Understanding of Culture, Society, and Politics

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Gender)

Gender and Gender Roles

People play different roles in society depending on age and occupation. There are jobs that require a specific gender to
perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and women.

Gender

 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and females based
on certain social contexts. So a gender difference is due to nurture, and a sex difference is due to nature.
 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological (hormones) and physiological (strength and endurance)
characteristics that distinguish a male from a female.
 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine or feminine.

Examples of differences or characteristics related to sex:

 Males have testicles, female do not.

 Females have breasts, males do not.
 Female baby tends to weigh less than male baby
 Females can get pregnant, males do not.
 Males have more possibility of having mustache than females
 Males have thick voices than female
 Males have penises while female do not.

Examples of differences or characteristics related to sex:

 Women does more household work than men.

 Professions like nursing is said to be more suited for women than men
 Almost 120 years ago, women were not allowed to vote.
 In more Islamized countries, women have to cover maximum part of their body while men do not have to.

Gender Roles

 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on his or her
sex.
 For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain housewives and take care of
their children, while men are expected to be professionals and provide the needs of their family.
 Another example is that society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive while men are expected to
be strong and capable of doing things that women cannot do.

Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society

In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and privileges. Different social functions were
assigned to different members of society. There were functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both.

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Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan was also considered a healer, an adviser, and a seer.

Gender Roles in Philippine Society During the Colonial Period

 With the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of Catholicism, the babaylan lost their role in the
religious life of the community. This role was taken over by Catholic priests. Women were relegated to doing
household chores and taking care of children. More often than not, young women were not sent to school but
instead trained to be good wives and mothers for their future families. Some women were also forced to marry
for economic and political gain.
 During the American period, women had more freedom in society. They were allowed to study and work in
any field they wanted. They also adopted American values. Men and women became equal in the sense that it
became acceptable for both genders to have jobs and be educated.
 Although men and women were able to maintain their status in society during the Japanese period, women
were usually kept inside their houses to protect them from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became busy
defending the country, with most of them serving as soldiers.

Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society

What can you say about the gender roles in current Philippine society?

At present, Philippine society is more open to allowing both men and women to perform different tasks not based
solely on gender, but on an individual’s capabilities and strengths. For example, fields like engineering, architecture,
and medicine, which are often associated with men, have long been open to women. Likewise, there are also lots of
male teachers, nurses, chefs, and hairdressers nowadays.

Cultural Variation and Social Differences (Religion)

Religion as a Cultural Variation

 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.

 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within and among societies, one of which is
religion.
 Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief in
a god or a group of gods.
 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's culture.
 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief, but one's way of life.

Variety of Religion

 There are many religions around the world.

 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, and
Buddhism.
 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and practices that must be followed by its believers.
 In a society, several religions may exist, and since religion affects an individual’s way of life, we can
observe cultural variations in the form of different religions.

Religion in the Philippines

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  The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not prescribe a specific
set of activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to choose his or her own religion is
protected by the Philippine Constitution.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the
population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of inhabitants in the
archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in Philippine society today. This variation in religion is a
product of the evolution of Philippine society across time.

Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of Religion

 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through different religions in the world, more so in
Philippine society.
 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God, Hindus believe in many gods, and
Buddhists do not.
 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion influence the behavior of its followers and
their interaction with other members of society.

Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion

Because people have different religions, issues and conflicts between religious groups or denominations
cannot be prevented.

Problems or Conflicts

 Since differences in religion do not only mean worshipping different gods, conflicts sometimes arise
between believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being marginalized, while some feel like
those following other religions are taking advantage of their number.
 It may be easy to be swayed by religious differences and start a conflict. A believer or follower of a
particular religion may offend a follower of another religion if he or she imposes his or her religious
beliefs or practices.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of religious differences, and unfortunately, conflicts
continue until now due to varying religions.

Solutions or Actions

 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example, started recognizing some of the special
days celebrated by different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy Week, when Catholics commemorate the suffering
and death of Jesus Christ.
 The start and end of the Ramadan are also considered holidays, just like when the Chinese celebrate
the start of their new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of different religions to attend to their religious
obligations without work getting in the way.
 To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the key word is respect. This entails a
conscious effort to acquire cultural knowledge and understand which this course is mainly about.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Socio Economic Class)

Philippine society can be categorized into various socioeconomic classes. During prehistoric times, our
ancestors developed a society where people were assigned with different social functions. However, as
society changed, differences in societal functions became wider and more diverse.

Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period

Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community was called a barangay. It was headed by a datu or
rajah. Our ancestors were divided into three different groups−

maharlika, timawa, and alipin.

Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)

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  first social class
 composed of community leaders (datu) and their families
 also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat

Timawa (Freemen)

 second or “middle” social class

 composed of all freemen living in the barangay
 consisted of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who were not under debt bondage
 had their own properties such as houses and pieces of land to cultivate

Alipin (Slaves)

 third class
 served another person or family as payment for debt
 became slaves when their families lost to a war with another
 were not bound to their masters for life
 could go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off their debts, or if they marry a
maharlika, who will then pay for their debt
 had two kinds−

 aliping saguiguilid and aliping namamahay

Aliping Namamahay

 had their own properties such as houses or pieces of land

 often from the timawa class and became slaves because of debt or as punishment for a wrongdoing
 could go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay off their debt

Aliping saguiguilid

 did not have the right to own any property

 often came from a family of slaves or were captives in war
 could also be sold or exchanged for goods or other slaves

Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial Period

Upon the coming of the Spaniards, Philippine society changed and a new set of socioeconomic classes was
created. During this period, the people were divided based on their ancestry—peninsulares, insulares,
mestizo, and indio.

Peninsulares

 Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain

 came from the word “peninsula,” which was in direct reference to the Spanish peninsula

Insulares

 Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the Philippines
 came from the word “insular,” which means "from the islands"

Mestizos

 those of mixed ancestry

 usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish and indio couples
 had economic and political power because of their mixed heritage

Indios

 consisted of the natives

 the lowest class in society
 were stripped of their rights and freedom
 were forced to bow down to Spanish colonizers

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This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until the time when some insulares and mestizos were able
to gain some form of power. In the 19th century, the so-called “middle class” emerged—the principalia and
the ilustrados.

Principalia

 consisted of native leaders in the government and their families

 were often educated and served as gobernadorcillo (town mayor) or cabeza de barangay (barangay
leader)

Ilustrados

 the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe

 consisted mostly of the popular artists and scholars of the period, including Jose Rizal

Modern Socioeconomic Classes

Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained independence from Spain. The Americans
introduced democracy and did not impose any form of socioeconomic class in the country.

At present, a person’s position in society is baseds mainly on his or her family’s economic status. Social
stratification or the division of society based on occupation, income, wealth, or power is simpler at present
than in the past.

In 1987, the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) divided the population into high-income,
middle-income, and low-income classes.

High-income Class

 people earning an average of PhP 200,000 per month

 the “rich” class that accounts for merely one percent of the country’s total population

Middle-income Class

 people earning an average of PhP 36,000 per month

 consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs

Low-income Class

 people earning less than PhP 10,000 per month

 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners

Social Mobility

Unlike in other societies where persons born into a specific class have no choice but to die as part of the
same class, people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic
class to a higher one.

This process, called social mobility, is:

 the movement of people or families within or between different levels in society, and
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one possibly through
education or marriage.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Ethnicity)

Ethnicity and Race

Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic groups, and races. This makes society very
diverse and unique.

Ethnicity

 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a common or shared
culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
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  Here, people are divided into groups based on different social factors.

Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.

Race

 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as skin color, height,
and facial features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their physical appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major races−

 Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.

 These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the shape of the face and eyes, texture of
the hair, and other prominent physical features.

Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different ethnic groups. For example, Asians belong to
the Mongoloid race but consists of different ethnic groups like the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Malays. They all
share the same physical features but have different cultures, histories, and languages.

Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines

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There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, which are based on the language
each group uses.

 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:

1. Ilokano,
2. Kapampangan,
3. Pangasinense,
4. Tagalog,
5. Bikolano,
6. Ilonggo,
7. Cebuano, and
8. Waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan, and
Zamboangueño.

There are also indigenous groups in the country that may belong to the same ethnolingguistic groups, but
have different cultures or traditions. Some of them are the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Igorots of the
Mountain Province, and the Moros of Mindanao.

Issues About Race and Ethnicity

Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on their social affinities or physical similarities.
However, differences in ethnicity and race make some people believe that one ethnic group is superior than
others. This belief creates discrimination and prejudice against people from minorities who are perceived to
be of “inferior” ethnicity or race.

There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity or race.

Racism

 Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.

 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasoids) discriminated black Americans (Negroids) who were
descendants of immigrants from African countries.

Ethnocentricism

 Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s culture.

 Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-Muslims in Muslim countries because
of their religion.
 In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and discrimination in Christian-dominated regions
like Metro Manila. Because of the ongoing conflict in Mindanao between the government and Islamic
militants, Christians tend to think that all Muslims are terrorists.
 On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are discriminated and prejudiced against in
Muslim-dominated areas.

Discrimination against one’s race or culture may cause crimes against it.

Genocide

 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the same race, ethnic group, religion, or
nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from another ethnicity or race.
 The Holocaust during the World War II, executed by the Nazis of Germany led by Adolf Hitler,
killed millions of Jews all over Europe.

Ethnic cleansing

 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration of an ethnic group to banish them from
a certain area or territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.

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SOCIAL POLITICAL AND CULTURAL BEHAVIOR AND PHENOMENA

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize behavior and phenomena in society which are socially, politically, and culturally
significant, and
 demonstrate curiosity and open-mindedness to explore the origins and dynamics of society, culture,
and politics.

 How should members of society respond toward different social, political, and cultural behavior and
phenomena?
 What is the proper attitude toward different social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena?

Social Behavior and Phenomena

Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated sociological concepts. These involve every
event between at least two individuals and include all knowledge and experiences a person acquires in the
entirety of his or her lifetime.

Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a person’s life and
development.

The table below shows some examples of social behavior and phenomena.

Political Behavior and Phenomena

In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and
public opinion are put into practice.

A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by their political views, ideologies, and levels
of political participation. An example of an act of political behavior is the act of voting.

Political phenomena are not only limited to public offices as these also include how institutions like
schools, churches, or companies are ran and governed.

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The table below shows some examples of political behavior and phenomena.

Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Also known as the bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is an event where certain individuals behave a
certain way merely because other persons do as well.

A cultural phenomenon happens when something or someone gains widespread popularity. However, it is
noteworthy that it is not the subject that is the cultural phenomenon but rather the process of becoming
famous.

The table below shows some examples of cultural behavior and phenomena.

Learn about it!

Interactions within Society

Social, political, and cultural behaviors and phenomena in the society are results of interactions within
society. People talk and share stories. People share ways of living among other things. People do things
together and work for the attainment of the common good and social order. These behaviors, be they usual or
not, are natural responses to changes and ideologies developing within society as a result of constant
interactions between its members.

