Eden University

School of Natural Sciences

Department of Applied Sciences and
Engineering

Mathematical Methods I
MAT1310

Set Theory

Mr. Mwamba N
1 Introduction to Set Theory 2
1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Basic Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Laws of Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Binary Operation on Real Numbers 12

2.1 Properties of Binary Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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1 Introduction to Set Theory
1.1 Basic Definitions
Definition 1.1. A set is a collection of well defined objects or items called
elements.
The the elements that belong to a set are also known as members of a set.
Sets are denoted by uppercase letters e.g, A, B, . . . or X, Y, . . . and elements
are denoted by lowercase letters e.g a, b, . . . or x, y, . . .
Example 1.2. Let A and B be sets defined by A = {a, b, c} and B =
{c, d, e, f }.
Here, we see that;
(i) c belongs to A, that is to say, c ∈ A.

(ii) c belongs to B, that is to say, c ∈ B.

(iii) d does not belong to A, that is to say, c ∈

/ A.

(iv) a does not belong to B, that is to say, a ∈

/ B.

Definition 1.3. Suppose A and B are sets. If every element of A belongs to

B, then A is a subset of B. This is denoted by A ⊂ B.
There is still a possibility that A = B. However, A ⊊ B means that A ⊂ B
and A ̸= B.
Definition 1.4. Two sets A and B are said to be equal sets (A = B) is they
contain same elements.
Note 1.5. A = B if and only if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A. In other words, two sets
are equal if they are subsets of each other.
Definition 1.6. The empty set or null set denoted by ∅ or {} is the set that
has no elements in it.
Note 1.7. The empty set is a subset of every other set.
Definition 1.8. The set that contains all the elements under consideration
within a particular context. Denoted by the symbol U or E.

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1.2 Basic Set Operations
Definition 1.9. The set difference of sets A and B (A − B or A\B) contains
elements that are in A but not in B.

Symbolically: A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

Example 1.10. Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {3, 4, 5}. Find

(i) A\B

(ii) B\A

Solution

(i) A\B = A − B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} − {3, 4, 5} = {2, 6}

(ii) B\A = B − A = {3, 4, 5} − {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = ∅

Definition 1.11. Let A and be a set and U be the universal set, then the
complement of A denoted by

A′ = U − A

is a set which contains all elements in the universal set that are not in set A.

Definition 1.12. Let A and B be sets. Then the intersection of set A and
B denoted by A ∩ B.

This is written as

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Example 1.13. Let A = {a, b, c, e} and B = {c, d, e, f }, and C = {f, g}.

(i) A ∩ B

(ii) A ∩ C

(iii) B ∩ C

Solution

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 (i) A ∩ B = {a, b, c, e} ∩ {c, d, e, f } = {c, e}

(ii) A ∩ C = {a, b, c, e} ∩ {f, g} = ∅

(iii) B ∩ C = {c, d, e, f } ∩ {f, g} = {f }

Definition 1.14. Let A and B be sets. Then the union of set A and B
denoted by A ∪ B is the set that contains all elements either in set A of in
set B defined by
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Example 1.15. Given that A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C =

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Find

(i) A ∪ B

(ii) A ∪ C

(iii) B ∪ C

Solution

(i) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

(ii) A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

(iii) B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Note 1.16. If is element in A and B, it is only listed one in the union A ∪ B.

1.3 Laws of Set Theory

Set operations follow certain laws that help in manipulating sets efficiently:

1. Identity Laws:
A ∪ ∅ = A,
A∩U =A

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 2. Complement Laws:
(A′ )′ = A
A ∪ A′ = U ,
A ∩ A′ = ∅
A\A = ∅

3. Commutative Laws:
A ∪ B = B ∪ A,
A∩B =B∩A

4. Associative Laws:
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C),
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

5. Distributive Laws:
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C),
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

6. De Morgan’s Laws:
(A ∩ B)′ = (A′ ∪ B ′ )
(A ∪ B)′ = (A′ ∩ B ′ )

Example 1.17. 1. Prove that (A′ )′ = A

2. State and prove De Morgan’s Laws.

Solution

1. Prove that (A′ )′ = A

(i) We need to show that (A′ )′ ⊂ A and A ⊂ (A′ )′ .

