THE CELL

Cell Cell Biology

The structural and functional unit of life is called The study of structure and function of cell is
cell. It can carry out all activities of life. Cells called cell biology. It also deals with the study of
are building blocks of complex multicellular cell division.
organisms.

EMERGENCE AND IMPLICATION OF CELL THEORY

Robert Hooke Theory. They found that the cell consisted of 3
In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered cell. He basic parts:
reported his work in his publication 1. Nucleus
Micrographia. He prepared and studied thin 2. Cytoplasm
sections of cork under his self-made compound 3. Plasma membrane
microscope. He observed that the cork is They said that cell wall was an additional
composed of small honeycomb like structure present only in plant cells. According
compartments which he called cells. to Cell Theory, all living organisms are
composed of cells and cell products.
Rudolf Virchow
In 1855, Rudolf Virchow, a German physician,
said: “New cells are formed only by the division
of previously existing living cells (omnis cellula
e cellula).” He rejected the idea of abiogenesis
(living things arise spontaneously from non-
living things).
Hooke’s Definition of Cell Louis Pasteur
According to Hooke, cell is an empty space In 1862, Louis Pasteur proved Virchow’s idea
bounded by thick walls. experimentally. He proved that bacteria could be
Lorenz Oken formed only from existing bacteria.
In 1805, Lorenz Oken, a German scientist, said: August Weismann
“All living beings originate from or consist of In 1880, August Weismann said: “All presently
vesicles or cells.” living cells have a common origin because they
Jean Baptist de Lamarck have basic similarities in structure and
In 1809, J. B. de Lamarck said: “No body can molecules, etc.”
have life if its constituent parts are not cellular Cell Theory
tissue or are not formed by cellular tissue.” Cell Theory is a set of statements encapsulating
Robert Brown the essential characteristics of cells.
In 1831, Robert Brown discovered nucleus in the Postulates of Cell Theory
cell. He changed Hooke’s idea about cell. He Following are the postulates of cell theory:
proved that cell is not an empty space. 1. All organisms are composed of one or more
Schwann and Schleiden cells.
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A German botanist Schleiden (1838) and a
3. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit
German zoologist Theodor Schwann (1839),
for all organisms.
working independently, proposed the Cell
CELL AS A UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cell Cells in Animals
Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of 1. Muscle cells contract and relax.
life. 2. Nerve cells transmit impulses.
Division of Labour 3. Glandular cells secrete chemicals.
In multicellular organisms, different cells are 4. Red blood cells carry oxygen.
specialized for different functions. It is called the 5. Some stomach cells secrete gastric juice.
division of labour among cells. Cells in Plants
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1. Xylem cells conduct water and mineral salts 4. Chlorenchymatous cells carry out
from soil to aerial parts of the plant. photosynthesis.
2. Phloem cells translocate food. 5. Parenchymatous cells store surplus food.
3. Sclerenchymatous cells give support to the 6. Meristematic cells produce new cells for
plants. growth and development of plant.

CELL FRACTIONATION
Cell Fractionation Separation of substances on the basis of their
The combination of various methods used to size and densities by spinning them in a
separate a cell organelle and components based centrifuge at a medium speed is called density
upon size and density. It consists of two steps: gradient centrifugation.
homogenization and centrifugation. Ultracentrifugation
1. Homogenization Some cellular components require very high
Formation of a homogenous mass of cells is speeds for separation from other parts of the
called homogenization. It involves the cells. This is achieved through
grinding of cells in a suitable medium. ultracentrifugation.
2. Density Gradient Centrifugation