Explore!

 How should a person show curiosity about social, cultural, and political phenomena?
 Should people always be open to knowledge and experiences brought about by social, cultural, and
political behaviors? Explain your answer.

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Try it!

Aside from what was mentioned in this lesson, identify other events and classify them as either social,
cultural, or political phenomena. Write at least two for each.

What do you think?

Is it possible for a person to gain knowledge and experiences without interacting with other members of
society? Explain your answer.

Keypoints

 Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructs that influence a person’s life
and development.
 Political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and public
opinion are put into practice.
 Cultural behavior is emphasized when certain individuals behave a certain way merely because
other individuals do so as well.

The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize the importance of the study of culture, society, and politics, and
 identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology, political science, and sociology.

 What is the significance of having scientific knowledge about culture, society, and politics?
 How do the disciplines of anthropology, political science, and politics help us understand and make decisions
in society?

The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

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Culture is the focus of anthropology; society is for sociology, while politics is for political science. These
are disciplines of the social sciences.

The goal of having these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement through
the development of critical thought. Exposure to these areas of discipline exposes its learners to the
following:

 social diversity and inequality,

 self-reflective knowledge and practice,
 appreciation of complexity, and
 Advocacy for social change and order.

Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present. Dealing with what makes us
human, anthropology delves into objects and materials we have created, our interconnectedness and
adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our modes of communication, and our understanding of the
world around us.

Goals of Anthropology

 to describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind

 to describe and assess the cultural development of our species
 to explain and analyze present-day human cultural similarities and differences
 to describe and explain human biological diversity today

Political Science
Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and the analysis
of political activities and political behavior. Primarily, it helps people gain an understanding of “who gets
what, when they get it, and how they get it.”

Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior, public policy, and
philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality, fairness, and liberty, and how the said subject matters affect
economy, public and private life, law, and public services.

Goals of Political Science

 for people to be immersed in current affairs

 to build an understanding of local, national, and international politics
 to assist people in learning how political activities are organized in and out of our country
 to provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and society

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Sociology
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This discipline mainly focuses on
society—its functions, its members, and its diversity.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family, the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution, social issues on religion, crime, race, social class, and the stability
and instability of societies.

Goals of Sociology

 to guide in understanding intrapersonal factors

 to build a better understanding of mankind
 to aid in decision-making in the micro and macro level
 to gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights into what is going
on in a situation, and present alternatives

Explore!

Why is it important fo r the study of culture, society, and politics to be included in the school curriculum?

Try it!

Cite three practical situations where knowledge of anthropology, political science, and sociology can be
applied.

What do you think?

Which among the three social science disciplines is most relevant in your life?

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Tips

 The study of culture, society, and politics will prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement
through the development of critical thought.
 Learning the areas of anthropology, sociology, and political science exposes its learners to social diversity and
inequality, self-reflective knowledge and practice, appreciation of complexity, and advocacy for social change
and order.

Keypoints

 Anthropology is a social science discipline that studies humans and their society in the past and present.
 Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and the analysis
of political activity and political behavior.
 Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.

SOCIAL POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain social, cultural, and political changes,

 recognize common concerns or events within society on the phenomenon of change,
 explain the concept of social and cultural change and highlight the mechanisms, and
 analyze social, political, and cultural change within society.

How do changes in society take place?

Social and Cultural Changes

Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time. Cultural change, on the other hand, is
the transformation of culture or the way people live.

Communication

 Communication is a vital human process. Through communication, people exchange information

and thoughts.
 Nowadays, communication is made easier.
 Nowadays, people can share information in just a click. New media−

social networking, text messaging, e-mail, and the like−

 have challenged time and distance.

 While it makes the world seem borderless, this form of communication may produce individuals who
lack the basic understanding of direct and personal connections.

Transnational Families

 A transnational family is where one or both parents live and work in another country while the
children remain in their country of origin.
 While these families remain secured financially, their members are also exposed to setbacks.

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  Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves facing peer pressure, too much
independence, and lack of family orientation. These may result in alcohol or drug abuse, unwanted
pregnancy, mood swings, or early marriage.

Political Changes
Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance in the
country changes. Governance is the kind of system or ideology used to express authority in a country. It may
be a democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, and others.

Local Public Services

Local public services are provided by the government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly
(through the public sector) or by financing the provision of services.

Youth Volunteerism

Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free labor in community services.

Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools involved in social and cultural changes.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted, and
adopted by another and considered as its own.

Examples:

 Migration
 Globalization

Invention

Invention is the process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural problems.

Example: Internet

Discovery

Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing elements
present in the environment.

Example: Scientific research

Changes within Society

Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to happen. The big question, however, is what
makes it happen? Of course, there are many factors—social, political, or cultural.

Along with time, persons, environments, and ideologies change. People move in and move out. People live
and die. People's stories and experiences change. People make discoveries and innovations.

The environment changes as well—nature, water, earth, minerals, climate, seasons, sources of raw materials,
and energy.

New knowledge replaces old ones. Slavery has been banned. Civil rights were granted to those who were
once deprived of them. Same-sex marriage is on its way to worldwide recognition. Nothing is permanent but
change, so they say.

All these contribute significantly to changes people experience socially, politically, and culturally.

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Explore!

How should a person react to changes within society? Is it with acceptance or with reservation? Explain your
answer.

Try it!

Cite three societal changes. Cite one for each: social, political, and cultural changes. Identify their positive
and adverse effects.

Changes within Society

1.

2.

3.

What do you think?

Is change constant? If yes, what makes it consistent in society?

Keypoints

 Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time.

 Cultural change is the transformation of culture or the way people live.
 Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance in
the country changes.
 Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted,
and adopted by another and considered as its own.
 An invention is a process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural
problems.
 Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing
elements present in the environment.
 Changes are inevitable. Therefore, all changes−

socially, politically, and culturally−must be for the benefit of all.

Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and Society

Defining Culture and Society: The Perspectives of Anthropology and Sociology

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain anthropological and sociological perspectives on culture and society, and

 describe society and culture as a complex whole.

 Why should people use different perspectives in recognizing the existence of culture and society?
 Why is culture said to be a product of society?

Anthropology and Sociology

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Humans are interesting subjects to study. The human story has a lot to say from their way of living to the
associations they form. The two interrelated scientific studies of society colloquially known as the twin
social sciences are anthropology and sociology.

Anthropology

 Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they
behave, adapt to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.
 Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.
 The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us human (such as
physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history, and evolution) and their social aspects (such as
language, culture, politics, family, and religion).

Sociology

 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This discipline examines how
human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and by wider social, economic, and
political pressures.
 Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state,
from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole societies.

Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and

Society
In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology, on the other hand,
culture comes first as a subject matter followed by society.

Let us put the two concepts this way.

When talking about sociology, we are mostly talking about tangible factors which include language,
technology, and institutions−

 like our churches, schools, or houses.

 However, culture also has intangible aspects such as our values and behaviors. It also includes norms, the
standards or rules of acceptable behavior.

 Culture is what makes society a collective whole. It gives the community its form, shape, and identity.

 A society, in terms of sociology, is a group of people living and interacting with one another to create a
culture. Its population is bound by a shared culture−

beliefs, attitudes, languages, and institutions.

Society and Culture as a Complex Whole

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
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  With this premise, it can be said that culture is a product of society. These two exist dependently on
each other.
 Culture , just like every person in society, is susceptible to change or death.
 Society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture changes along.
New trends exist. New technologies are invented and new means of interaction have been created.
 People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws, values, and
standards of society.

Explore!

Think about the different factors involved in shaping society and culture. How do they affect continuous
societal and cultural changes?

Try it!

Identify three societies or groups of people. Write at least three characteristics for each group.

What do you think?

What is the dividing line between anthropology and sociology? Culture and society?

Keypoints

 Anthropology is the study of humans' evolutionary history and how people behave, adjust,
communicate, and socialize in different environments.
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their interrelationships.
 Culture is a way of life of a group of people. It involves symbols, languages, values, and norms.
 Society is a community or group of people joined together by sustained bonds and interactions.

Aspects of Culture and Society I (Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive; and

Shared & Contested)

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define society and culture,

 explain the relationship of culture and society,
 identify aspects of culture and society,
 prove that culture is dynamic, flexible and adaptive,
 prove that culture is shared and contested, and
 raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.

 Is there something unique that only your family does?

 Do you practice a certain custom or celebrate a special feast in your province?

Culture and Society

Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.

Culture

 According to Edward B. Tylor, culture is "that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices,
values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and
shares as a member of society."
 Culture also encompasses social institutions like the family, church, school, and government.
 Our culture defines who we are.
17
  Whatever it is that we do is part of our culture.

Society

 Society can be defined as the interaction among people where a common culture can be shared.
 Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same culture.
 A common location may not just develop a common culture. It can also be formed by gender, shared
beliefs, values, norms, or activities.

For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be sweet and caring.

Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?

The Relationship of Culture and Society

Culture and society are two closely related concepts. For culture to exist and to be developed, it needs human
interaction. It needs people to interact with one another, and it needs people to practice it continuously.
Without a society practicing their common culture, the culture may cease to exist.

Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and will not continue to
thrive. A society without culture is like a body without a soul and vice versa. Culture and society need each
other so they can both develop and prosper.

Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

There are different aspects of culture like art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name
a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously restores itself whenever
customs do not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Examples:

 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The traditional music
during the 1920s was mostly jazz, ragtime, and broadway music while the popular music during the
1970s was disco music.
 Because we are now more inclined to use computers and tablets especially when playing games,
some children are not able to play street games anymore. This pushed some game developers to
introduce Filipino street games as video games.
 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times. We have already
developed new words related to the internet like memes, netizens, vines, and others.

Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning
experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people.

18
if culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture is
subjected to debate and analysis.

Explore!

Observe your interaction with your classmates. Try to identify what common culture you and your
classmates share that made you become friends.

Try it!

Try to ask your parents about popular songs and dances during their teenage years. Find out how different
they are from yours and how much they have changed.

What do you think?

Tips

 Our society needs to preserve and promulgate our indigenous culture so that we can maintain our
identity as a nation.
 Culture changes and adapts to current society, but that does not mean that our traditional culture
should be forgotten.
 Different cultures exist in the world, but there is no culture greater than another. We should learn to
accept our differences, help other cultures learn ours, and learn other cultures as well.
 We should not judge the customs, norms, and beliefs of others because those are part of their unique
culture.

Keypoints

 Culture is a set of behaviors that we have absorbed. It is a set of characteristics that help us relate
and bond with other people.
 Society is a group of individuals coming from the same place and shares the same culture.
 It is crucial to preserve and promulgate our culture and traditions if we want to keep them alive. We
are facing lots of changes, developments, and technological advances today that we tend to forget to
look back on our old culture and traditions.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It changes based on the current situation of society.
Culture continuously restores itself so it will remain relevant.
 Culture is best learned when it is shared. There are a lot of cultures that exists in our world. We need
to share our unique culture with others to get to know theirs and also spread ours.
 While it is learned and shared, culture is also contested. Because of diversity, culture is subject to
debate and analysis.