Let x ∈ (A′ )′
=⇒ x ∈/ (A′ )
=⇒ x ∈ A

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 This shows that all the elements of (A′ )′ are contained in A, there-
fore
(A′ )′ ⊂ A
(i)

Let x ∈ A
=⇒ x ∈/ A′
=⇒ x ∈ (A′ )′

This shows that all the elements of A are contained in (A′ )′ , there-
fore
A ⊂ (A′ )′

From (i) and (ii), (A′ )′ = A

2. State and prove De Morgan’s Laws.

Solution
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′
(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′

For (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′ we need to show that (A ∩ B)′ ⊂ A′ ∪ B ′ and

A′ ∪ B ′ ⊂ (A ∩ B)′

(i)

Let x ∈ (A ∩ B)′
=⇒ x ∈/ (A ∩ B)
=⇒ x ∈/ A or x ∈/B
=⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ′
′

=⇒ x ∈ A′ ∪ B ′

This shows that all the elements of (A∩B)′ are contained in A′ ∪B ′ ,

therefore
(A ∩ B)′ ⊂ A′ ∪ B ′

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 (ii)

Let y ∈ A′ ∪ B ′
=⇒ y ∈ A′ and x ∈ B ′
=⇒ y ∈
/ A and x ∈/B
=⇒ y ∈
/ A∩B
=⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)′

This shows that all the elements of A′ ∪B ′ are contained in (A∩B)′ ,

therefore
A′ ∪ B ′ ⊂ (A ∩ B)′

From (i) and (ii) we can conclude that (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′ .

For (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ we need to show that (A ∪ B)′ ⊂ A′ ∩ B ′ and

A′ ∩ B ′ ⊂ (A ∪ B)′

(i)

Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)′
=⇒ x ∈/ (A ∪ B)
=⇒ x ∈/ A and x ∈/B
=⇒ x ∈ A′ and x ∈ B ′
=⇒ x ∈ A′ ∩ B ′

This shows that all the elements of (A∪B)′ are contained in A′ ∩B ′ ,

therefore
(A ∪ B)′ ⊂ A′ ∩ B ′

(ii)

Let y ∈ A′ ∩ B ′
=⇒ y ∈ A′ and x ∈ B ′
=⇒ y ∈
/ A or x ∈ /B
=⇒ y ∈
/ A∪B
=⇒ y ∈ (A ∪ B)′

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 This shows that all the elements of A′ ∩B ′ are contained in (A∪B)′ ,
therefore
A′ ∩ B ′ ⊂ (A ∪ B)′

From (i) and (ii) we can conclude that (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ .

Definition 1.18. Let A and B be sets. Then we define a new set A × B
called the Cartesian product of A and B as a set of ordered pairs, i.e,
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
(a, b) is an ordered pair.

Example 1.19. Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}, show that A × B ̸= B × A

Solution
A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
B × A = {(1.a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}
Definition 1.20. Given a set A. We defined a power set of A denoted by
P (A) to be the set of all subsets of A including the empty set and the set
itself.
Example 1.21. Given A = {1, 2, 3} 
P (A) = {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}

n(A) =Number of elements in set A, and 2n gives the number of subsets of

A.
So in this case, n(A) = 3 and 23 = 8 subsets of A.
Set of number are denoted using special characters/symbols.
1. Natural numbers, (N). {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }
2. Integers (Z). {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
3. Rational numbers. {all terminating, repeating decimals}. E,g
• 0.25
• 31
• 0.2454545454545454545 · · · = 0.245
¯

4. Irrational numbers {all non-terminating, non-repeating decimals}

5. Real numbers R. {all rational and irrational numbers}

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1.4 Rational numbers
a
A rational number is number that can be expressed in the form b
where a
and b are integers and b ̸= 0.
Example 1.22. Express each of the following repeating decimals in the form
a
b
where a and b are integers and b ̸= 0.
1. 0.3̄
2. 0.13̄
¯
3. 3.245
Solution
1.
x = 0.3̄ Multiply throughout the equation by 10
10x = 3.3̄
Subtracting the above equations
x − 10x = 0.3̄ − 3.3̄
−9x = −3.0
3
x=
9
1
x=
3
1
Therefore, 0.3̄ = 3

2.
x = 0.13̄
10x = 1.3̄ (i)
100x = 13.3̄ (ii)
Subtracting (i) and (ii), we have
10x − 100x = 1.3̄ − 13.3̄
−90x = −12
12
x=
90
2
x=
15
2
Therefore, 0.13̄ = 15

