoner who wore yellow can be ostracized or even beheaded. Maranaos who want
to appear humble and accomplished would wear green, which expresses peace,