19
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Defining Culture and Society: The Perspectives of Anthropology and Sociology

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 discuss the differences of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism,

 explain why and how cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism, and
 explain the importance of cultural relativism in the proper understanding of cultures of other societies.

 How should we view and understand different cultures?

 How can cultural relativism help us better understand and evaluate other cultures?

Ethnocentrism
People have a tendency to judge or evaluate other cultures in the context of their own culture. Language,
behavior, customs, or religion, which are understandably unique for every culture are the common subjects
of these judgments. Sociologically speaking, this ideology or tendency is known as ethnocentrism.

Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior than others'. It is also the belief that
one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures may be measured or understood.
Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and its aspects in a wider or encompassing perspective.
It may cause people to practice bias and intolerance.

Seeing the belief and behavior of others which are different from yours as brutish, confusing, or unbecoming
is an ethnocentric thought or behavior. The tendency to be avoidant, doubting, or questioning towards
members of another culture is also a manifestation of ethnocentrism.

Cultural Relativism
Not all people are ethnocentric. There are those who use wider perspectives in associating their culture from
another’s. There are people who accept and respect the evident differences of members of the society. When
people recognize that each culture is naturally different from others, that is cultural relativism. Cultural
relativism does not mean that we should immediately accept and tolerate cultural differences. Instead, it
requires understanding the culture of other people in their own cultural context that is free from another’s
biases.
20
Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and
should be treated as such. According to Franz Boas (1887), "...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is
relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes."

With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be evaluated not based on their own
cultural context but on the social community the people themselves inhabit. Cultural relativism means
respect and tolerance.

In conducting their sociological studies, social scientists are recommended to practice or show cultural
relativism. There should be no reservations and blind opinions while they are immersed in the community of
their subjects. One may also practice this concept by learning and recognizing that there are reasons or
cultural significance of why people of a certain community act and talk the way they do.

How Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism?

It is believed that each person, in one way or another, possesses an ethnocentric attitude or behavior. There is
nothing wrong with having such because, unlike social scientists or anthropologists, not all people are
equipped with sufficient knowledge and exposure to cultures across the globe, thus, the hardship in
understanding and tolerating others' acts and values. However, we also have to recognize that ethnocentric
behavior, if not controlled, may cause trouble to oneself, especially in this modern time when everyone calls
for social or cultural inclusion.

Historically, colonialism was justified by ethnocentrism. When Europeans reached the areas populated by the
natives whom they considered as uncivilized and savage, they saw the promise to civilize and tame them
through religion (Christianity) and colonialism. Despite its advantages, we can say that the Age of
Exploration changed the course of world history in a way which deprived the conquered.

It is widely believed in the field of sociology that ethnocentric behavior may be mitigated through the
recognition and application of cultural relativism. A person can practice cultural relativism by recognizing
that culture shapes what is considered to be beautiful, ugly, appealing, disgusting, virtuous, funny, and
abhorrent, and that these should not be the basis for evaluating other cultures. Cultural relativism shapes our
understanding of different issues in the society−

as to why certain religions believe in this and others do not, or how come this group eats this type of dish, wears this
weird clothing, sings and dances along to music while others prefer not to. What we need is an open heart and an
unbiased and critical mind, exposure, education, and involvement in activities, and programs supporting and
recognizing the uniqueness and beauty of every culture for us to truly grasp what cultural relativism means.

Explore!

What actions can social institutions present to promote cultural relativism and mitigate ethnocentrism?

Try it!

Give three personal stories wherein you have shown or practiced ethnocentrism or cultural relativism.

What do you think?

Is it possible for a society to have individuals who do not practice ethnocentrism?

Keypoints

 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures may be
measured. It is also the tendency to think of one’s culture as superior to other cultures.
 Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and
should be treated as such. It calls for an unbiased evaluation and understanding of other cultures.
 Recognizing and applying cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism.

21
Biological Evolution of Man
Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans, and

 recognize national, local, and specialized museums, and archaeological and historical sites as venues to
appreciate and reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution as part of being and becoming
human.

 What does the biological evolution of man refer to?

 How can we trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans?
 What physical and biological factors have greatly developed throughout the evolution of the human species?


Biological Evolution of Man

The current biological makeup (character/face) of humans has long and complex origins. The biological
evolution of man refers to the long evolutionary history of the human species from primates (apes,
monkeys) to its current form, the Homo sapiens. Evolution is not an overnight phenomenon (occurrence) It
took millions of years to end up with the specific set of biological traits that humanity presently has. In this
lesson, the origin, factors, and developments involved in this evolutionary process will be discussed.

The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution

Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time.
Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment while some faced extinction (loss) for
being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to the genus (genre, types ) Homo, are seen as
by-products of events and processes that occurred in the past.

Human evolution, however, must not be seen as a linear (true) process. Scientists argued that human
evolution developed much like the branches of a tree wherein each branch extends into smaller, more
specific stems. It just so happened that among all stems, only one evolutionary profile—the current human
being—was able to adapt and further develop.

The Transition from Early to Modern Humans

The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical and biological makeup took
millions of years to complete. Despite this, scientists, through the help of archaeologitransitions ciating cal
pieces of evidence and modern technology, were able to identify and distinguish distinct transitional stages
of human evolution. These stages are described below.

22
The Significance of Artefactual Evidences in Understanding
Evolution
Artefactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the developments
that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution. Early human species were discovered through
fossils (relics)which are remains preserved in rock. Scientists study the structure, shape, and development of
skeletal properties including head shape and teeth to determine biological differences across early to modern
species.

Artefactual evidences can also include tools that are used for hunting and gathering or symbolic writing
found in caves. As mentioned previously, these were used by the Homo erectus, though scientists are still
hoping to find further evolutionary data on other species. Below are some authentic examples of artefactual
evidences that greatly contributed in understanding human evolution.

 An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool served
as evidence for early hunting practices and carnivorous diet among early stone-tool making humans,
the Oldowan hominin.
 A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized leaves and grasses made archaeologists
believe that cooking food was practiced among early humans.

Appreciating the Past through the Present

It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments. Nowadays, technological
advances has made delving into the past more accessible. Interactive and national museums, for example,
make great venues for learning more about the prehistoric past. The great biological evolution that the human
species has been through is complex and developmental. As human beings, we are called to understand and
appreciate these advances.

Explore!

The development of humans have persisted for millions of years. These evolutionary processes have been
greatly influenced by natural phenomenon such as climate change, natural disasters, or the development of
other species. Through research, explore how these natural phenomena might have affected human
evolutionary development.

23
Try it!

Visit the National Museum or any museum near your area of residence. Immerse yourself in the
archaeological findings featured in the museum. Since the museum has several sections, it is highly
recommended that you devote time to visit each area. Note the differences in biological makeup and lifestyle
of different human species featured at the galleries.

What do you think?

Is there a possibility of finding evidence for a new human species that existed in the past? Why? Why not?

Tips

 Human evolution always moves forward. It is unlikely that humans will regress in terms of physical and
biological makeup in the coming centuries.
 Note that before the existence of the genus Homo, the Australopithecines first emerged. They are the earlier
part of human evolutionary transition.

Keypoints

 Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of time.
 Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather as branches wherein each branch extends
into smaller, more specific stems.
 The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens
from the genus Homo.
 Fossils are artifactual remains that were preserved in rock.

Cultural Evolution of Man

Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of cultural evolution, and

 trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans.

 What is cultural evolution?

 How can we trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans?

Mobile phones are already part of our everyday lives. In a way, they represent technological advancements
due to constant changes in their key features.

This evolution and development of mobile phones only show how culture changes through time. From the
early writings of the cuneiform up to the present features of the different units of smartphones and tablets, we
can say that the way of life of people constantly changes. This concept is called cultural evolution.

What is Cultural Evolution?

24
Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, and languages
of humans over time. It proposes that as humans transform themselves, their culture becomes progressively
complex due to social, environmental, and biological factors.

The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back to the beginning of the Stone Age when they
started creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the earliest known period of human culture which
started roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE. This period is also known as
the prehistoric period because writing was not yet invented during this time. It is divided into three separate
periods:

 Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),

 Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
 New Stone Age (Neolithic).

Paleolithic Period
The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation and use of crude
stone tools which are the most primitive among the three periods. The word "paleolithic" is derived from the
Greek words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) to collectively mean "old stone age."

The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and stones that changed their
diet and food consumption. Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of the early humans during the
Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals based on nature and developed their own language
based on sounds and hand signals.

Mesolithic Period
The Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered as the transition period
between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is derived from the Greek words mesos
(middle) and lithos (stone) that collectively mean "middle stone age."

Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They also started to form their
own settlements and communities. Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the primary activities of the
early humans. They also started to use microliths or smaller and more delicate stone tools.

Neolithic Period
The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) that collective
translates to "new stone age."

The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point, modern humans started
to exist. From being food gatherers, they became food producers and introduced the concept of farming.
They also became herders from being hunters during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. They crafted
better stone tools and invented the axe. Pots and jars were evident during this period which served as their
food containers and storage. Modern humans also formed their permanent homes and started to have their
own tribes and villages.

Explore!

Based on the development of human culture during the Stone Age and the previous lesson on biological
evolution, who were the humans that existed during the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods? What
would be your justification or supporting evidence that these humans existed during those periods?

Try it!

Make a table of the three periods of stone age and compare the different contributions of each stage. Why do
you think these periods are important in the study of the evolution of human culture?

25
What do you think?

Following the timeline of the cultural evolution from the Paleolithic period up to the Neolithic period, what
do you think would be the next step of human development?

Keypoints

 Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes,
and languages change over time.
 The Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when the early humans started the
use of weapons and tools made out of stones.
 The Paleolithic period was the first stage of the Stone Age. In this age, the early humans began to use fire
and stone tools. Hunting, fishing, and other practices such as religious rituals based on nature and language
based on sounds or hand signals also emerged during this period.
 The Mesolithic period was the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. It witnessed
the gradual transformation of human culture such as the domestication of plants and animals, formation of
settlements and communities, and food gathering.
 The Neolithic period was the last stage of the Stone age. This period was when modern humans started to
exist. Modern humans introduced farming, started herding animals, and formed their permanent homes and
settlements.

Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Neolithic Revolution

Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of
agriculture and settlement,
 discuss the implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the evolutionary process, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural
and sociopolitical processes.

From a prehistoric hunting and gathering society, modern society has indeed faced lots of changes and
development.

How is modern society able to achieve its current form from such simple beginnings?

Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle. As such, developments in human life also occurred in
response to the natural environment. In this lesson, a significant era of sociopolitical evolution will be
tackled—the Neolithic Revolution.

