Introduction to

Sets
Unit 2 - Session 1

C. P. S. PATHIRANA
SENIOR LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS & PHILOSOPHY OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA 1
 Basic concepts of set theory
Definition
A collection of distinct and well-defined
objects is called a set.

A collection is said to be well-defined if for any

object, it can be determined accurately whether it
belongs to the collection or not.

Notations - Sets are usually denoted by capital

English letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 …
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Examples for sets:

• The numbers 1, 5, 6, 7 and 22

• The solutions of the equation 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 =0

• The letters a, b, c, d, e and k.

• The countries, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal and China.

• The capital cities of the Asia.

• The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … 3
Elements of a set
The objects in a set are called elements of the
set.
Notations - If 𝑥 is an element of a set 𝐴 it is
denoted by 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨. Read this as, “𝒙 belongs to
𝑨” or “𝒙 is in 𝑨”.
If 𝑥 is not an element of 𝐴, it is denoted by
𝒙 ∉ 𝑨. Read this as“𝒙 does not belong to 𝑨” or
“𝒙 is not in 𝑨”.

The number of elements of a set 𝑨 is denoted

by 𝒏(𝑨). 4
 Describing a set

Tabular Form Builder Form

A set can be described by A set can be described by

listing all elements in any naming a typical element
order that are separated of the set by 𝑥 and
by commas and enclosed indicating the property
in { } brackets. 𝑔(𝑥) which 𝑥 should
possess.
Write as {x: g(x)}
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 Example

Tabular Form Builder Form

𝐴 = {2,4,6,8, … , 98} 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 0 < 𝑥 < 100}

𝐵 = {… − 3, −1, 1, 3 … } 𝐵 = {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}

𝐶 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19} 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒, 1 < 𝑥 < 20}

D = {3, 1} D = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0}

E = {… − 3, −2, 2, 3, 4, … } E = {𝑥: 4, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}

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 • A set with finite number
Finite Set of elements.

• A set with infinite

Infinite Set number of elements.

• A set which contains no

Null Set elements. It is denoted by
(Empty Set) ∅.
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Exercise
State whether the followings are finite/ infinite/
empty sets.
1. 𝐴 = 𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛2 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

𝐴 = 0,1,4,9,16, … ∴ 𝐴 is an infinite
2. 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 < 0

There is no real number 𝑥 such that 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 < 0

∴ B is a null set (empty set)

2. 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0}

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 3 ∴ 𝐶 is a finite Set8
 Sub sets
Let A, B be two sets. If every element in A is also
an element of B then set A is called a sub set of B.

Notation - If 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵 it is denoted by

𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
If 𝐴 is not a sub set of 𝐵, it is denoted by 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵.

Note
Let 𝐴 be a set. According to the definition, it is
clear that,
∅ ⊆ 𝐴 and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 . 9
Example
Let,
𝐴 = {𝑑𝑜𝑔, 𝑐𝑎𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑤, 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑤, 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑡}
𝐵 = {𝑐𝑎𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑤, 𝑑𝑜𝑔}
𝐶 = {1, 2}

𝐵⊆𝐴
and
𝐶 ⊈ 𝐴.

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Proper sub sets
If 𝐴 is a sub set of 𝐵 and there exists an
element 𝑥 in 𝐵 such that 𝑥 does not belong
to 𝐴 then 𝐴 is called a proper sub set of 𝐵.

Notation –
If 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵 it is denoted by
A ⊂ 𝐵.
If 𝐴 is not a proper subset of 𝐵 it is denoted
by
A ⊄ 𝐵.
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Examples:

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Equality of Two Sets
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be two sets 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if 𝐴
is a subset of 𝐵 and 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴.
i.e. 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

Example
𝐴 = {𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑘}
𝐵 = {𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑘}
Since 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵 and 𝐵 is a subset of
𝐴.
∴𝐴=𝐵
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Universal Set

The largest set which contains all elements

likely to be considered during some specified
mathematical treatment.