MICROSCOPY
Microscopy The microscope that uses visible light as
The technique used to see the objects which source of illumination is called light
cannot be seen by naked eye is called microscope.
microscopy. 2. Electron Microscope
Microscope The microscope that uses beam of electrons as
The device used to see microscopic objects is source of illumination is called electron
called microscope. microscope.
Lenses of Microscope Terms Used in Microscopy
A typical microscope contains two lenses: ocular There are two terms commonly used in
lens and objective lens microscopy:
1. Ocular Lens 1. Resolution
The lens through which we see the magnified The minimum capacity of a lens to
image is called ocular lens. It may be 5X, differentiate between two adjacent points is
10X, etc. called resolution or resolving power.
2. Objective Lens 2. Magnification
The lens that magnifies the image is called The capacity of an optical instrument to
objective lens. It may be 20X, 40X, 100X, increase the size of an object is called
etc. magnification or magnifying power.
Types of Microscope Calculation of Magnification
There are two main types of microscope: Magnification of a microscope can be
calculated by multiplying the X values of
1. Light Microscope ocular lens and the X values of objective lens.
Examples
Resolution Magnification

Naked Eye (👁) 0.1 mm 1X

Light Microscope (LM) 2 μm 500X than 👁

500X than LM

250,000X than 👁
Electron Microscope (EM) 2-4 Angstrom

PLASMA MEMBRANE
Plasma Membrane

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Plasma membrane or cell membrane is the outer Cell membrane contains charged pores
most boundary
Chemical Composition
of the cell. In most plant cells, it through which materials move, both by active
is covered
Cell membrane
by a cell
is chemically
wall. composed of: and passive transport. It regulates the flow of
1. Proteins (60-80%) materials and ions to maintain a definite
2. Lipids (20-40%) gradient.
3. Small amount of carbohydrates Selectively Permeable Membrane
Structure of Cell Membrane It offers a barrier between the cell contents
There are two models to explain the structure of and their environment, allowing only
cell membrane: selective substances to pass through it.
1. Unit Membrane Model Therefore, it is also called differentially
According to unit membrane model, cell permeable or selectively permeable
membrane is composed of lipid bilayer membrane.
sandwiched between inner and outer layers of i. Lipid soluble substances cross it more
protein. This structure is present in all the easily than others.
cellular organelles. ii. Many small gas molecules, water, glucose
being neutral, cross it easily.
[Link], being charged particles, cross it with
difficulty.
Types of Transport
Following are the types of transport through
cell membrane:

i. Passive Transport
The transport of materials through cell
2. Fluid Mosaic Model membrane from high concentration to low
According to fluid mosaic model, the protein concentration is called passive transport or
layers are not continuous and are not confined diffusion. It does not require energy.
to the surface of the membrane but are ii. Active Transport
embedded in lipid layers in a mosaic manner. The transport of materials through cell
This model is the most accepted one. membrane from low concentration to high
concentration is called active transport. It
requires energy.
[Link]
The intake of materials into cell through
cell membrane in the form of vacuoles is
called endocytosis. It is of two types:
a. Pinocytosis
Intake of liquid materials is called
pinocytosis.
b. Phagocytosis
Intake of solid materials is called
phagocytosis.
Functions of Cell Membrane iv. Exocytosis
Cell membrane performs the following The process of taking the materials out of
functions: cell through cell membrane is called
1. Transport of Materials endocytosis.
2. Transmission of Nerve Impulses
In neurons, the cell membrane transmits nerve
impulses from one part of the body to the
other to keep coordination.

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 CELL WALL
Cell Wall 2. Primary Wall
Cell wall is the outer most boundary in most of The primary wall is a true wall. It develops in
the plant cells. newly growing cells. It is composed of
Occurrence cellulose and some deposition of pectin and
Cell wall is present in prokaryotes, algae, fungi- hemicelluloses. Cellulose molecules are
like protists, fungi and plants. It is absent in arranged in a criss-cross arrangement.
animals and protozoa. 3. Secondary Wall
Origin The secondary wall is formed on inner to
Cell wall is secreted by the protoplasm of the primary wall. It is comparatively thick and
cell. rigid. It is composed of inorganic salts, silica,
Thickness waxes, cutin, lignin etc.
Its thickness varies in different cells of the plant.
Chemical Composition
Its chemical composition varies in different
organisms:
Organism Composition
Plants Cellulose
Fungi Chitin
Algae Cellulose
Prokaryotes Murein (peptidoglycan)
Structure
It is composed of three main layers:
1. Middle Lamella
The middle lamella is first to be formed in Functions of Cell Wall
between the primary walls of the Cell wall provides a definite shape to the cell and
neighbouring cells. It is composed of pectin keeps it rigid. It does not act as a barrier to the
and pectic salts. materials passing through it.

CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm ii. Gel
Cytoplasm is an aqueous ground substance Viscous solutions are called gel. Peripheral
containing various cell organelles and other parts of the cell are like a gel.
inclusions (e.g. insoluble wastes, storage Functions of Cytoplasm
products). Cytoplasm performs the following functions:
Cytosol 1. Storehouse for Chemicals
The soluble part of the cytoplasm is called It stores many vital chemicals (e.g. ions,
cytosol. It forms the ground substance of the molecules).
cytoplasm. 2. Site for Metabolic Processes
Chemical Composition It is a site for certain metabolic processes (e.g.
Chemically it is about 90% water. It forms a glycolysis).
solution containing all the fundamental 3. Cell Organelles
molecules of life. It contains two types of It contains many cell organelles (e.g. ER,
solutions: mitochondria, Golgi complex, nucleus,
1. True Solutions plastids, ribosomes, lysosomes, centriole).
Small molecules and ions form true solutions. 4. Cyclosis
2. Colloidal Solutions The active mass streaming movement of
Some large molecules form colloidal cytoplasm is called cyclosis. It moves the
solutions. They may be of two types: freely-floating organelles (e.g. mitochondria)
i. Sol in the cytoplasm.
Non-viscous solutions are called sol.
Central parts of the cell are like a sol.
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 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic Reticulum Smooth ER is the form of ER without
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of ribosomes.
interconnecting channels extending from nuclear Functions
membrane to cell membrane. It performs the following functions:
Occurrence i. Lipid metabolism
It is present in all eukaryotic organisms. ii. Detoxification of harmful drugs
Structure [Link] of impulses
It is bound by a single membrane. It varies iv. Intracellular transport
widely in appearance from cell to cell. v. Mechanical support
Cisternae
The spherical or tubular membranes separating
the materials in these channels from the
cytoplasmic materials are called cisternae.
Forms of ER
There are two morphological forms of ER:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER is the form of ER with attached
ribosomes.
Functions
It performs the following functions:
i. Synthesis of proteins
ii. Export of proteins
[Link] support
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are tiny granular structures in the
cytoplasm.
Discovery
They were discovered by Palade in 1955.
Occurrence
They are present in all prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic Ribosomes
Chemical Composition In eukaryotic ribosomes, the larger subunit
They are ribonucleoprotein particles. They are sediments at 60S while the smaller subunit
composed of an equal amount of: sediments at 40S. Two subunits attach to form
1. Protein 80S particle. This attachment is controlled by the
2. rRNA presence of Mg2+ ions.
Location Prokaryotic Ribosomes
Ribosomes exist in two forms: In prokaryotic ribosomes, the larger subunit
1. Freely dispersed in cytoplasm sediments at 50S while the smaller subunit
2. Attached with RER sediments at 30S. Two subunits attach to form
Synthesis 70S particle.
New ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus Polysome
of the nucleus from where they are transported to The ribosomes are attached to messenger RNA
the cytoplasm via the nuclear pores. through small ribosomal subunit. A group of
Structure ribosomes attached to mRNA is called
Ribosome is not bounded by any membrane. It polysome.
consists of two sub-units.

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 Function of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis
through translation.

GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi Apparatus It performs the following functions:
Golgi apparatus is a complex system of 1. Cell Secretions
interconnected tubules around the central stacks. Secretions are products formed within the cell
Discovery on ribosomes and then passed to the outside
It was discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898. through endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
Occurrence Apparatus. The proteins or enzymes which
It is present in all eukaryotic cells. have to be transported out of the cell pass
Formation through the Golgi Apparatus.
Cisternae stacks are continuously formed by 2. Packaging
fusion of vesicles, which are probably derived by The secretions are converted into finished
the budding of SER. product and are packed inside membrane,
Structure before export. For example, in pancreas of
It consists of stacks of flattened, membrane mammals, Golgi apparatus forms granules
bound sacs, called cisternae. They are thought to containing enzymes that help in digestion.
be moving from the outer to the inner face. 3. Glycosylation
It modifies the proteins and lipids by adding
carbohydrates and converting them into
glycoproteins or glycolipids.
4. Cell Wall Synthesis
In plants, it is involved in the formation of
phragmoplast and is called dictyosome.
Phragmoplast contains materials for the
synthesis of cell wall.

Faces of Golgi Apparatus:

There are two faces of Golgi apparatus:
1. Forming Face
The outer convex surface to which vesicles
from SER fuse is called forming face or cis
face.
2. Maturing Face
The inner concave surface from cisternae
break up into vesicles is called maturing face
or trans face.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus

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 LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes (Lyso = Splitting, Soma = Body) digested. In this way, materials of cell may be
Lysosomes are cytoplasmic organelles different recycled and cell may be renewed.
from others due to their morphology.
Discovery
They were discovered by De Duve in 1949.
Occurrence
They are found in most eukaryotic cells. They
are most abundant in those animal cells which
exhibit phagocytic activity.
Structure
They are bounded by a single membrane. They
are simple sacs containing acid phosphatase and
several other hydrolytic enzymes. These
enzymes are synthesized on RER and are further
processed in the Golgi apparatus.
Types of Lysosomes
There are two types of lysosomes: 3. Development
Their enzymes can also cause degeneration of
1. Primary Lysosomes cell, for example during some developmental
The vesicles that contain digestive enzymes processes.
synthesized in RER, processed in Golgi 4. Extracellular Digestion
apparatus are called primary lysosomes. They release enzymes for extracellular
2. Secondary Lysosomes digestion.
The lysosomes formed by fusion of primary Lysosomal Storage Diseases
lysosomes with food vacuoles are called Several congenital diseases caused due to
secondary lysosomes. They may be digestive accumulation of substances (e.g. glycogen,
vacuoles or autophagosomes. glycolipids) are called storage diseases. They are
Functions of Lysosomes produced by a mutation that affects the
They perform the following functions: lysosomal enzyme involved in the catabolism of
1. Phagocytosis a certain substance. About twenty such diseases
Any foreign object that gains entry into the are known.
cell is immediately engulfed by the lysosome 1. Glycogenosis Type-II
and is completely broken into simple In glycogenosis type II, the liver and muscle
digestible pieces. The process is called are filled with glycogen within membrane
phagocytosis (eating process of a cell). bound organelles. It is due to absence of an
enzyme that degrades glycogen to glucose.
2. Autophagy 2. Tay-Sach’s Disease
They are also involved in the autophagy (self- In Tay-Sach’s disease, the brain cells are
eating). During this process, some old worn- filled with lipids. It is due to absence of an
out parts of cell (e.g. old mitochondria) are enzyme involved in catabolism of lipids. It
leads to mental retardation and even death.

PEROXISOMES
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are modified and highly specialized
form of lysosomes.
Discovery
They were discovered by De-Duve and co-
workers in 1965 from liver cells and other
tissues containing some oxidative enzymes.
Occurrence
They are present in animals, protozoa, yeast and
many cell types of higher plants.
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Structure They oxidize alcohol into hydrogen peroxide
They are bounded by a single membrane. They by peroxidase enzyme.
are 0.5 nm in diameter. They contain oxidases 2. Decomposition of H2O2
and catalases. They decompose hydrogen peroxide into
Enzymes water and oxygen by catalase enzyme.
Peroxisomes contain peroxidase, catalase and 3. Photorespiration
glycolic acid oxidase. In plant cells, they convert glycolate into
Functions of Peroxisomes glycine by glycolic acid oxidase during
They perform the following functions: photorespiration.
1. Formation of H2O2