The Neolithic Revolution

26
The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They were nomadic people who could
easily transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and survival. This
had been the practice until around 12,000 BCE when humans started to domesticate animals and crops. This
era of this newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution.

From hunter-gatherers or nomads (no permanent na tirahan), people became farmers through domestication
(training), the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits
that will make them useful for other human needs. The domestication of animals and plants implied that
humans stayed in a particular area to enable their resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals
utilized for domestication included wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.

One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the country
of Iraq. It was believed that it concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in China, the Americas, and
Africa.

Implications (Effects) of the Neolithic Revolution to the

Evolutionary Process
The Neolithic Revolution facilitated an economic and societal shift that paved the way for further
developments in the early human lifestyle. As such, advances in different aspects of human life started
during this era.

Below are the implications of the Neolithic Revolution in sociopolitical, economic, and human development.

Sociopolitical Development

 The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through permanent settlements
dictated by reliable food supply.
 Development in domestication techniques and practices allow for a more complex society and the
possibility for urbanization.
 With the emergence of towns and cities came the birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to the
economy and a hierarchical society with public leaders and castes.
 A form of social stratification was developed. This created the idea of inequality and ideas of social
power and influence.

Economic Developments

 Because of the domestication of crops and animals, abundant supplies of food and resources were
maintained.
 A selective breeding process of plants and animals that would allow for the development of new
species was introduced.

Biological Developments

 There was increase in lifespan and human population across civilizations.

 People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers (e.g. craftsman, priest, leader).

Evidence for the Existence of the Neolithic Revolution

Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development.

Here are some actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.

 There were morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size and mandible and
simple dietary changes from solely eating plants to consumption of meat.
 A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to have been built during the Neolithic
Revolution and served as a communal storage facility.
 Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but during the Neolithic Revolution, there was an
increased caries rate. Neolithic teeth were also more worn down and pitted, owing to hard inclusions
from poorly grounded flour.
 Molleson (1994) has proven that there were changes in the bones of women that were task-related
and associated with cereal grinding.
27
Explore!

Agriculture considerably expanded throughout the Neolithic revolution. Because of this era, domestication
and pastoralism were discovered as sustainable ways of living. Systems and tools were also developed. As
such, civilization was formed.

In your perspective, what could have been the implication if the early humans did not discover the method of
domestication and farming?

Try it!

Using a video streaming website, watch videos that detail the Neolithic Revolution and its significance in the
development of societies. Try to note the significant implications and contributions of the Neolithic
Revolution to the present community and survival practices.

What do you think?

Why is the Neolithic period called a revolution?

Tips

 The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic Revolution occurred gradually. It took
thousands of years for this change to happen.
 If you look at a map of early civilizations under the Neolithic period, you will notice that all early
civilizations were situated near a body of water. This was strategically done by early humans because
bodies of water may also function as a source of food and other resources.

Keypoints

 The Neolithic Revolution was a period where agriculture and farming became prominent through
plant and animal domestication.
 Domestication is the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate
certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs.
 One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamiawhich is, at present, the
country of Iraq.
 The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and human implications to the evolutionary
process.
 A form of social stratification was developed. This created idea of inequality and ideas of social
power and influence.
 Many artifactual evidences prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development.

Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Early Civilizations and the Rise of States

Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from the rise of civilizations to the development of states,
 discuss the implications of the rise of civilizations and development of states to human biocultural
and social evolution, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural
and social, including political and economic, processes.

28
From a hunting-gathering lifestyle to a Neolithic society, major changes took place in terms of
socioeconomic factors of early human life. Despite this already drastic (extreme or strong) movement,
human lifestyle continued to develop into more organized socioeconomic and political systems.

 What factors contributed to these changes?

 How did these developments influence future sociopolitical movements and policies?
 The Neolithic revolution, through the domestication of plants and animals, paved the way for the
beginnings of early civilizations like Mesopotamia. In this lesson, the development and implications
of these civilizations will be discussed and explained.
 The Rise of Civilizations
 Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period when the early humans learned to settle in
just one area to domesticate plants and animals for survival. The first civilizations were found mostly
in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was part of the Fertile
Crescent, an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the “cradle of civilization” and the
birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area. This
area housed two bodies of water, the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also valuable
resources for the early civilizations.
 During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that treated both genders equally as
the first labor only involved farming, domestication, and harvesting. Though this may be the case,
social roles began to emerge, with some members of the community becoming priests or priestesses,
laborers, and farmers.

The Development of States

In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two significant developments took place that
influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations.

These were:

 the rise of states, and

 the invention of writing.

Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades among different regions. The early
civilizations would have had some form of writing to document or record traces of their products and deals.

During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with prosperity, leading to the
development of cities and changes in sociopolitical positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship to
replace priestly rule. This was done to foresee the flow of trade and negotiations with other regions. This era
gave rise to numerous developments such as the invention of the wheel and the transition from the use of
stone tools to copper tools.

In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced with bronze tools.
Along with this, the rise of city-states continued to flourish, thereby laying out a foundation for economic
and political stability. As a result, more empires, civilizations, and states began to rise and develop.

Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States

The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization (expansion), economic focus, political power, and
material development. These changes allowed both positive and negative implications that directly affected
future developments in the sociopolitical evolution of men.

Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states.

 Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them. Soon, professional
armies and weaponry began to make their appearance.
 Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of civilizations and
states. During this time, people began to discover various raw materials, such as iron, copper, and
bronze for making tools and weapons.
 Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, leadership among city-states began to
be more organized and developed. With the kingship system replacing the priestly leaders, each state
had its executive branch that centralized decisions and communications with other states.

Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and States

29
Artifactual evidence prove the existence and occurrence of early civilizations and states.

Here are some of the actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.

 In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-wheeled wagons that
dated back to the time of Mesopotamia.
 Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during 10,000 BCE.

Explore!

The developments within the Fertile Crescent, specifically in Mesopotamia, generated numerous
contributions to contemporary lifestyle and practices. Because of this, the early civilizations became an
important aspect of history. It was during this period that an organized sociopolitical and economic structure
was established.

If you were an archaeologist, what aspect of the early civilizations would you prefer to focus on?

Try it!

Using clay and other art materials, create your structure of the early civilizations and states. You may choose
one civilization (e.g. Mesopotamia) or one area of early life (e.g. trading or farming). It is your prerogative to
incorporate any structure that you think might exist during the period. Use your learning in this lesson as a
guide.

What do you think?

What form of sociopolitical development would have risen from the implications of the rise of states and
civilizations?

Tips

 Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to “between two rivers”. This translation refers to the rivers Tigris
and Euphrates that surround the land.
 The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before the Egyptian civilization. After the Middle
Eastern civilization began, Egyptian civilization soon developed along the Nile River.

Keypoints

 The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia which is
now Iraq.
 The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the “cradle of
civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its
fertile land area.
 In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two important developments took place that
influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations. These were the rise of
states and the invention of writing.
 The implications of the rise of civilizations and states include warfare, developments in metalwork,
and changes in political systems.

Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Democratization

Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

30
  explain democratization as a sociopolitical evolution, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural, social,
political, and economic processes.

 What is democratization?
 How did democratization start?
 he early civilizations created new environments, called city-states which introduced new
developments in various aspects of life. What outcomes have led to these continuous progress and
ventures?
 The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for the introduction of new developments
during the Copper and Bronze Age. Now, we look at how those impacted the following periods and
developments.
 Democracy and Democratization
Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.
Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes from the Greek words demos, which means
"people," and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often traced back to the Greeks,
particularly the Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive democracy is said
to have existed during the hunting and gathering period in independent tribes.
 The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct democracy
where citizens participate directly in decision-making. On the other hand, the evolved form of
democracy−
 **representative democracy**−
 that became widespread in nation-states is where officials are elected to represent a group of people.

Historical Path to a Democratic City-State

Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby civilizations of Greece and
Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the farming culture developed by the Mesopotamians, even
following the latter’s sociopolitical structure of kingship. Eventually, they were able to engage in trade as
their resources highly developed and impacted socioeconomic growth.

Greece

 Societal status and groups began to develop:

o the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
o the aristocracies and noblemen, then
o the farmers.
 Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social classes.
 Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform themselves into wealth-laden rulers just like their
predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the period was iron, a
relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze. If the king sought greater power, he would not be able
to do so easily since weaponry and machinery, primarily made of iron, were much cheaper, and could
be afforded by practically anyone within the city-state.

In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen gathered together and
ousted him, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.

The Beginnings of Democratization

The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the rise of democratization in
societies.

Oligarchy-a country, business, etc., that is controlled by small group of people; a

government in which a small group exercises control especially for corrupt and selfish
purposes

 Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.

 City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy where rulers were from aristocratic
families.
 Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-states, even ordinary
people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against drastic changes.

31
  The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary people also used
their collective power against an abusive government.

Tyranny- a cruel and unfair treatment by people with power over others; a government in
which all power belongs to one person;

 Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in effect, were ruled by a tyrant, a positive
term for a Greek leader that means “boss.”
 Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
 For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
 In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong and abusive
decisions that eventually lead to another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.

Birth of Democracy

 Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed that power must be
held by the common people.
 This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the city-states to have a
democratic setting.
 In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of democracy in
Greece.

It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this ruling, especially the poorer, more
backward areas. Still, the political change in Greece soon led Rome to follow a democratic ruling thereafter.

Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making during this time was limited to
males and therefore, did not encompass the total population.

Significance and Implications of Democratization

The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary people by reducing
inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The beginnings of democratization in Greece laid a
foundation for modern-day democracy.

Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications that
eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations from any other ancient civilization.

Below are some artifactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of democratization.

 Greek literature began its ascent as poet Homer created his epics, the Iliad and theOdyssey.
 Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical Greek structures upon the
rise of democratization.

Explore!

Attaining democracy in Greek antiquity involved lots of shifts in leadership and political functions like
kingship, oligarchy, and tyranny. If you were living during this period, which among these forms of
leadership would you have preferred to be part of? Why?

Try it!

The rise of democracy led to numerous cultural and artistic reforms among Greeks and Romans. Try to
search videos or pictures of Greek and Roman art. Compare them and cite commonalities and differences
that you may observe.

What do you think?

The United States and the Philippines are democratic countries. How do you think citizens from these
countries still affect or influence the decision-making process that involves the welfare of these nations?

32
Keypoints

 In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the king bearing the highest position in all Greek
city-states, followed by the aristocracies and noblemen, then the farmers.
 In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen collectively acted on
ousting him, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.
 It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of
democracy in Greece.
 The establishment of a democratic government had cultural and artistic implications.
 Wars and tensions across Greece and between city-states were one of the primary factors in the rise of
democracy.

Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation (Identities, Disciplines, and Aspirations)

Becoming a Member of Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the different concepts regarding enculturation and socialization,
 discuss the development of one’s self and others as a product of enculturation and socialization, and
 prove that identity, disciplines, and aspirations are necessary for the development of personal and
cultural identity.

 What does it mean to be a person?

 In a society where there are many cultures, how do you form your personal identity?