It is denoted by 𝑆 or 𝑈.

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Power Set
The set of all sub sets of a set 𝐴 is called the
power set of 𝐴.

Notation
The power set of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑃(𝐴).

Note
If 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑟 then 𝑛 𝑃 𝐴 = 2𝑟

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Example
If 𝑆 = 1, 2

Write down 𝑃(𝑆) and 𝑛 𝑃 𝑆 .

𝑆 = 1, 2 and
𝑃(𝑆) = {{1}, {2}, {1, 2}, ∅}
𝑛 𝑆 =2
∴n P S = 22 = 4.

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Exercise
If 𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐
Write down 𝑃(𝑆) and 𝑛 𝑃 𝑆 .

Answer

𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐
𝑃(𝑆) = { 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑎, 𝑐 , {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, ∅}
𝑛 𝑆 =3
∴n P S = 23 = 8

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 Venn Diagrams
The relationships of sets can be illustrated by Venn
diagrams which was introduced by John Venn. In a
Venn diagram the universal set (𝑆) is usually
represented by the points of the inside of a plane
rectangle and sub sets of 𝑆 are represented by the
points in the circles (or closed regions) inside the
rectangle.
𝐹 𝑆
𝐸
𝐴
𝐵

𝐶
𝐻

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 Union

Relative Set Intersection

Complement operations

Complement
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Union
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be sub sets of a universal set 𝑆. The
union of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all elements
which belong to 𝐴 or 𝐵.

Notation
The union of the sets 𝐴, 𝐵 is denoted by
𝐴∪𝐵
i.e. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
It is clear that,
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and B ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐴𝑛 is denoted by ‫=𝑟𝑛ڂ‬1 𝐴𝑟
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 Explanation of A ∪ B by Venn diagrams
𝑨 ⊈ 𝑩, 𝑩 ⊈ 𝑨, 𝑨 and 𝑩 have 𝑨 and 𝑩 have no common
elements. elements.

𝑩⊆𝑨 A⊆ 𝑩

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Intersection
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be sub sets of a universal set 𝑆. The
intersection of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all
elements which belong to 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Notation
The intersection of the sets 𝐴, 𝐵 is denoted by
𝐴∩𝐵
i.e. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
It is clear that,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 and A ∩ B ⊆ 𝐵

𝐴1 ∩ 𝐴2 ∩ 𝐴3 ∩ ⋯ ∩ 𝐴𝑛 is denoted by ‫=𝑟𝑛ځ‬1 𝐴𝑟
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 Explanation of A‫ځ‬B by Venn diagrams
𝑨 ⊈ 𝑩, 𝑩 ⊈ 𝑨, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 ≠ ∅. 𝑨∩𝑩=∅
A and B are called disjoint sets.

𝐵⊂𝐴 𝐴⊂𝐵

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 Relative Complement ( The
Difference)
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be two sets of a universal set 𝑆 .
The relative complement of a set 𝐵 with
respect to set 𝐴 is the set of all elements which
belong to 𝐴 but not 𝐵.

Notation
The relative complement of a set 𝐵 with
respect to set 𝐴 is denoted by,
𝐴 − 𝐵 or 𝐴\B

i.e. 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}

It is clear that,
𝐴−𝐵 ⊆𝐴 24
 Explanation of A − B by Venn diagrams
𝑨 ⊈ 𝑩, 𝑩 ⊈ 𝑨, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 ≠ ∅. 𝑨∩𝑩=∅

𝑩⊆𝑨 𝑨⊆𝑩

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 Complement of a set
The absolute complement (simply complement)
of a set 𝐴 is the set of all elements of universal
set which do not belong to 𝐴.
Notation
The complement of a set 𝐴 denoted by,
𝐴′ or 𝐴ҧ or 𝐴𝐶
i.e. 𝐴′ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

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Laws of sets
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be three sets of universal sets 𝑆.

