Construction Management & Entrepreneurship – 18CV51 2020-21

MODULE 1: MANAGEMENT, PLANNING & SCHEDULING

Management is a systematic approach by individuals or group of people towards attainment of a
common goal. Management is required for each and every process to increase the efficiency and
performance to get better results.

Primary role of management includes

A. Defining the objectives
B. Setting the strategies
C. Allocation of resources
D. Achieve continuous improvement

A construction project is complex in nature and has various activities with it. Most of the
activities are interrelated and needs proper coordination.

Application of principles of management for construction activities / project is known as

construction management or construction project management.

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT

Management as a process has some inherent characteristics to be effective and efficient.

Following are the characteristics of management

A. Management is goal – oriented process

 Management aims at achieving the predetermined (or defined) objectives
 Approach of the management supports the objectives
B. Management is pervasive in nature
 Management is universal and is applicable for all kinds of organization.
 Government, private, business, non-profitable, small scale, large scale and all
other organization require management.
C. Management is multidimensional.
 Management is required at all levels of an organization.
 Management is applicable to people, work and all the process of an
organization.

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D. Management is transparent in functionality.

 Objectives of an organization should be clearly understood by all the
employees.
 Decisions of the organization should be communicated to all the employees.
E. Management is a Continuous process.
 Management should be stable throughout the operations of an organization.
 Process of management is never ending and aims at improvement.
F. Management is a dynamic function.
 Management should be responsive to external factors and changes.
 Socio – economic factors, technological factors, political and financial factors
are to be considered.
G. Management is intangible in nature.
 Even though management is a factor of production, it is difficult to measure the
management.
 In spite of being intangible, management enhances efficiency.

1.2 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

List of management functions is endless, but the essential functions of management may be
categorized as mentioned below.

A. Planning
 Planning is the primary and most important function of management.
 It is not possible to achieve the objectives of an organization without proper
planning.
 Planning mainly relates to defining the standard operating procedures. (S O P)
 Planning also includes deciding beforehand.
 Different actions to be taken (what)
 Time of implementing the actions (when)
 Method of executing the actions (How)

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B. Organizing
 Organizing refers to identification and categorization of different departments.
 Organizing plays a very important role for distribution of work.
 Organizing also defines the roles and responsibilities of each department.
 It is possible to establish a line of command by proper organization.
 Organizing has to be done such that coordination is achieved within the group
as well as between different groups.
C. Staffing
 Staffing is a process of selection of right personnel for a specific job.
 Highly qualified and experienced personnel are required / preferred at higher
levels of organization.
 Training the recruited personnel is also an important part of staffing.
 Success of an organization mainly depends on staffing process.
D. Directing
 After having right personnel for specific activities, it becomes necessary to
perform towards achieving defined objectives.
 Directing involves.
 Communication.
 Leadership
 Motivation
 Communication helps employees to understand their roles and responsibilities.
 Leadership qualities by manages will have an influence on subordinates.
 Motivation helps to enhance the efficiency by increasing dedication level of all
employees.
E. Controlling
 Controlling is to keep the process and progress in check. (or on track)
 Monitoring and Inspections has to be done to make sure all the activities are
carried out as per plan.
 Controlling is possible by establishing standards for all the process and quality
of each process / product.
 Proper resource allocation is very important for effective control.

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F. Innovation
 Developing new ideas and incorporating latest technologies enhances
efficiency.
 Use of innovations reduces resource consumption.
 Innovation also helps to attract clients and hence helps for brand building.

G. Representation
 In spite of performing all the above function, it becomes necessary to present it
in front of the world.
 Marketing strategies is very important for recognition of any organization.

1.3PLANNING
Planning in general refers to preparation for future. Planning is a continuous process and is the
bridge between present and future.

Planning highlights the broad scope of

 Project time.
 Project cost.
 Quality control.
 Methodology / Practices.
 Constraints.

1.3.1 Importance of planning

Planning has to be done very carefully as it has an influence on all the process and the end result.
Following are some of the reasons to illustrate importance of planning.

A. To minimize risks and uncertainties

 To start and run an organization, complex decisions are to be taken, which depends
on various factors.
 All the decisions involve risks and uncertainties, associated with it.
 Planning is helpful in anticipating such risk and prepare contingency plan for it.

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B. To focus attention on objectives

 Planning helps for proper resources allocation, which helps to focus attention on
objectives.
 Planning also helps for better coordination between interdependent activities
hence focus remains on objectives.