Enculturation and Socialization

What is the difference between socialization and enculturation? How is enculturation related to socialization?

Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society share
many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create ones that differentiate them from
others in society.

Enculturation

 the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is immersed
(absorbed or occupied)
 the process by which an individual learns the traditional content of a culture and assimilates (embraces or
integrates) its practices and values


Socialization

It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations and values as
members of society.

Study the chart that further explains the differences and relationships of socialization and enculturation.

33
Identity Formation
Identity formation starts when one learns to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors, language,
morals, and norms of where he or she belongs in. However, as a person grows, he or she learns to make his
or her own set of beliefs, values, and morals. This is how a person develops an identity. This is what makes a
person different from others.

Identity

Identity is what makes a person distinct (different) from others. It is the total knowledge and understanding
of an individual about who he or she is.

Types of Identity

1. Personal

 the concept an individual develops about himself or herself

 the sense of oneself as a distinct or unique individual
 may depend on the age and circumstances (conditions) of a person

Example: Rolen is an African girl. She is the most quiet student in her class. She believes that time is gold,
so spends her free time studying her lessons.

2. Cultural

 the identity of the culture to which a person belongs in

 the feeling or sense of belongingness to a group
 a collective sense of companionship (friendship/camaraderie) that involves the same beliefs, interests,
and fundamental principles of living

Example: In the Philippines, the Agta tribe has been practicing a unique culture for centuries. Old men wear
the bahag, a unique style of clothing. They prefer to stay in the forest than to stay in lowlands. They mainly
look for natural food sources.

Study the chart that further explains the two types of identity.

34
What is your personal identity/cultural identity?

Discipline
 a way of behaving that expresses a willingness to obey rules or laws
 behavior that is judged by how well a person follows a set of rules or orders

Kinds of Discipline

Discipline is categorized into different types.

1. Discipline of Nature or Reality

A person meets this kind of control every time he or she tries to do something. A person learns to do things
on his or her own without the supervision of others.

Example: Ryan rented a bicycle near his town. He does not know yet how to ride the bike. He fell many
times, but he did not stop trying. He was so motivated to learn how to ride the bike that he tried to learn on
his own, and eventually, he was able to ride it.

2. Discipline of Culture or Society

What this discipline instills (infuses) in every culture is distinct, different, and unique. A person learns
according to what he sees in his society or his culture.

Example: Mika wears the trendiest dresses these days. She wears them so she can be “in” with the latest
social trends.

3. Discipline of Superior Force

This discipline is the opposite of the discipline of nature or reality. In this training, a person learns through
supervision and guidance.

Example: A single mother raised Patricia. Her mother always reminded her not to fall in love because of her
personal idea that men are cheaters. Even if Patricia does not know how it feels to be brokenhearted, she
does not entertain any suitor.

Development of Personal Identity and Aspirations (targets, aims)

Personal identity develops in many ways, depending on preferred directions.

 It may be through enculturation and socialization.

 It may also come through observation of a role model.
 You tend to imitate a successful person that leads to changes in personality.
 Your personal identity may change and eventually, you may develop a clear sense of yourself.

Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
35
Example: Rico at 20 years old identified himself as a happy-go-lucky guy. He might discover that, at 35
years old, he is a different person. Perhaps he is living a good life with his family. He would like his children
to have a comfortable life in the future.

Explore!

Observe the different political parties in our country. Can you describe the differences between the Liberal
Party (LP), the United Oppositions (UNO), and the People’s Reform Party (PRP) in the context of different
cultures?

Try it!

Ask two persons about their personal identity development and aspirations. Compare them with yours.

What do you think?

Is there a difference between one’s thoughts or feelings and one’s behavior? When is it enculturation? When
is it socialization?

Keypoints

 Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in
which an individual is immersed.
 Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms,
expectations, and values as a member of the society.
 Identity formation starts when you learn to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors,
language, morals, and norms of where you belong in.
 Identity is the total knowledge and understanding of a person of who he or she is.
 Discipline is the control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed and punishing bad
behavior.
 Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.

Enculturation/Socialization: Norms and Values

Becoming a Member of Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain different concepts of norms and values,

 discuss the relations and functions of norms and values, and
 prove that norms and values are essential factors in the development of one’s self, others, and the
community as a product of enculturation and socialization.

What characteristics should a person demonstrate to be considered as a useful member of society?

36
Review!

Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society share
many of the same expectations and experiences, cultural groups create ones that differentiate us from others
in society.

Socialization

It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and values as
members of society.

Enculturation

It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is
immersed in.

For society to function well, it must be guided by cultural principles of behavior to maintain stability, peace,
and harmony. Every society has its set of accepted norms and values of its culture that is socially accepted.

Norms (rules, standards, median)

Norms are standards or sets of accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow or exemplify in the
society where he or she belongs in. It pertains to specific guidelines of conduct in society that guides its
members on how to act in particular situations.

Classification of Norms

Norms can be classified in many ways. Norms are either formal or informal.

37
Norms are also categorized by their relative importance to society. This classification is distinguished from
the intensity of feelings they initiate and the consequences that flow from violations of them.

Folkways

They are the customs of people that came from repetition and routines.

Examples:

 the practice of waiting in line

 courtesy to older people

Mores

 stricter than folkways

 determines what is the moral and ethical behavior
 dictates what is right and wrong

Examples:

 religious doctrines such as the prohibition of pre-marital sex

 the belief that forms of discrimination and suppression are unethical ([Link] and sexism)

Taboos

 very strong negative norms

 strict prohibition of certain behaviors that society holds firmly
 violating it results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society

Examples:

 cannibalism
 incest

Laws

 formally instituted by the government

 exist because its violation can result in injury or harm to other members of society
 impose sanction on people who disobey the authority

Examples:

 curfews for minors

 laws against domestic violence

Values
Values refer to the abstract idea of people about what is necessary or worthwhile. Values are general
guidelines that are fundamental parts of our lives. They stand for the things we believe in. Most of the values
we have are learned from family, friends, school, media, and other sources in society.

Classification of Values

Values can be classified into two types.

1. Individual Values

These values are those that are connected with the development of human personality.

Examples: honesty, loyalty, honor

2. Collective Values

These values are those that are connected with the development of unity in the community or society.
38
Examples: equality, justice, solidarity

Relationship Between Norms and Values

Here are some significant relationships between norms and values.

Functions of Social Norms and Values

Values (morals, ethics, principles) are general guidelines which govern our daily behavior. They are the
guidelines for our judgments, thereby playing a vital role in the maintenance of stability and harmony in
society.

Norms (rules, standards, medians) are specific guidelines which allow us to function or act appropriately
in society. They are a set of behaviors that is perceived to be acceptable to its members. Following norms
results in social order and gives a feeling of security, safety, and harmony.

Social norms and values perform the following primary functions:

Explore!

What are the norms that should be observed during class discussions and examinations?

Try it!

Form a group composed of five persons. Discuss and decide on the top five critical values that society must
uphold based on the issues and challenges that the nation is currently facing.

39
What do you think?

If a person leaves his present society and transfers to a new one, it is possible that his personal values will
also change?

Keypoints

 Norms are the standard or accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow in society. They are either
formal or informal.
 Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. They are folkways, mores, taboos,
and laws.
 Values may be explained as measures of goodness or desirability. They are classified as either
individual values or collective values.
 Values provide the justifications for accepting or rejecting specific norms.
 Norms and values are critical factors in the development of one’s self, others, and the community as a
product of enculturation and socialization.

Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles

Becoming a Member of Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the different concepts regarding statuses and roles as part of the social structure,
 identify statuses and roles played by oneself and others in the community, and
 evaluate the impact of the various statuses and roles of people for the attainment of society's goals.

You have a friend named Paulene, a 30-year-old Filipino-Indian female from New Delhi. She grew up in
slum areas. Paulene knew at an early age that she wanted to be a lawyer. She graduated from college with
flying colors and was eventually accepted as a scholar at a prestigious law school. Now, at the age of 30, she
works as a lawyer in a private company in the United Kingdom. It was there that she met her better half with
whom she has four children.

 Can you name Paulene’s roles and statuses?

 What typical roles and statuses do people play in society?

40
Review!

Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society share
many of the same expectations and experiences, cultural groups create ones that differentiate us from others
in society.

Socialization

It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and values as
members of society.

Enculturation

It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person is
immersed in.

Learn about it!

Statuses
Our society is guided by a network of similar statuses and roles that govern human interactions that we call
social structure. It also refers to the manner in which society is arranged into predictable interactions.

Status

 describes the position an individual occupies in a particular setting, in a group, or in society

 defines and clarifies the rights and obligations expected from a person

Example: a farm boy, a teacher, a human rights defender

Classifications of Statuses

There are three kinds of statuses.

1. Ascribed Status

 a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by birth
 inherited and not based on the person’s abilities, accomplishments, or efforts
 can be rigid and unchanging since it is given to a person when he is born and is often involuntary

Example: a Filipino national, a male or a female, a king or a queen, a son of a vendor, a firstborn

2. Achieved Status

 a position one holds in a social system that one attains based on merit or effort
 acquired due to unique skills, knowledge, or abilities, and are based on standards that can be controlled
 a position that has been earned or chosen and is mostly dictated by abilities, skills, and life choices

Example: a student, an employee, a doctor, an artist

3. Master Status

 the greatest role in a person’s life that determines social identity and general position in society
 can be based on any status, such as gender, ethnicity, economic status, religious or spiritual tradition,
employment status, or family responsibility such as a parent or grandparent
 may come with a sense of prestige for some[% - %]the consensus from the community around them that a
status is to be desired

Example: a CEO, an activist, a Pope

41
The chart shows the differences among the three statuses.

Learn about it!

Roles
 expectations that are set for a person given the status he or she occupies
 pertains to the norms, behaviors, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to the status of
the person

Examples:

 Status: student

Roles: attending classes, studying lessons, communicating with the teacher

 Status: teacher

Roles: teaching, giving feedback, assessing or evaluating the performance of the students

 Status: call center agent

Roles: answering questions, solving problems, researching information

The chart below shows the different statuses and their corresponding roles.

Role Exit and Role Conflict

What are some issues concerning roles?

Role exit pertains to the course of disengaging a person from his or her role that is essential to his or her self-
identity.

Example: when a person retires from a long career and must shift from the role of an employee with
responsibilities to someone just living a comfortable life, or when an individual becomes a parent and has to
change their lifestyle.

Role conflict arises when incompatible expectations occur from two or more statuses that a person is
occupying. Performing the assigned role of one status makes it challenging for the person to play the
assigned role of another status.

Example: It is very challenging for a woman to be the best mother to her children and the best employee to
her company all at the same time.

The Impact of Statuses and Roles in Attaining Society’s Goals

As members of society, people acquire statuses and roles which are necessary for socializing within their
society. These statuses and roles are important elements in the process of socialization because they serve as
agents for the fulfillment of society’s goals.