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 3.
¯
x = 3.245
¯ (i)
10x = 32.45
¯
100x = 324.545
¯ (ii)
1000x = 3245.45

Subtracting (i) and (ii), we have

¯ − 3245.45
10x − 1000x = 32.45 ¯
−990x = −3213
−3213
x=
−990
357
x=
110
¯ =
Therefore, 3.245 357
110

1.5 Rational numbers

An irrational number is number that cannot be expressed in the form ab where
a and b are integers and b ̸= 0. √ √ √
Examples of rational numbers includes 2, 3, 5 + 1. They are non-
repeating and non-terminating.
√
Example 1.23. Prove that 2 is irrational
Solution We√are going to prove by the meth of prove by contradiction. We
assume that 2 is a rational number, that is, it can be expressed in the form
a
b
where a, b ∈ Z and b ̸= 0 and that a and b are have no common factor. By
this assumption
√ a
2= (i)
b
Squaring both sides of (i)

√ a2
2= 2
b
a2
2= 2
b
a2 = 2b2 (ii)

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From equation (ii) we see that a2 is an even numbers with a common factor 2
and so a is also an even number with a common factor 2. Thus a can written
as a = 2K.
where k ∈ Z\{0}.
Substituting a = 2k back into equation (ii) we get

(2k)2 = 2b2
4k 2 = 2b2
b2 = 2k 2

Clearly b2 is an even number with the factor of 2, which imply that b is also
an even number. Thus a and b have a common factor 2, which contradicts
our assumption that a and b have no common factor. √
Therefore, by the method of contradiction, we have proved that 2 is an
irrational number.
√ √
Exercise By the argument in the above example, prove that 5 and 3 are
irrational numbers.

√ √
Example 1.24. Given that 2 is irrational, prove that 2−1 is an irrational
number.
√
Solution We prove by method of contradiction. Assume that 2 − 1 is
irrational. Then

√ a
2−1=
b
√ a
2= +1
b
√ a+b
2=
b
Since a and b are integers, then a + b is an integer say c. Thus

√ c
2= (1.25)
b
The right side of equation (1.25) is rational by the definition of a rational
number and the left side of the equation is irrational as stated in the question.
Because
√ of this contradiction, we conclude by the method of contradiction
that 2 − 1 is an irrational number.

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 √
Exercise Show that 5 − 1 is irrational by the argument in the above exa-
mple.

2 Binary Operation on Real Numbers

Definition 2.1. Let A be a non-empty set, the a binary operation (∗) on A
is a RULE that associates each pair of elements a and b in A.
Given a set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } addition is a binary ope-
ration on N because for any elements a, b ∈ N, a + b is a number in N. For
example, 5 + 3 = 8 ∈ N.
This is the same with multiplication. However, the case is different for sub-
traction. For example, 5 − 8 = −3 ∈ / N, therefore subtraction (−) is not a
binary operation on N.

2.1 Properties of Binary Operation

Let A be a non-empty set. The operation * in set A is said to be
1. Commutative for every elements x, y ∈ A we have

x∗y =y∗x

2. Associative if for every element a, b, c ∈ A we have

(x ∗ y) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z).

Example 2.2. Define the operator ∗ on a set of real numbers R by

x ∗ y = 2xy

for all x, y ∈ R.
1. Is * a binary operation on R? Give a reason for your answer.

2. Is the operation commutative.

3. Is the operation associative.

4. Evaluate (4 ∗ 5) ∗ −3
Solution
1. * is a binary operation on R, since for every value x, y ∈ R.

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 2. commutative
We need to show that x ∗ y = y ∗ x
x ∗ y = 2xy from the given condition.
y ∗ x = 2yx = 2xy
This shows that x ∗ y = y ∗ x, and therefore * is commutative.

3. Associative
We need to show that (x ∗ y) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z)
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = (2xy) ∗ z = 2(2xyz) = 4xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (2yz) = 2(x2yz) = 4xyz This shows that (x ∗ y) ∗ z =

x ∗ (y ∗ z) and therefore * is commutative.

4.

(4 ∗ 5) ∗ −3 = (2 × 4 × 5) ∗ (−3)
= 40 ∗ (−3)
= 2 × 40 × (−3)
= −240

Example 2.3. An operation * on a set of real numbers R is defined by

x ∗ y = x + 4y

Determine whether it is a commutative and associative binary operation.

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