Body In Motion – Study Notes

Inquiry Question 1: How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and
respond to movement?

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
1. Superior – above or towards the head.
2. Inferior – below or towards the feet.
3. Anterior – towards the front.
4. Posterior – towards the back.
5. Medial – towards the midline of the body.
6. Lateral – towards the side.

7. Proximal – towards the body’s mass.

8. Distal – away from the body’s mass.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Major bones involved in movement

Functions of the Skeletal

System:

1. Support: gives the body its

Types of bones:
Bone Description Examples
Long bones Long bones are longer than they are wide and Femur, Tibia, Fibula,
they function as levers Humerus, Ulna and Radius.
Short bones Short bones have a short axis and are found in Carpal and Tarsal bones.
small spaces such as the wrist. They serve to
transfer forces.
Flat bones Flat bones have a broad surface and serve as Sternum, Ribs and
places of attachment for muscles and to Scapulae.
protect vital organs.
Irregular bones Irregular bones have complicated shapes that Vertebrae, Sacrum, Coccyx
do not classify in any of the above. Their and Mandible.
shapes are due to their function
Sesamoid bones Sesamoid bones develop in some tendons in Patella.
locations with considerable friction or stress.

Structure and function of synovial joints

 A joint is a junction of two or more bones and is commonly referred to as an articulation.

 There are 3 types of joints:
 Immovable (fibrous)
  Slightly movable (cartilaginous)
 Freely movable (synovial)

Types of synovial joints:

1. Ball and socket joint – a multi-axial joint and
is freely movable in all directions.

2. Saddle joint – a bi-axial joint which allows

movement in two directions.

3. Hinge joint – a uni-axial joint that only allows

flexion and extension.

4. Condylar joint – a joint similar to a hinge joint

but allows a small amount of rotation so the
joint can ‘lock’ into place when it is extended.
The locking action is important in weight-
bearing.

5. Ellipsoid joing – a bi-axial joint which allows

side-to-side movement and backwards and
forwards movement but no rotation.

6. Pivot joint – a uni-axial joint and allows

rotation only.

7. Plane joint – a sliding joint where bones with

flat surfaces meet. They can move from side-
to-side and backwards and forwards.

Ligaments are dense connective tissues that attaches bone to bone.

Tendons are fibrous cords of dense connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.

Synovial fluid is a secretion that lubricates and nourishes the articular cartilage.

Joint actions (e.g. extension and flexion)

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Major muscles involved in movement

Muscle relationship (agonist and

antagonist)

 The muscle that causes the movement (and shortens) is called the agonist.
 The other muscle of the pair will relax (and lengthen) and it is called the antagonist.

Examples of muscle pairs:

- Pectoralis and rhomboids
- Biceps and triceps
- Abdominals and erector spinae
- Adductors and abductors
- Quadriceps and hamstrings
- Tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius

Types of muscle contraction (concentric, eccentric and isometric)

There are 2 main types of muscle contractions:

1. Isometric
 No movement is produced.
 Length of the muscle stays the same.
2. Isotonic (concentric and eccentric)
 Concentric: muscle shortens as it contracts.
 Eccentric: muscle lengthens as it contracts.

Respiratory System
Structure and function
Lung function (inspiration and expiration)
Exchange of gases (internal and external)
Circulatory System
Components of blood
Structure and function of the heart, arteries, vein and capillaries
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
Blood pressure

Inquiry Question 2: What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency?

HEALTH-RELATED COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Health-related Component Definition Suitable Tests

Cardiorespiratory endurance The ability of the working The beep test
muscles to take up and use
oxygen.
Muscular strength The ability to exert force against Handgrip dynamometer test
a resistance.
Muscular endurance The ability of the muscles to Sit-up test
endure physical work for
extended periods of time.
Flexibility The range of motion about a Sit and reach test
joint.
Body composition The percentage of fat as opposed Skin fold calliper test
to lean body mass.

 A well trained cardiorespiratory system ensures:

o The delivery of adequate quantities of blood
o A functional ventilation (respiratory) system
o A good transport system (circulatory) to ensure efficient and speedy delivery of oxygen and
nutrients to the cells
 High levels of overall body strength mean:
o Improved performance
o Reduced risk of injury
 Muscular endurance is very important in activities where contraction of the same muscle group of
muscles is repeated for periods of time without rest.
o If the muscle group tires, the ability to continue to perform the skill is adversely affected
 Flexibility is important because:
o Improves sports performance and overall quality of life
o Helps prevent injury
o Improves posture
o Improves blood circulation
o Decreases the chance of (back) pain later in life
 Body composition is important because:
o Takes account of the level of storage fuel required for muscle activity.
o Having too much or too little storage fuel (fat) can significantly affect health and physical
performance.