We are all encouraged to fulfill the roles of the statuses we are occupying at present and in the future stages
of our lives for us to be better members of the community.

Think of your parents or your guardians. What are the multiple statuses they are occupying at present and the
roles attached to those statuses?

Try it!

List at least three (3) roles for each status.

42
  male or female
 police officer
 business tycoon

What do you think?

What do you think will happen to society if its members fail to fulfill the roles of their respective statuses?

Keypoints

 Status refers to the particular position that a person occupies in a particular scenario or setup.
 Roles refer to the norms, customs, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to the status
of the individual.
 Ascribed status is a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by
birth.
 Achieved status is an acquired position due to unique skills, knowledge, or ability and are based on
standards that can be controlled.
 Master status pertains to the status of the person which determines his or her general position in
society.
 Role conflict takes place when two or more statuses are incompatible.
 Role exit pertains to the course of disengagement of a person from his or her role that is essential to
his or her self-identity.

Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance

Becoming a Member of Society

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 describe deviance as explained by the Structural Strain Theory, and

 identify the forms of deviance.

 What causes deviant responses or behaviors as explained by the Structural Strain Theory?
 What are the different forms of deviance?

Review

Conformity and Deviance

The concept of conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms to be acceptable in a
particular society, group, or social setting.

Deviance, on the other hand, is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or
norms of a particular group or society.

Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior deviant, but the
same behavior may be acceptable in another society.

Deviance as Explained by the Structural Strain Theory

The forms of deviance are the responses or adaptations by people in a society caused by the imbalance or
“strain” between the valued goals in the society and the legitimate or acceptable means to achieve such
43
goals. This idea is taken from the Structural Strain Theory conceptualized by sociologist Robert K.
Merton. Two variables taken into account in this theory are valued goals and legitimate means to achieve
goals.

Valued Goals

These are goals that are defined by society as valuable, or simply, the goals that are typically pursued in a
society.

Example: financial success

Legitimate Means to Achieve Goals

These are the acceptable ways people can do to achieve such valued goals in a society.

Example: get a good education

Types of Adaptation
In our everyday lives, we would notice that there are actions considered to be legitimate or acceptable for a
particular society toward achieving valued goals.

While people usually conform to legitimate or acceptable means to achieve goals, there are people who will
not. One reason for this is because the legitimate means are just not available for them, and so unequal
opportunities exist to achieve these goals. Merton identified five typologies of how people adapt to their
value system or the goals-means dynamics of their respective society.

These typologies are:

 conformity–accepts goals and the institutionalized, acceptable or legitimate means of obtaining

them,
 ritualism–rejects goals and accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of obtaining them,
 retreatism–rejects both goals and means of obtaining them,
 rebellion–creates new goals and new means of obtaining them, and
 innovation–accepts goals and rejects institutionalized means of obtaining them.

Ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation are forms of deviance.

Forms of Deviance
Merton conceptualized four responses that are considered deviant and caused by a strain or imbalance
between valued goals and legitimate means in a particular society.

Ritualism

Ritualism is exhibited when someone rejects traditional cultural goals but still adheres to the culturally
approved methods or rules for making progress towards the same goals.

Example: An employee still stays in his job even though he is aware that it is a dead-end job. In ritualism,
people experience feelings of despair and anomie (social instability) that result to modification or
abandonment of the idealized cultural goals, but still persist at a ritualized, unfulfilling line of work.

Retreatism

Retreatism is the response that rejects or abandons both cultural goals and the institutionalized or legitimate
means for attaining them.

Example: Examples of people who exhibit retreatism are drug addicts and alcoholics. The ultimate form of
retreatism is suicide.

Innovation

44
Innovation entails the acceptance of the valued goal but the rejection of legitimate or institutionalized means
to achieve them (resorting to criminal or delinquent acts).

Example: An example of this is when a person wants a nice car but does not have enough money, so he
steals money from the bank. Some people may resort to stealing or dealing drugs to achieve cultural goals.

Rebellion

Rebellion not only rejects the valued goals and the legitimate means of the established society but also
actively attempts to substitute new goals and means. This can be applied to political deviants who attempt to
modify the existing structure of society.

Example: Examples for this are neo-Nazis and other hate groups. The rebels will publicly acknowledge their
intention to change the norms and the social structure.

The table below summarizes Merton’s typology of individual adaptations.

Legend:

 "+" signifies acceptance

 "–" signifies rejection
 "+ and -" signifies rejection of prevailing goal or means and substitution of new goal or means

Explore!

In the particular society that you live in, you can observe different people and groups that exhibit any of the
five types of adaptations or responses. Notice their way of expressing their beliefs toward specific ideals,
values, norms, or cultural goals and categorize them according to their action or statement.

What do you think?

In today’s time, different ideologies, religions, cultures, and traditions have already emerged and are
recognized, resulting in a diverse society. Different needs and expectations are expressed by groups and
individuals according to their social status. Given this situation, do you think that the presence of these five
adaptations is inevitable in a given society? Why or why not?

Tip

A person can exhibit different types of adaptations depending on the situation. He or she might be a
conformist in school, following all the rules, while also being an innovator when it comes to his or her
interests. A person’s response and adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the person
weighs the situation according to his or her needs.

Keypoints

 Conformity is the obedience to the norms that make a person acceptable to a particular society, group, or
social setting.
 Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a group or
society.
 Robert K. Merton developed the Structural Strain Theory to explore how people respond to cultural values
and how they are supposed to achieve them.
 There are five typologies of how people adapt to the value system of their respective society and these are
conformity, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
 The four forms of deviance are ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
45
  A person’s response or adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the person weighs the
situation according to his or her needs.

Human Dignity and Rights

Becoming a Member of Society
Human Dignity and Rights
Becoming a Member of Society

The Common Good

Becoming a Member of Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain human rights, dignity, and the common good,
 discuss the role played by human rights to the attainment of the common good, and
 help encourage the protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good.

In making a personal decision or a choice, do you think about how such decision would benefit others? Why
or why not?

Review!

##Human Dignity

In a religious point of view, it is believed that humans have a unique place in the world, and that human life
is sacred. In the secular point of view, a human is seen as having an innate right to be valued, respected, and
to receive ethical treatment.

 Human dignity is an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and
psychological integrity, and empowerment.
 It affirms that every person is worthy of respect. Our value as persons should never be debated.
 It means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation.

Human Rights
Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or
ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They are the freedoms and privileges that belong
to every person in the world. All people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty, and security.

Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.

Universality and Inalienability: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

Indivisibility: Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political or social issues, human rights are
inherent to the dignity of every human person.

Interdependence and Interrelatedness: The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the
fulfillment of others.

46
Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.

 It focuses on legal equality for each citizen and directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that
they are a part of the overall society.
 Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens regardless of their race,
gender, religious affiliation, or socioeconomic status.
 It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that the
community feels like the government hears and respects its ideas.
 Citizens are more inclined to voice their grievances through proper channels, such as petitioning a
representative to investigate their situations.
 Moreover, this right can motivate citizens to participate in the government by raising voter turnout,
civic participation, and greater willingness to serve in the military.

Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples of these
are equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military, same right to marry, similar tax responsibilities,
and equal right to represent others in the government.

Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, equal rights, and acceptance by national
figures.

The Common Good

The common good refers to:

 what is shared and advantageous for all or most members of a given society, and
 what is achieved by citizenship, be it collective action or active participation.

When dignity and rights are granted to people, the common good is achieved. It happens when society
benefits as a whole. The common good is reached when the majority, a high number of individuals, or
society as a whole benefits from a situation or event.

The recognition of people's dignity and rights is the foundation of "freedom, peace, and justice in the world,"
as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The common good sustains order and
happiness in the community. It is not hard to achieve.

Protection of Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good

Human dignity, rights, and the common good are not new concepts; neither are the issues about their
existence in society.

 Can they be granted?

 Can they be achieved?

Since ancient times, literature figures have given criticisms on issues of the existence and absence of human
rights, dignity, and the common good. Among the list are the works of Aristotle, Rousseau, and Machiavelli.
In modern times, not much has changed. The same old questions and problems are asked, but the modern
world continues to work towards addressing such concerns.

International organizations and different countries pledged to the United Nations to uphold human rights and
dignity. If proven to disobey laws and rules, one has to be punished in accordance with the law.

Ideally, the common good is protected when all people enjoy their rights and preserve their dignity. For an
individual, this means having freedom as a consumer, owner, and citizen that also includes right to rest and
leisure, equal access to public works and services, freedom of association, religion, or speech and
employment.

Explore!

Do you believe that laws and public works were built to function for the common good? Why or why not?

47
Try it!

Enumerate three (3) situations or events you witnessed where the common good was upheld.

What do you think?

Are the efforts of local and national government agencies on upholding the common good sufficient to
ensure its existence in society?

Key Points

 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex,
national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.
 Human dignity is a person's or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological
integrity, and empowerment.
 The common good refers to what is shared and favorable for all or most members of a given
community. The common good is protected when each person enjoys his or her rights and preserves
his or her dignity.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights. This
focuses on legal equality for each citizen, and is directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that
they are part of the overall society.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Blood

Organization in Society

Objectives

At the end of the lesson you should be able to:

 define kinship and social network,

 explain the Filipino concept of kinship,
 discuss the concepts surrounding kinship by blood and descent, and
 trace your own ancestry by blood up to the third degree.

 How can you be sure that blood relates you to your ancestors?
 How do you draw the line between descent and ancestry?

We do not live alone in society. From birth until death, we are surrounded by many people. Most of these
people are our relatives, friends, and neighbors, while some are strangers. We are bound to all individuals
who are related to us either by blood or by descent.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks

The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people together in a
group is called kinship.

 According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized

relationships based on supposed and actual genealogical bonds. These relationships are products of
social interactions and are recognized by society.
 In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the
study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 Kinship or relationship can also refer to a principle by which people or groups of individuals are
organized into roles, social groups, categories, and genealogy through kinship terminologies.
 On the other hand, a social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (individuals
or organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. It
represents relationships and flows between people, groups, and organizations.

The Filipino Concept of Kinship

48
  According to F. Landa Jocano, "Kinship characterizes the overall framework of community relations
as it enables Filipinos to map their relationships and be able to work together harmoniously. It lies
deep in the heart of every Filipino as it forms the core of the Filipino social organization. It
significantly influences the formation, structure, and functions of institutions, relationships, and
values of the Filipinos."
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created its
terminology, but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based language, is
widely used.
 Kinship helps Filipino people in understanding their relationships with others and be able to interact
with each other with little or without any difficulty.

Kinship by Blood or Consanguineous Kinship

 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through
blood. The relationship between the parents and their kids, and that among siblings, is
consanguineous kinship.
 Thus, son and daughter, brother and sister, uncle and aunt, nephew and niece, and cousins are
consanguineous kin, that is, related through blood. With this connection, it can be pointed out that
blood bond may be actual as well as supposed.
 In polyandrous tribes, the real father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as if it were
one's own biological child. As a result, blood relationship may be established not only on biological
basis but also by social recognition.