GLYOXYSOMES
Glyoxysomes Enzymes
Glyoxysomes are specialized form of They contain:
peroxisomes. 1. Glycolic acid oxidase
Occurrence 2. Catalase
They are abundant in lipid-rich seeds (e.g. castor 3. Enzymes for glyoxylate cycle
bean, soya bean) only during a short period in 4. Some enzymes absent in animal cells
germination. They are absent in lipid-poor seeds Function of Glyoxysomes
(e.g. pea). They convert fatty acids into carbohydrates
Structure (succinate). They generate energy and provide
They are bounded by a single membrane. They material to begin the formation of a new plant.
appear as vesicles in the cytoplasm.

VACUOLES
Vacuoles Vacuole is bounded by a single membrane called
Vacuoles are large vesicles which originate from tonoplast. The fluid inside the vacuole is called
the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex and sap.
plasma membrane. Functions
Occurrence It performs the following functions:
They are present in both animal and plant cells. 1. Expansion of Cell
Number and Location It expands the plant cell without diluting its
In animal cells, there are many small vacuoles. cytoplasm.
In plant cells, there is a large central vacuole that 2. Storage Sites
occupies most of the cell volume. It stores water, cell products or metabolic
Formation of Plant Vacuole intermediates.
It is formed by the coalescence of small vacuoles 3. Turgor
during growth and development of plant. It provides support to plant cell by causing
turgor.
Structure 4. Rigidity
It contributes to the rigidity of leaves and
younger parts of the plant.

CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton i. Assembly and disassembly of spindle
Cytoskeleton is a web-like structure in during mitosis
cytoplasm. It has three components: ii. Formation of cilia, flagella, basal bodies
1. Microtubules and centrioles
Microtubules are long, unbranched, slender 2. Microfilaments
structures. They are made up of tubulin Microfilaments are more slender cylinders
protein. linked to the inner face of plasma membrane.
Functions They are made up of contractile actin protein.
They perform the following functions: Functions

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 They perform the following functions: microfilaments. They are made up of
i. Internal cell motion (cyclosis) vimentin protein.
ii. Amoeboid movements Functions
3. Intermediate Filaments They perform the following functions:
Intermediate filaments have diameter in i. Maintenance of cell shape
between those of microtubules and ii. Integration of cellular compartments
CENTRIOLES
Centrioles Structure
Centrioles are cylindrical organelles present near In cross section, each centriole consists of a
the nucleus. cylindrical array of nine microtubules. Each of
Occurrence the nine microtubules is further composed of
They are present in animal cells, and cells of three tubules.
some microorganisms and lower plants. They are Functions of Centrioles
absent in higher plants. They perform the following functions:
Location 1. Spindle Formation
There are two centrioles near the exterior surface Just before cell division, the centrioles
of the nucleus. They are usually placed at right duplicate. Both pairs migrate to opposite sides
angle to each other. of the nucleus. Then, the spindle is formed
between them.
2. Cytokinesis
They are involved in the location of furrowing
during cell division.
3. Formation of Cilia
They are involved in the formation of cilia.

MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria The inner chamber of mitochondria is called
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. mitochondrial matrix. It contains DNA,
Occurrence ribosomes, enzymes, coenzymes, and organic
They are present in eukaryotic cells. and inorganic salts.
Appearance 4. Intermembrane Space
Under compound microscope, they appear to be The space between the outer and inner
vesicles, rods or filaments. Under an electron membranes is called intermembrane space.
microscope, they show complex morphology.
Variation
They vary in shape, size and number depending
on the physiological activity or ATP requirement
of cell.
Structure
A mitochondrion is bounded by two membranes,
similar to other cell membranes.
1. Outer Membrane
The outer membrane is smooth.
2. Inner Membrane Self-Replicating Organelles
The inner membrane forms infoldings into the Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles.
mitochondrial matrix. These infoldings are They can synthesize their own proteins.
called cristae. It is made up of lipoprotein. Functions of Mitochondria
F1 Particles They perform the following functions:
The inner surface of cristae in the 1. Metabolic Processes
mitochondrial matrix has small knob like They are sites of many metabolic processes.
structures called F1 particles. They are Kreb’s cycle and fatty acid metabolism take
actually ATP synthase enzymes. place in mitochondrial matrix. Electron
3. Mitochondrial Matrix transport chain takes place in cristae.
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2. Manufacture and Supply of Energy 3. Regeneration of Energy
They manufacture energy and supply energy They regenerate the spent energy in the form
to the cell in the form of ATP. This energy is of ADP into ATP.
used for cellular activities and converted into
ADP.

PLASTIDS
Plastids chloroplast. It contains proteins, ribosomes
Plastids are membrane bound, mostly pigment and a small circular DNA.
containing bodies present in the cells. [Link]
Occurrence Thylakoids are flattened vesicles which
They are present in plant cells only. arrange themselves to form grana and
Types of Plastids intergrana.
There are three main types of plastids: Grana
1. Chloroplasts Grana are piles of thylakoids stacked on
Chloroplasts are membrane bound structures each other like coins. There are about 50 or
containing chlorophyll. more thylakoids piled to form one granum.
Chlorophyll Chlorophyll molecules are arranged on
Chlorophyll is a green organic pigment. It thylakoids. So, granum appears to be
helps in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll green.
molecule resembles the haem group of Intergrana
haemoglobin. The main difference is that Intergranum is a non-green part that
chlorophyll has Mg++ while haem has Fe++ as interconnects the grana
the central atom. Functions of Chloroplasts
Shape and Size They perform the following functions:
Chloroplasts vary in their shape and size with i. Photosynthesis
a diameter of about 4-6 nm. Chlorophyll in membranes of grana traps
Appearance sunlight energy and forms ATP. This
Under light microscope, they appear to be energy is used to fix CO2 to manufacture
heterogeneous structures with small granules sugars in stroma.
known as grana embedded in the matrix. ii. Synthesis of Proteins
Structure Chloroplasts are self-replicating
It consists of three main parts: organelles. They synthesize some proteins
i. Envelope in the stroma.
Envelope is formed by a double 2. Chromoplasts
membrane. Chromoplasts are present in the petals of the
flower and in the ripened fruit.
Functions of Chromoplasts
They perform the following functions:
i. Imparting colours to plants other than green
ii. Pollination
[Link] of seeds
3. Leucoplasts
Leucoplasts are colourless. They are
triangular, tubular or of some other shape.
They are found in the underground parts of
ii. Stroma
the plant.
Stroma is a fluid that surrounds thylakoids.
Function of Leucoplasts
It covers most of the volume of
They store food.
NUCLEUS
Nucleus It was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831 due
Nucleus is the control centre of the cell. It to its prominence.
controls the life and activities of the cell. Prominence
Discovery