C. To facilitate control

 Planning helps to set schedules, targets and benchmarks.

 When target are set, it provides a tool to monitor the progress
 Hence effective control can be established over different process.

D. To increase organizational effectiveness

 Effectiveness refers to adhering to the standards and objectives.

 Sound planning increases efficiency and effectiveness of an organization.

1.3.2 Types of plan

 There are different types of plan applicable for different type of organization and applicable
at different levels of organization.
 Selection of type of plan has to be done carefully based on requirements and objectives of
the organization.
 On a broader sense, types of plan may be categorized as
A. Operational plan
I. Single use plan
II. Standing plan
B. Tactical plan
C. Strategic plan
D. Contingency plan

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A. Operational plan
 Operational plan is a detailed plan set and used by managers.
 Operational plan maps out the day – to –day activities of any organization.
 Operational plan is a short term plan, which is also called work plan.

I. Single use plan

 Operational plans which are specific and applicable for a project or process is
called single use plan.
 Single use plan becomes useless after a particular target is achieved.
II. Standing plan
 Standing plan is the operational plan applicable for recurring activities.
 Standing plan will have policies, procedures, rules and methods.
 Standing plan may be used for different projects and process of the organization.

B. Tactical plan
 Tactical plans are prepared at lower level of organization.
 Tactical plans are adopted at departmental levels for individual activities.
 Tactical planning has to be flexible in nature and market oriented.
C. Strategic plans
 Strategic planning begins with the vision and mission of the organization.
 Strategic plan is a planning process with long term visions.
 Strategic plans are framed by executive level of management and applicable for
the entire organization.
 Strategic plans are generally set for five – ten years, depending on type of
organization.
D. Contingency plan
 Adequacy and consistency of any plan can not be assured.
 There might be changes in circumstances in terms of government policies,
taxation, market demand or other external factors.
 In such cases, it becomes necessary to have an alternative plan, as the original
plan cannot be adopted.
 Contingency plan is prepared with original plan but used only depending on
requirement.

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1.4 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

Construction management, commonly known as construction project management is a process
that utilizes specialized management techniques for planning, design and construction of a
facility.

Construction activities are complex and people involved in construction management must
possess some basic skill sets.

 Technical skill
 Communication skill
 Negotiation skill
 Decision making skill

A construction project includes participation of numerous vendors for it’s successful completion.

1. Project management consultancy

 An organization or group of engineers representing / acting on behalf of owner.
 The consultancy is responsible for the entire construction project.
 From planning phase till the completion phase all the decisions are taken by the
consultancy on behalf of the investors.
2. Architect
 Once the concept and requirements are finalized, architects will have to be
consulted.
 Major role of architects in construction project is to prepare architectural layout /
floor plans based on the requirements.
 Architects will have to co – ordinate with other vendors to prepare the floor plans.

3. Structural consultant
 Structural design in an important aspect of construction.
 Number of structural elements, spacing, dimensions, reinforcement, grade of
concrete and all other structural details are to be provided by structural
consultant.
 Structural consultant has to closely work with architects, to incorporate the
changes based on requirements.

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4. Civil contractor
 Execution of work / activities is one of the important aspect of construction.
 Project management consultancy is responsible for finalizing the civil contractor.
 Contractor has to abide by the drawings provided and the specifications of
materials and construction practice.
 The quality of construction depends on contractor and the resources that the
organization has in form of skilled and unskilled labours.
5. Services consultant
 For major projects Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing services (MEP services or
building services) plays a very important role.
 Mechanical services mainly includes lifts, fire protection and HVAC (Heating,
Ventilation and Air conditioning)
 Services consultant will have to co-ordinate with both architect and structural
consultant for finalizing the layout and design aspects.
6. Finishes constructor (Interior contractor)
 In some projects, civil works and interior works are categorized separately and
work is awarded to separate vendors.
 Interior works mainly include flooring, partitions (Gypsum), False ceiling, painting
and other activities.
 Interior contractor has to co-ordinate with architect as well as services consultant.
All the associated vendors, working as a team, as per the objectives and requirements results
in successful completion of the project, achieving the co – ordination between all the
participants reflects on construction project management.

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1.6CONSTRUCTION PLANNING
Construction planning is very important and is the responsibility of owner or owner’s
representatives.

The construction planning includes,

1. Defining scope of work

 Construction project cannot be planned, unless the boundaries and requirements are
precisely set.
 Scope of work, in terms of material to be used, technology to be adopted and quality to
be achieved will be defined properly.
 Defining the scope also provides clarity and control for the entire duration of
construction project.