➢ Idempotent laws
𝐴∪𝐴 =𝐴
𝐴∩𝐴 =𝐴
➢ Commutative laws
𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
➢ Associative laws
(A ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) 27
➢ Distributive laws
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
𝐴∩ 𝐵∪𝐶 = 𝐴∩𝐵 ∪ 𝐴∩𝐶
➢ Identity laws

𝐴∪∅ =𝐴
𝐴∪𝑆 =𝑆
𝐴∩∅ =∅
𝐴∩𝑆 =𝐴
➢ Complement laws

𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ = 𝑆
𝐴 ∩ 𝐴′ = ∅
(𝐴′ )′ = 𝐴
∅′ = 𝑆
𝑆′ = ∅ 28
➢ De Morgan’s laws
(A ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′

➢ If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶 then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶

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Number Sets (ℕ)
Natural Numbers
The set { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 … . } is called the
Natural number set. Denoted by, ℕ.

i.e.
ℕ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … . .

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℕ then 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ ℕ.
That is ℕ is closed under addition and
multiplication.
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Whole Numbers (𝕎)

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Integer Set (ℤ )

The set {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … } is called the set

of Integers. It is denoted by ℤ.

i.e.
ℤ = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … .

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ then 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 ∈ ℤ.
That is ℤ is closed under addition and
multiplication.
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Rational Numbers (ℚ)
Any number which can be represented as a ratio of
two whole numbers is defined as a Rational Number.
The Rational number set is denoted by ℚ.
i.e.
𝒑
ℚ = : 𝒑 ∈ ℤ, 𝒒 ∈ ℕ, 𝒒 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒑, 𝒒 𝒅𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔
𝒒

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℚ then 𝑥 + 𝑦 , 𝑥𝑦 ∈ ℚ
That is ℚ is closed under addition and multiplication.

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Irrational Numbers

Any real number which cannot be

represented as a ratio of two whole numbers
is defined as an Irrational Number.
Examples are,
2, 3, 7, 𝑒, 𝜋, …

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Real Numbers (ℝ)

The union of the set of rational numbers and

the set of irrational numbers is called the
Real Number set. It is denoted as,ℝ.

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ then 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 ∈ ℝ
That is ℝ is closed under addition and
multiplication.

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36
Special Number Set
ℤ+ = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥 > 0
ℤ+
0 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥 ≥ 0}

ℚ+ = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℚ, 𝑥 > 0
ℚ+
0 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℚ, 𝑥 ≥ 0

ℝ+ = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 0
ℝ+
0 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 0}

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Imaginary Numbers

The numbers,
−1, −4, −27, …
are called Imaginary Numbers.

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Complex Numbers

The set ,
{𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖|𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑖 2 = −1}
is defined as the Complex Number set. It is
denoted by ℂ.

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℂ then 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦 ∈ ℂ.
That is ℂ is closed under addition and
multiplication.
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 ℂ
ℝ

ℤ
Imaginary
Numbers
ℕ

40
Intervals

The sets contain only the numbers which lies

between two real numbers say 𝑎 and 𝑏
𝑎 < 𝑏 , with possible exceptions of 𝑎 or 𝑏 or
(𝑎 and 𝑏) are called intervals, the number 𝑎
and 𝑏 being the end points of the interval.

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𝒂, 𝒃 = {𝒙: 𝒂 < 𝒙 < 𝒃}

𝑎 𝑏

 [𝒂, 𝒃] = {𝒙: 𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒃}

𝑎 𝑏

𝒂, 𝒃 = 𝒙: 𝒂 < 𝒙 ≤ 𝒃

𝑎 𝑏

[𝒂, 𝒃) = {𝒙: 𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝒃}

𝑎 𝑏
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Infinite Intervals
 −∞, 𝑎 = {𝑥: 𝑥 < 𝑎}

 (−∞, 𝑎] = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎}

𝑎
(𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑥 > 𝑎}

[𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎}

𝑎 43
44