SKILL-RELATED COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Skill-related component Definition Suitable Tests

Power The ability to combine strength and Vertical jump test
 speed in an explosive action.
Speed The ability to perform body movements Sprint test
quickly.
Agility The ability to move the body from one Agility test
position and direction to another with
speed and precision.
Coordination The ability to harmonise the messages Stick flip test
from the senses with parts of the body to
produce smooth, skilful and well
controlled movements.
Balance The ability to maintain equilibrium while Balance board test
either stationary or moving.
Reaction time The time taken to respond to a stimulus. Ruler drop test

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Aerobic: means ‘with oxygen’.

 Aerobic exercise refers to exercise that is dependent on oxygen utilisation by the body to enable
muscular work.
 Low to moderate intensity activity that continues for 90 seconds or more is generally termed
aerobic because oxygen becomes available to the cells of working muscles for energy generation.
 To improve aerobic fitness we need to:
o Engage in continuous and long duration activities (e.g. cross country, cycling, etc).
o Use the FITT principle to provide guidance in developing an aerobic program.

FITT principle

Frequency:
 Individuals must train at least three occasions per week for improvements.
 The aim is for a training session to sufficiently stress body system causing a response called
adaptation.
 Adaptation: an adjustment made by the body as a result of an increase in training intensity.

Intensity:
 Intensity: the amount of effort required by an individual to progressively improve fitness.
 Most accurate way of measuring intensity is calculating your target heart rate and using it as a
guide.
 Target heart rate zone (max. heart rate) = 220 minus a person’s age

Time:
 Generally sessions should last from 20-30 mins and increase to 40min or more.
 Over an hour can lead to overtraining and overuse injuries.

Type:
 Best type of exercise is continuous exercise that uses the large muscle groups.

Anaerobic: means ‘in the absence of oxygen’.

 Intensity level is much higher and effort period is much shorter (two minutes or less) than aerobic
activity.
 Muscular work takes place without oxygen being present.
  For example when sprinting, the muscles respond instantly and quickly exhaust any fuel reserves in
the working muscles.
 It requires specialised training to generate the adaptions necessary for muscular work without
oxygen (more efficient in converting blood sugar to energy during intense exercise).
 To improve anaerobic fitness we need to:
o Work hard at performing and enduring specific anaerobic movements (e.g. lifting weights,
throwing or jumping).
o Use activities such as interval training (periods of intense work with short rests)
o Utilise resistance training to develop the muscles
o Train to improve the body’s ability to recharge (decrease recovery time)

IMMEDIATE PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO TRAINING

When we increase our level of activity during training, the body makes specific changes to ensure that
adequate oxygen and nutrients are being supplied to the muscles to meet the increase in demand.

Heart rate: the number of times the heart beats per minute.
 Changes in heart rate are the most obvious and easy to measure.
 Low resting heart rate is indicative of a very efficient cardiovascular system
 Heart rate increases with exercise. This is the working heart rate.
 In a fit person, heart rate levels off during prolonged exercise will reach a steady state.
 After exercising, a fit person’s heart rate will return to normal quicker

Ventilation rate: depth and rate of breathing expressed in breaths per minute.
 When we exercise, the demand for more oxygen by the muscle cells causes a ventilation response.
 There are two phases: inspiration and expiration.
 Minute ventilation: the amount of air that can be breathed in one minute (around 6L).
 During exercise, increase in oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production triggers elevated
respiratory activity.

Stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped out of the heart with each heartbeat.
 Stroke volume is determined by:
o The ability to fill the ventricles by blood volume
o The ability to empty the ventricles as a result of ventricular contractions
 When exercise increases, the amount of blood that the heart discharges increases considerably.
 Stroke volume increases during exercise, with most of the increase being evident as the person
progresses from rest to moderate exercise intensity. As intensity increases to a high level there is
less change in stroke volume.
 A fit person has a greater stroke volume at rest and during exercise.

Cardiac output: the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
 Cardiac output increases with exercise
 It is a product of heart rate and stroke volume.
 Cardiac output for both trained and untrained people are similar (approx. 5L/minute). Differences
are evident in the lower heart rate and higher stroke volumes of trained athletes

Lactate levels: a chemical formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates where there is insufficient
oxygen.
 There is always a small amount of lactate circulating in the blood
  Lactate flows freely in the blood and its concentration increases as the workload is increased.
 As exercise intensity increases, pH levels drops and acidification of muscles increase

Inquiry Question 3: How do biochemical principles influence movement?

MOTION
 Motion is used to describe movement and path of a body
 Linear motion: a body and all parts connected to it travel the same distance in the same direction
and at the same speed. For example, a person standing still on a moving escalator or a skier.

BALANCE AND STABILITY

 Centre of gravity: the point at which all the weight is evenly distributed and the person/object is
balanced.
 Varying the centre of gravity in the execution of a skill can enhance performance.
 Line of gravity: an imaginary vertical line passing through the centre of gravity and extending to the
ground

 The relative position of the centre of gravity to the base of support is important for stability. The

further the
centre of
gravity from
the base, the
more
unstable is
the body or
object.

FLUID
MECHANICS
 Fluid mechanics: a branch of mechanics that is concerned with properties of gases and liquids


FORCE