2. Identification of activities and relationship

 Defining the scope of project, helps to identify all the activities involved in the
construction project.
 Inter relationship between activities has to be established sequential and parallel
activities will have to be identified.

3. Establishing project duration

 Each activity of the project is assigned with duration.
 Duration of activities has to be assigned based on all other resources available.
 Duration of the project also has significant influence on cost of project.

4. Defining procedures
 In construction planning, it is important to frame rules.
 The standard operating procedure will have to be prepared will have to be prepared
and communicated with all the vendors.

5. Information management
 Documentation is one of the key aspects of construction.
 Communication, which is exchange of information, has to be systematic.


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6. Updating and Revising

 In a construction project, drawings and designs are subjected to revision.
 These revisions will have to be documented and communicated to all the vendors.
 If there are changes with respect to terms and conditions, specifications or
technology, information are to be updated.

1.6.1 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION PLAN

Construction plans are prepared based on phase of construction. There are generally 3 types of
plans prepared in a construction project.

1. Project conceptual plan

2. Preliminary project plan
3. Detailed construction plan

1. Project conceptual plan

 An idea that is developed has to be represented as a conceptual plan, before going
into the details.
 The nature of project, various resources required and a time frame has to be
developed in conceptual plan.
 Based on the concept, a feasibility study will have to be carried out.

Feasibility study includes

a) Technical feasibility
b) Economic viability
c) Financial implications
d) Social benefits

If the concept is feasible then only the project planning can be carried out

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2. Preliminary project plan

 Preliminary planning is done to give the directions for the project. This is the
actual initiation of the project.
 Preliminary planning mainly includes the procedures and formalities for finalizing
various aspects of construction project.
a) Skeleton of the project and it’s activities
b) Time frame required for drawings, designs and awarding contracts to
different vendors.
c) Forecasting of resources.
d) Phasing of construction activities / project.
e) Staffing pattern and organizational structure.
Preliminary plan leads to the detailed construction plan.

3. Detailed construction plan

 Project management consultancy is responsible for preparing detailed
construction plan.
 Detailed construction plan starts with preparation of bill of quantities. (BOQ)
 In detailed planning consultancy has to provide.
a) Time plan using any of the standard methods.
b) Manpower plan, which depends on time plan.
c) Material plan depending on requirements and specifications.
d) Construction equipment plan for the desired construction practices to be
adopted.
e) Financial plan.
 In addition to planning all the resources to the detail, job layout also has to be
prepared based on the site conditions.

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1.7 MANAGEMENT STYLES

Management styles refer to the approach of the management in making decisions and
involvement of subordinates / employees in the process of decision making.

Management styles can be broadly classified as

1. Autocratic style of management

2. Democratic style of management
3. Laissez - Faire style of management

1.7.1 Autocratic style: This style of management is referred to as directive or dictative

approach. Most often the communications in form of directions are from higher level to lower
level.

 Higher level management is responsible for all the decision making.

 This style of management is applicable in the time of crisis.
 The decisions taken are quick in this style of management.
 Lower level of management feels isolated and there will be no major scope for
development.
Autocratic style of management has 3 approaches
a) Authoritative
b) Persuasive
c) Paternalistic
 In authoritative approach, management has very little or no trust in the ability of
the employees.
 In persuasive and paternalistic approach, even though decisions are made by
higher level of management, the employees are communicated about the decisions
and convince the employees that the decisions are taken in the best interest of the
organization.

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1.7.2 Democratic style: In this style of management, all the employees are directly or indirectly
involved in the process of decision making.

 Lower level of management is given a certain degree of freedom to make decisions

at their level.
 This style of management motivates the employees and helps for team building.
 Probability of failure is introduced in this style, if the lower level management does
not possess the required skills or experience.

There are 3 approaches to democratic style.

a) Consultative
b) Participative
c) Collaborative

 In consultative approach, the opinion of the employees is considered. But still the
decisions are made by higher level of management.
 Participative approach gives more liberty compared to consultative. Employees
involve or take part in the decision making process.
 When a collective decision is taken, the approach is referred to as collaboration.

1.7.3 Laissez – Faire style: In this style, there is very little or no interference from the higher
level management. This style is also called delegative style of management.

 This style is most suitable for well established organizations, with standard
operating procedures.
 People working at different levels must have all the skill sets and responsibility to
make decisions.
 This approach also has benefits and adverse effects on the performance of
organization.