Genogram

 A genogram is a graphical representation of one's family and its members' relationship to one
another.
 It is widely used in medicine, sociology, and genealogy to determine medical, psychological,
sociological, or historical patterns of health and behavior.

Below are the basic symbols used in making a genogram. You should know, however, that more symbols are available
to use for more complicated family relationships.

49
In making a genogram, make sure to note the following:

 children must be drawn from oldest to youngest and from left to right, respectively,
 one level or layer presents one generation, and
 the shapes corresponding to family members always represent sex, not gender.

 A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and consumption
that coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing, and provision of shelter.
 Family and household are not one and the same. A household may be a family household or non-
family household. It would mean that the people living in a household may be related or unrelated.
 A household can be classified as a nuclear, extended, or single-person household.

Descent System
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent from a real
or mythical ancestor. This system of acknowledged social parentage, which varies per society, is
where a person may claim kinship ties with another.
 If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be kin to everyone else. But
in most societies, some restrictions are imposed on the perception of common ancestry so that an
individual regards many of his associates as not his kin.
 The importance of descent comes from its use as a means for one person to assert rights, privileges,
duties, and status with another person who may be related to the first, either because one is an
ancestor of the other or because the two acknowledge common ancestors.
 Descent has limited influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow kinship
lines.

50
One method of limiting the recognition of kinship is to emphasize relationships through one parent only.
Such is called a unilineal kinship system. There are two types of this system−

patrilineal systems, in which relationships reckoned through the father are emphasized, and matrilineal
systems, in which relationships reckoned through the mother are emphasized.

In a bilateral descent, all descendants of an ancestor enjoy membership of a common descent group by any
combination of male or female linkages.

See it!

A friend of your family visited your house and noticed that you have several medals and trophies displayed
in the living room. She exclaimed, "You have a very smart child!"

In what other way do your parents reaffirm your relation to them aside from using the expression, "Nasa
dugo eh" or "It runs in the blood"?

Try it!

Make a genogram of your family. Try to look over the net for more genogram symbols that may describe any
unique relationship within your family (e.g. engaged but not married couple, adopted children, twins).

What do you think?

Have family and kinship always meant the same thing throughout history? Justify your answer.

Keypoints

 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the
patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure composed of a set of social actors (individuals or
organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors.
 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through
blood.
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created its
terminology but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based language, is
widely used.
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent from a real
or mythical ancestor.
 There are different descent kinship systems, such as unilineal (with two main types—patrilineal and
matrilineal) and bilateral kinships.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Marriage

Organization in Society

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Ritual

Organization in Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the different concepts of kinship by ritual,

 discuss how relationship by ritual works as a social network, and
 recognize the importance of ritual kinship in society.

51
  What advantages does ritual kinship give to society?
 What goals of society are achieved through the realization of targets of a ritual relationship?

Kinship Ties and Social Networks

 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights,
obligations, and boundaries of the interactions of members of a self-recognizing group.
 Kinship and family ties may be determined through genetic relationships, adoption, or other ritualized
behaviors such as marriage and household economies.
 Kinship systems range in size from a single nuclear-family to tribal or inter-tribal relationships.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined together by a particular pattern
of links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relations,
membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in the attainment
of the goals of society.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get
updated, and become aware. Furthermore, social networks act as a social support system which
provides people with information and guidance in times of need.

Kinship by Ritual
Anthropologist and ethnographers sometimes call kinship by ritual as fictive kinship. The word means "fake"
or "created by imagination." This type of kinship is not false, but it is just that in this type of kinship,
relationships among individuals are based neither on blood ties nor by marriage.

 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among individuals who recognize their associations and
obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds. Fictive kinship may tie people together in
ties of affection, concern, obligation, and responsibility. Examples include adopted or surrogate
families, brotherhood, sororities, or peer groups.
 Kinship by ritual function is used in fictive kinship links for non-kinship purposes. Members of a
brotherhood or fraternity consider each other as brothers despite the absence of blood relations
among them. Such act naturally builds a harmonious relationship between them.

Look at the table below to know about some examples of ritual kinship.

Importance and Functions of Ritual Kinship in Society

Kinship by ritual is an essential social network for it is where a good relationship is built and strengthened. It
has positive contributions for shaping our old and new society. Kinship by ritual, in its various forms, serve
many functions in the community. It reinforces affinity or relationships within society by providing a
framework for social interaction. Defined by acts of sharing and support, it testifies "friends as family."

Below are specific functions of the different types of ritual kinship.

52
Explore!

What makes kinship by ritual necessary in society?

Will society remain functional without the existence of ritual kinship?

Try it!

Give three examples of ritual kinship. Identify them according to type. Provide a brief description of each.

What do you think?

Which is more important or necessary in the society: kinship by marriage or kinship by ritual? Explain your
answer.

Keypoints

 Kinship tie is a framework from which harmonious relationships within society are built.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations.
 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among people who recognize their associations and
obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds.
 Compadrazgo is a religious rite of sponsorship in church ceremonies, such as marriage, baptism, or
confirmation.
 Blood brotherhood is a sociological custom where two biologically unrelated persons or groups
establish a close relationship through a variety of ceremonies and methods of blood-letting.
 Adoption is the process wherein a non-kin is incorporated into the kin group either traditionally or
legally.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Family and the Household

Organization in Society

Social Organizations: Groups within Society (Primary and Secondary)

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

53
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain how society is organized,

 describe the organized nature of social life and rules governing behavior,
 define social organization and social groups, and
 differentiate primary and secondary groups in terms of their duties in society.

 How would you describe your relationship with your family?

 How would you describe your relationship with your classmates and teachers?
 What makes your relationship with your family members and school teachers different from each
other?

How Society is Organized

People have organized themselves into groups with common rules of living. The organization of such a
group is called society. Different institutions are found in every community, such as the family, kin
relationships, childcare, and division of work based on gender and age.

All societies, small or large, are organized around an uneven division of labor and decision-making. Present
societies are expected to provide protection, economic security, law and order, and a sense of belonging to
their members.

Societies usually adapt to changes around them, like in the environment or in technology. Most changes
happen slowly, but some significant events such as war or revolution can completely transform societies.

The Threefold Nature of Social Life

Applying Goethe’s method to social life, Rudolf Steiner thought that if we apply the phenomenological,
participatory method to human social life as a multifaceted, multilayered whole, we can distinguish three
different spheres of activity:

1. cultural–everything involving the growth and expression of the human spirit: education, art, science,
religion, journalism, and publishing
2. legal or political–involving human rights and relationships between people and organizations
3. economic–having to do with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

Human society, Steiner claimed, will only flourish if these three spheres are recognized and each is
organized according to its own inherent principles, dynamics, and ideals.

Social Groups and Organizations

Sometimes, organization refers to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, and banks.
Society composes many of such organizations. A state is considered as a political organization, or school
may represent an educational organization, and so on. They are all social organizations.

Organization is a state of being or a condition in which various institutions in society are functioning by
their recognized or implied purposes (Elliott and Merrill, 1950).

Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may
differ in size and nature. It makes possible the complex activities where members of a complex society
participate in.

Groups within Society

People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more individuals who
identify with one another and regularly interact as a result of shared norms, values, and expectations. Being
in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help people build and define their
stories, interests, and contributions to society.

54
Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-groups
and out-groups and reference groups.

Primary Group

First formulated by Charles Horton Cooley, the concept of a primary group is an essential unit of social
organization and social life. A primary group is characterized by personal and lasting relationships with its
members.

It has been identified that relationships in a primary type of team is unconditional and not prearranged.
Setting aside family relations, members of primary groups share lots of things in common, like interests,
stories, or personalities.

The best example of a primary group is the nuclear family. Relationships and attachments organized in this
group are permanent as one's identity, lifestyle, and stories are tied to this group. A group of close friends is
another example of this group.

The term 'primary' is used with these groups because they are the primary or main source of socialization and
relationships. Relationships in primary groups give us security, love, and companionship. We also learn
norms and values from our family and friends that stay with us for most of our lives.

Secondary Group

By contrast, secondary groups are formal, small or large, and usually short term. These groups are typically
found at work and school.

An example of this group is a political party organized to plan the best campaign for the election. Members
of the board meet infrequently and for only a short period. Team members may have some similar interests,
but the main purpose of the group is on the task instead of the relationships.

Classroom and work environment are other examples of a secondary group.

Sometimes, secondary groups become informal, and members of the team get to know each other well;
however, even if their friendships exist in a limited time, they will not necessarily remain close beyond.

Unlike the primary group, members play their roles in a secondary group based on arranged and conditional
contract. Members of this group need not to convene based on shared interests or personalities.

Explore!

Why is having a companion, a partner, or a group important in our personal lives and future careers?

Try it!

List three groups in campus and classify them as either a primary or secondary group. Make some
observations regarding their characteristics.

 name or description of the group

55
  characteristics
(members, regulations, nature of work, etc.)

What do you think?

Which type of group contributes more important roles in maintaining a balanced life and orderliness in
society? Why?

Keypoints

 People have organized themselves into groups with common rules of living. The organization of such
groups is called society.
 Applying Goethe’s method to social life, Rudolf Steiner concluded that if we apply the
phenomenological, participatory method to human social life as a multifaceted, multilayered whole,
we can distinguish three different spheres of activity−

 cultural, legal or political, and economic.

 Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may
vary in size and nature.

 A social group consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a sense of unity and
collective identity.

 Primary groups are groups that are tightly united, typically small scale, with intimate relationships, and
are usually long lasting.

 Secondary groups can be small or large, are mostly impersonal, and usually short term. These groups are
typically found at work or at school.

Social Organizations: In-group and Out-Group

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize the existence of in-groups and out-groups in one’s life and society,
 compare different social groups of a social organization according to their manifest and latent
functions, and
 discuss the issues surrounding in-groups and out-groups.

Is being a member of a particular group a matter of choice?

Social Groups and Organizations

Sometimes, 'organization' refers to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, and banks.
Society is composed of many such organizations. A state is considered as a political organization and school
may represent an educational organization. They are all social organizations.

Organization is a state of being or a condition in which the various institutions in society are functioning by
their recognized or implied purposes. (Elliott and Merrill, 1950)

A social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may
differ in size and nature. It makes possible the complex activities where members of a complex society
participate in.
56
Different Social Groups of Social Organization
Each community is made up of smaller groups and associations that are built on social class, personal
interest, or common goals.

The power elite is run by a small group representing the wealthiest, most powerful, and most influential
people in government, business, and the military.

Example:

A generous business person may make substantial contributions to a political candidate.

Voluntary associations are groups that people choose to join, wherein members are united by the pursuit of
a common goal.

Example:

a parent-teacher association at a particular school

Formal organizations are secondary groups organized to achieve specific goals. Legal organizations tend to
be larger and more impersonal than voluntary associations.