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It is slightly darker than the surrounding The differentiated cells (e.g. erythrocytes)
cytoplasm. Nucleus is often deeply stained with have only 3 or 4 pores/nucleus.
basic dyes because of the chromatin material.
Location
In animal cells, it generally occupies the central
space. In plant cells, it is pushed towards
periphery due to the large vacuole.
Shape
Nucleus may be irregular or spherical in shape.
Number
There are three types of cells on the basis of
number of nuclei:
1. Mononucleate
The cells having one nucleus are called
mononucleate.
e.g. most cells 2. Nucleoplasm
2. Binucleate The soluble sap in the nucleus is called
The cells having two nuclei are called nucleoplasm. It contains proteins, DNA, RNA
binucleate. and enzymes.
e.g. Paramecium 3. Nucleolus
3. Multinucleate Nucleolus is a darkly stained body within the
The cells having more than two nuclei are nucleus. It is not bound by any membrane.
called multinucleate. There may be one or more nucleoli in the
e.g. skeletal muscle cells nucleus. It is composed of two regions:
Visibility i. Granular Area
It is only visible in non-dividing stage of cell. It The peripheral area is granular. It contains
contains chromatin network and nucleoplasm. In precursors of ribosomal subunits.
dividing cells, it disappears and chromatin is ii. Fibrillar Area
replaced by chromosomes. The central area is fibrillar. It contains
Structure large molecular weight RNA and rDNA.
It consists of the following parts: Functions
1. Nuclear Envelope Ribosomes are assembled in nucleolus and
Nuclear envelope is made up of two then exported to the cytoplasm via nuclear
membranes. It separates the nucleoplasm pores.
from cytoplasm. It consists of the following 4. Chromosomes
parts: Chromosomes are the hereditary material.
i. Outer Membrane They control all the activities of nucleus.
The outer membrane is at places They are darkly stained thread-like structures.
continuous with the RER. Structure
ii. Inner Membrane A chromosome consists of the following
The inner membrane encloses the nuclear parts:
content. i. Centromere
[Link] Pores Centromere is the place on the
Nuclear pores are pores in nuclear chromosome where spindle fibres are
envelope. attached during cell division.
Functions ii. Chromatids
They allow the exchange of materials Chromatids are the structures held together
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. at centromere. Chromatid is exact replica
Each pore has a definite structure which of the chromosome.
controls the traffic of substances passing
through them.
Number of Nuclear Pores
The number of nuclear pores is highly
variable. The undifferentiated cells (e.g.
eggs) have about 30,000 pores/nucleus.
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 Number of Chromosomes
The number of chromosomes in all
individuals of the same species remains
constant generation after generation.
i. Diploid Number
The number of chromosomes in normal
body cells is diploid (2n).
Chemical Composition ii. Haploid Number
It is composed of DNA and proteins. The number of chromosomes in germ cells
is haploid (n).
Number of Chromosomes
Species
Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
Fruit fly
8 4
(Drosophila melanogaster)
Garden pea 14 7
Onion 16 8
Frog 26 13
Man 46 23
Chimpanzee 48 24
Potato 48 24

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Features Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cell lacks a well-defined Eukaryotic cell has a well-defined
Nucleus
nucleus. nucleus.
Nuclear Membrane Nuclear membrane is absent. Nuclear membrane is present.
DNA is present in nucleus, chloroplast
DNA Location DNA is submerged in cytoplasm.
and mitochondria.
DNA Structure DNA is single and circular. DNA is linear.
DNA Content DNA content is high. DNA content is low.
Slime Slime is present. Slime is absent.
Capsule Capsule is present. Capsule is absent.
Cell wall of plants and algae is
Cell wall is composed of murein
composed of cellulose and that of
Cell Wall (peptidoglycan). It is considered as a
fungi is composed of chitin. It is
single macromolecule called sacculus.
absent in animal cells.
Cell Membrane Cell membrane lacks sterols. Cell membrane has sterols.
Membrane-Bound Membrane bound organelles are Membrane bound organelles are
Organelles absent. present.
Ribosomes are smaller in size (70S = Ribosomes are larger in size (80S =
Ribosomes
50S + 30S). 60S + 40S).
Pili Pili are present. Pili are absent.
Flagella are composed of flagellin Flagella are composed of tubulin
Flagella
protein. protein.
Chlorophyll Bacteriochlorophyll is present. Chlorophyll a, b, c and d are present.
Food is stored in the form of Food is stored in the form of glycogen
Food Storage
glycogen. or starch.
Cell divides both by mitosis and
Cell Division Cell divides only by mitosis.
meiosis.
Size It is microscopic. It may be microscopic or macroscopic.
Evolutionary State It is primitive. It is advanced.
Animal cell, plant cell, fungal cell,
Examples Blue-green algae, bacteria
protists
Diagram Animal Cell
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 Plant Cell

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