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1.8 PROJECT ORGANIZATION

Project organization is the structured relationship between individuals and group of persons for
effective communication and functioning of management.

Organizing may also be defined as, Identification and grouping of activities, framing of
departments, defining relationship between departments and to assign duties and
responsibilities to individuals as well as departments.

Project organization mainly depends on type of establishment and it’s objectives. The term
organizational structure is also used for framing the organization.

1.8.1 Purpose of organization

1. Organization allocates authority. It specifies whom to report and whom to direct.

2. Organization facilitates good communication and coordination within group and between
departments.
3. Organization specifies duties and responsibilities of individuals and department.
4. Organization helps for effective decision making.
5. Organizational structure provides an opportunity to showcase creative skills and
encourages growth.
6. Organization is helpful in integrating and controlling activities.

1.8.2 Principles of framing organizational structure

It is important to understand the principles of organization to frame an effective structure to

achieve desired success. Following are the important principles of organization

1. Simple and flexible

 Organizational structure should be simple to understand and follow
 Alterations / changes to the organizational structure should also be possible and
easy
2. Balance and efficiency
 Good organizational structure brings balance between departments
 Organizational structure has to enhance the efficiency of the overall system

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3. Authority, responsibility and delegation

 Managers have to take responsibility and authority to control activities and people
 Organizational structure should delegate authority and responsibility to all levels
of the organization
4. Specialization
 Organizational structure should be framed based on functional specialization
 Activities and responsibilities should be assigned to people based on specialization
to achieve highest efficiency
5. Span of control and exception
 For any individual, number of activities or number of people to supervise should
always be optimum
 It is also important the executives have to spare time for exceptional situations and
decision making
6. Chain of command and unity of command
 Each employee of the organization has to be supervised and directed by only one
person
 Chain of command has to be clearly specified in organizational structure

1.8.3 Types of organization

A common organizational structure cannot be adopted by all enterprise. Organizational structure

has to be framed based on requirements and resources available. Based on standard practice,
following are some of the important and commonly adopted types of organizational structure.

1. Line organization
2. Staff organization (Functional organization)
3. Line and staff organization
4. Committee organization
5. Matrix organization

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1. Line organization

 This is the simplest and oldest form of organizational structure

 In this type, line of command is straight and vertical
 Line organization is suitable for new and small enterprises
 Line organization is also called military organization or scalar organization

CEO

Production Manager Marketing Manager

Foreman Foreman Sales Sales

(Fabrication) (Assembly) Officer Officer

Helper Helper Sales Person Sales Person

Advantages Disadvantages

Structure of organization is very simple Can be adopted only for small enterprises

Delegation of authority is very clear Managers may tend to behave like dictators

Encourages faster decision making and

Training of top executives gets restricted
speedy action
Easy to incorporate changes to the
Increases work load on higher level
organizational structure

Direct and better communication Not much scope for specialization

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2. Staff organization
 Organizational structure framed based on functional areas is called staff organization
 Care should be taken to assign all the activities to different departments
 Also while framing structure, attention should be given to making sure no activity is
assigned to more than one department
 Staff organization is also called functional organization

PRESIDENT

Project Manager Project Manager Project Manager

Marketing Engineering Production Finance

Research Admin Planning Planning

Planning Design Purchasing Budget

Promotion Quality Tooling Accounts

Sales M&E Production Data

Advantages Disadvantages

Possible to take advantage of specialization

Coordination between functional
departments has to be handled with care
Employee training can be simplified

Efficiency of organization increases

Difficult to fix responsibility in case of
failure / unsatisfactory results
Alteration to the structure is possible

Facilitates higher production Delay in decision making cannot be avoided

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3. Line & Staff organization

 To overcome the drawbacks of both line organization & staff organization, a combination
of both is used.
 It is also referred to as hybrid organization.
 The major reason for introducing such structure was increase in complexity of different
industries.

Board of Directors

Executive Managing Controller of

Committee Director Finance

Personnel Production Marketing

Manager Manager Manager

Advantages Disadvantages

Better decision making can be achieved This type of organizational structure will
result in higher cost because of higher
Organizational structure is flexible in nature salaries

Coordination between line executive and

Specialization may be completely utilized
staff executive is slightly difficult
Overall quality, functioning and efficiency of This organizational structure is not suitable
the system is increased for small scale enterprises

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4. Matrix organization
 This type is suitable if a company / enterprise has large number of projects (or
operations) and spread over a large geographical area (Across states or spread
nationwide)
 In this method, categorization is made on the basis of both Specialization / Department
and Project / Product

President

Director VP VP VP HR
Design Production Finance

Project
Manager - A

Project
Manager - A

Project
Manager - A

Project
Manager - A

Advantages Disadvantages

Specialization may be completely utilized There is a possibility of delay in decision

making
Best possible utilization of available There will be increase in administrative cost
resources
Organizational structure is flexible in nature
There is possibility of conflict in this
There is scope for training and development organizational structure

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1.9 CONSTRUCTION PROJECT SCHEDULING

One of the important activities involved in planning stage of any project is scheduling. Scheduling
refers to allocation of time for individual activities and project as a whole. Deciding the duration
of an activity is not very simple. If higher resources in terms of men, materials and machineries
are allocated to an activity, duration reduces. It is true the other way as well. Hence allocation of
time or deciding duration depends on all other resources available and allocated.

Further, it is necessary to identify parallel activities and sequential activities to prepare schedule
for activities or a project. It is necessary to prepare the schedule for activities considering all the
practical limitations of activities and project.

Project schedules will have to be based on optimum resources and optimum duration for
activities. Being too optimistic or too pessimistic will not result in appropriate scheduling of
activities and project.

For a construction project, scheduling of activities is very significant. Construction projects will
have its useful life only after the completion of construction. Also the revenue associated with the
project starts only after its completion. Hence for preparing economic and financial feasibility,
project scheduling is very important. But similar to cost estimation, scheduling is also
approximation. The schedule prepared and actual duration for construction should be as close as
possible for the success of the project.

Project scheduling in general or construction project scheduling can be achieved in many ways.
But work breakdown structure serves as the base of preparing schedule. Hence project
scheduling may be defined as “Identification of activities and the interrelationship to assign most
realistic time / duration based on all other resource allocations possible, to meet the objectives of
the project.

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1.9.1 Important terminologies

 Predecessor activity: Predecessor activity is the one, start and finish of which controls the
start and finish of other activity.
the predecessor activity for size stone masonry
Example: Earth work excavation is the
foundation.
 Successor activity: Successor activity is the one, start and finish of which depends on start
and finish of other activity.
Example; Painting is successor activity of plastering.

 e: Earliest start time of an activity is the maximum time required for

Earliest start time:
completion of all its predecessor activities.
 Earliest finish time: Earliest finish time is summation of earliest start time and the
duration of the activity.

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 Latest start time: Latest start time is the maximum delayed start for an activity but still
allowing the project to be completed on time.
 Latest finish time: Latest finish time of an activity is the maximum delayed completion of it
and still allow the project to be completed on time.

 Optimistic time: Minimum possible time required for an activity, considering maximum
resource allocation and assuming over thinking to proceed on expected lines.(to)
 Pessimistic time: Maximum or worst time required for an activity, assuming if everything
goes wrong or out of plan.(tp)
 Most likely time or Normal time: The optimum time required for completion of an activity
under normal circumstances and practicality. (tm)
 Expected time: Calculated time based on optimistic time, pessimistic time and most likely
time of an activity.
 TE = (to+4tm+tp)/6

1.9.2 Approaches to scheduling and Planning

Approaches to scheduling refer to types of project plans based on scheduling. There are three
types of planning process adopted for project scheduling and planning.

1. Forward planning
2. Backward planning
3. Combined planning

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1. Forward planning: Forward planning is adopted when there are no specific deadlines set
for the project. Forward planning is also referred to as forward pass. Forward planning is
done based on earliest start and earliest finish time of an activity. Based on this the total
project duration is determined. Since the required start date is unknown, forward
planning starts with time of zero.

2. Backward planning: Backward planning is done when the completion deadline is

predetermined and the project must be scheduled to meet the deadlines. Backward
planning is also referred to as backward pass. It is done based on latest finish and latest
start time of the activity. Once backward planning is done, a specific date/time for
commencement of the project will be obtained.

3. Combined planning: Knowledge of both earliest and latest times of an activity will help to
allocated resources for an activity in most effective manner. If the planning is done
considering both these times, then it is called combined planning. Transfer of resources is
possible through this plan. Here directly or indirectly combined planning process to be
cost effective.

1.9.3 Work Breakdown Structure

Work breakdown structure is the decomposition of a project into individual activities. Work
breakdown structure helps to identify the activities based on which project plan may be
prepared.

Work breakdown structure is one of the critical steps of project management, as it forms the
basis for all the following steps.

a) Defining scope of work

b) Identifying activities
c) Developing time schedule
d) Structuring the organization
e) Costing and budgeting
f) Monitoring progress of performance
g) Managing information flow

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Hence work breakdown structure may be defined as “Deliverable oriented hierarchical

decomposition of work to be executed to accomplish the project objectives”.

Deliverable is a measureable or non measurable result to be achieved based on customer

requirement. As far as construction industry is concerned, deliverables are either activities of a
construction project or a construction project as a whole.

Hierarchical decomposition refers to systematic arrangement or organization of individual

activities of the project by identifying their priority and sequence.

There is no hard and fast rule for creating a work breakdown structure but generally some
standard tools are used for it.

Work breakdown structure may be represented on a white board or a note pad in its simplest
way. But it is not very effective from communication and control point of view. Hence electronic
format is generally used for this. Bar charts and Gantt charts are generally used to represent
work breakdown structure. These representations can be further exported to Microsoft project
or any other such tool for further precise scheduling.

1.9.4 Gantt Chart

Gantt chart is a type of bar chart which identifies the project activities and also represents the
dependency/interrelationship between activities. Gantt chart serves the purpose of preparing
the project schedule and also to monitor the present/current status of project.

Gantt chart has a standard format. Individual activities/tasks to be performed is listed in vertical
axis, in its sequential order.

Time intervals or durations of activities are represented on horizontal axis. Gantt chart illustrates
the start and finish dates of individual activities and turn start and finish the dates of the project
as whole.

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Advantages of using Gantt chart

1. Gantt chart is easy to prepare and easy to understand as well.

2. No special software is required for preparing Gantt chart. Using Microsoft Excel or any
other similar basic tools, Gantt chart may be prepared.
3. It is the simplest way of representation of schedule.
4. Critical activities may be highlighted easily.
5. Gantt chart may be updated and used for monitoring of activities/progress.

Disadvantages of using Gantt chart

1. Gantt charts will not give detailed description of activities.

2. If the numbers of activities are more, Gantt chart is not suitable.
3. Gantt chart does not represent the complexities of the project.

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1.9.5 Network diagram and Network analysis

Network, in general, is an arrangement of interconnecting lines to represent any process or

function.

As far as construction industry is concerned network diagram is a time oriented graphical

representation of activities of the project used for scheduling process.

Network analysis is the technique used for assessment of these network diagrams to understand
best possible resource allocation of various activities of the project.

A. Network elements

Two important technologies are used in network. They are Activity and Event.
1. Activity: Activity is the lowest level of work which is to be performed during the
course of the project, which is associated with time. Fabrication of steel
reinforcement, concreting, curing, and construction of masonry wall are some of the
examples for different activities of a construction project.

2. Event: It is the phase or junction which represents the completion of predecessor

activity and commencement of successor activity. Event has no time/duration
associated with it.

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B. Representation of network

There are two systems of representation of network

1. Activity on Arrow system (AOA system)

2. Activity on Node system (AON system)
syst

1. Activity on Arrow: In this system activities are represented as arrows connecting two
nodes. Tail end of the arrow represents the commencement of the activity and Head of the
arrow represents the completion of that activity. Description of the activity
activit is represented
on top of the arrow and its time or duration is represented at the bottom side of arrow.
Length of the arrow never suggests the magnitude of work or the time duration required.

2. Activity on Node: In this system activities are represented as junctions or Nodes. Arrows
connecting two different nodes or activities signifies the relationship between them in
terms of sequence and dependency. Even in this system length of the arrow has no
significance.

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 Dummy activity: It is an imaginary or superimposed activity represented for logical loop

superimposed
of the network diagram. Dummy activity has zero duration associated with it and never
consumes any resource. Purpose of using dummy activity is to simplify the network for
concurrent/parallel activities.

C. Ruless for drawing network

There are few rules set for the correctness of preparing a network. These rules are to be
followed for presentation of any network.

1. A network should have only one initial event / Node and only one final event/node.
2. Initial event/Node will have only successor activity or outgoing activities. Final
event/Node will have only predecessor or incoming activities.
3. Time flow is usually shown from left to right.
4. Interdependencies should be properly shown and network logic is to be
maintained.
5. No event can occur twice i.e., network looping is not permitted.
event has occurred and event cannot
6. No activity can start until tail event can occur until all
activities leading are complete.

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