Example:

A corporation is usually a formal organization. The very specific goal of most companies is to increase
profits.

Bureaucracy is a type of formal organization in which a rational approach is used to handle large tasks. The
bureaucratic organization is highly organized with a high degree of formality in the way it operates.

Examples:

colleges and universities

Groups within Society

People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more individuals who
identify with one another and regularly interact as a result of shared norms, values, and expectations. Being
in a group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help people build and define their
stories, interests, and contributions to society.

Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-group
and out-group, and reference groups.

In-Group and Out-group

An in-group is an exclusive social group formed out of shared interest and identity. This is the “we” group
in society from which people’s loyalty is bestowed upon. This type of group satisfies the old saying "birds of
the same feather flock together.'' It is in this group where people feel more comfortable and secured, with no
threat, intimidation or conflict of interest. Members of this group consist of those who share common
experiences or ideas in life.

Examples include friendship groups, families, and religious groups.

An out-group, on the other hand, is a social group associated with competition or opposition as its nature is
different from one’s own. This is the “they” of society, where a person is not a part of or does not belong to
the group. The formation of out-groups is the result of perceived differences.

One’s out-group includes those groups one dislikes or disregards. It is also that group where one does not
feel happy personality-, interest-, or ability-wise.

It should be noted that out-groups should not be given negative connotation as they only involve non-
membership to a certain group. After all, people are created differently. This should be celebrated in the
57
same regard as we give to shared interests. People should respect what others can and cannot do. That is the
very purpose of recognizing the existence of out-groups.

Issues Surrounding In-groups and Out-groups

In-groups and out-groups are formed as a result of the following:

Social groups, despite functioning actively in realizing tasks of society, draw a boundary between
people in the community. The concept of social group classification of in-groups and out-groups brings
defined and perceived differences to a different level. Lack of sense of belongingness, isolation, rivalry,
tension, and threat of violence may result from well-defined in-groups and out-groups.

In-group favoritism happens when a person favors or offers special treatment to in-group members over
out-group members. This activity may disregard merit and result to serious social situations such as
corruption, crime, and padrino system.

Out-group homogeneity is the tendency of a person to classify those people who are not in their in-group as
being similar to one another. In short, people overgeneralize and label out-groups in a negative manner.

Explore!

What are your in-groups and out-groups? How do you choose your in-groups? How do you resolve conflicts
with your out-groups?

Try it!

Write three measures or guidelines on how society and its people avoid the adverse effects of the existence
of in-groups and out-groups.

What do you think?

Without the boundaries caused by in-groups and out-groups, would the world be a better place? Justify your
answer.

Keypoints

 Social groups are a specified number of individuals formed to interact with one another and other
people outside the group based on the statuses and roles assigned to them.
 There are different social forms of social organization. These include The power elite, voluntary
associations, formal organizations, and bureaucracy.
 An in-group is an exclusive social group formed out of shared interest and identity.
 An out-group is a social group associated with competition or opposition as its nature is different
from one’s own.

58
  In-group favoritism happens when a person favors or offers special treatment to in-group members
over out-group members.
 Out-group homogeneity is the tendency of a person to classify people who are not in their in-group
as being similar to one another.

Social Organizations: Reference Groups

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 explain how reference groups work in a person’s life and society, and
 recognize the different types of reference groups and how they apply to real life situations.

 What is a role model for you?

 Who are your role models?
 How do they influence you in your daily life?

Groups within Society

People do not live in isolation. They live in groups. Social groups consist of two or more people who identify
with one another and regularly interact as a result of shared norms, values, and expectations. Being in a
group entails realizations of activities and events in one's life that help people build and define their stories,
interests, and contributions to society.

Different group categorization exists in society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-groups
and out-group, and reference groups.

Reference Groups and its Normative Functions

Reference Groups are groups that serve as our standards in setting and evaluating our own behaviors and
attitudes.

When reference groups serve a purpose of setting your norms and values, these are normative reference
groups. These groups directly influence the behavior of a person, serving as a role model, standard, or base
point.

Your immediate family and friends are considered a normative reference group. The way they are is the way
you are. Your mentors or celebrity idols also shape your personality. In hopes of being identified with them,
people opt to act, speak, dress, and think the way they do.

Reference Groups and its Comparative Functions

Some reference groups exist to provide people with means of comparison for behavior, style, and
achievement. Such are comparative reference groups whose norms and values serve as points of
comparison for certain behaviors.

For body figure, teenagers look up to supermodels as references. For skills in basketball, enthusiasts play by
the rules of professional basketball players from the NBA or PBA. To check whether he fares well in his
exams, a student may compare his score from that of his class's best students.

Group Influences
It is a natural response of people to socialize, build connections, and get influenced. With either good or bad
influence, our social groups or reference groups play vital roles in shaping who we are and becoming who
we want to be or what society wants us to be.

59
Reference groups come in different forms and classifications.

Aspirational reference groups refers to people or groups of people with whom we want to be compared
with. Product advertisers and celebrities like athletes, movie stars, or talk show hosts are fine examples of
this reference group. People think that by supporting their favorite celebrity, they become associated with
them.

Associative reference groups refer to groups where we belong and take part in. These people include our
neighbors, coworkers, club members, or church members. People have a tendency to confine with what is on
trend in their immediate community.

Dissociative reference groups refers to groups that people have no interest in being associated with. This
group of people includes those with whom we share conflicts in interest, attitude, or behavior.

Explore!

How do you show your support or associations to your reference groups? Do you do what they do? Do you
act, speak, and think the way they do? What benefits does having reference groups give you?

Try it!

Give one reference group of yours for each type. Name the person or the group, describe its nature, and state
your reason for classifying them under such type.

What do you think?

How do reference groups change the way people think about themselves and others?

Keypoints

 Social groups consist of two or more people who identify with one another and regularly interact.
 Reference groups serve as our standards in setting and evaluating our own behaviors and attitudes.
 Normative reference groups set a person’s norms and values.
 Comparative reference groups are groups whose norms and values serve as a point of comparison for
certain behaviors.
 Aspirational reference groups are groups of people with whom we want to be compared with.
 Associative reference groups are groups where we belong and take part in our immediate life.
 Dissociative reference groups are groups people have no interest in being associated with.

Social Organizations: Networks

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 discuss what a social network is and how it works, and

 recognize the role networks play in a person and in society.
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What roles does social media play in your life?

Review!

Social Groups and Organizations

Sometimes, social organizations refer to associational groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, and
banks. The society is composed of many such organizations. A state is considered as a political organization
and a school may represent an educational organization. They are all social organizations.

Organization is a state of being or a condition in which the various institutions in society are functioning by
their recognized or implied purposes. (Elliott and Merrill, 1950)

Social organization or social system refers to the interdependence of parts in groups. These groups may
differ in size and nature. It makes possible the complex activities where members of a complex society
participate in.

Groups Within Society and the Rise of Social Networks

A social group is a team of two or more individuals that are dependent on one another. Its organization rests
on the purpose of working and achieving the goals of society. Humans are social beings whoa are constantly
longing and needing association or support.

Different group categorization exists in the society. Categories include primary and secondary groups, in-
group and out-group, and reference groups.

The existence of different social organizations in society and the connections or ties that bind them together
give rise to a social network.

Social Networks
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a certain pattern of links or
relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relationships as either casual and
informal or personal and intimate. This is often regarded as individuals' basic tool to connect to society.

Designed to connect people and make the world seem borderless, social media websites like Twitter or
Facebook are social networks. In a click, updates about an individual may reach his friends and friends of
friends as well. People listed in your phone book are your social networks. Membership to organizations or
companies guarantees a social network.

Ties and Nodes

As mentioned, social networks are composed of individuals and the connections or links that bind them
together. These components of a network are called 'nodes' and 'ties.'

The person or organization playing a part in a network is known as a node. On the other hand, ties are the
links or connections that bind individuals or organizations together.

They may be weak or strong. Measured by strength, strong ties are the result of intimate and personal links.
Meanwhile, weak ties are connections caused by informal, casual, and business-like relationships.

The Importance of Social Networks

Through networks, social linkages or connections are formed. It is important to note that these networks
serve a role in the attainment of the goals of society. Through networks, people get connected, get updated,
and become aware.

Networks are media for the spread and exchange of ideas. News awareness, information relay, and rumors
are good examples. Some people also use their networks to obtain a position in a company, to make a
business successful, or to earn a living. Social networks undoubtedly serve as social support and provide
people with information or guidance in times of need.
61
Explore!

How do your social networks affect your personal life? Do they influence your values, behaviors, and
perspectives?
What makes social networks significant in society? How does their existence achieve the goals of the
community?

Try it!

Name at least three social networks you use. Write a short description for each. Include their functions and
significance in your life. Also identify the types of members for each social network.

What do you think?

Can a person survive without the people with whom he or she has shared his or her life with?

Can society survive without the existence of social networks?

Tip

In a social network, a node refers to the individual or organization playing a part in a network. In a physical
system, it is an active electronic device that is attached to a network and is capable of creating, receiving, or
transmitting information over a communications channel.

Keypoints

 A social group is a team of two or more individuals who are dependent on one another.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations.
 Nodes are the persons or organizations playing a part in a network.
 Ties are links or connections that bind individuals or organizations together.
 Through networks, people get connected, get updated, and become aware.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Blood

Organization in Society

Objectives

At the end of the lesson you should be able to:

 define kinship and social network,

 explain the Filipino concept of kinship,
 discuss the concepts surrounding kinship by blood and descent, and
 trace your own ancestry by blood up to the third degree.

 How can you be sure that blood relates you to your ancestors?
 How do you draw the line between descent and ancestry?

We do not live alone in society. From birth until death, we are surrounded by many people. Most of these
people are our relatives, friends, and neighbors, while some are strangers. We are bound to all individuals
who are related to us either by blood or by descent.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks

62
The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people together in a
group is called kinship.

 According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized

relationships based on supposed and actual genealogical bonds. These relationships are products of
social interactions and are recognized by society.
 In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the
study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 Kinship or relationship can also refer to a principle by which people or groups of individuals are
organized into roles, social groups, categories, and genealogy through kinship terminologies.
 On the other hand, a social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (individuals
or organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. It
represents relationships and flows between people, groups, and organizations.

The Filipino Concept of Kinship

 According to F. Landa Jocano, "Kinship characterizes the overall framework of community relations
as it enables Filipinos to map their relationships and be able to work together harmoniously. It lies
deep in the heart of every Filipino as it forms the core of the Filipino social organization. It
significantly influences the formation, structure, and functions of institutions, relationships, and
values of the Filipinos."
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created its
terminology, but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based language, is
widely used.
 Kinship helps Filipino people in understanding their relationships with others and be able to interact
with each other with little or without any difficulty.

Kinship by Blood or Consanguineous Kinship

 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through
blood. The relationship between the parents and their kids, and that among siblings, is
consanguineous kinship.
 Thus, son and daughter, brother and sister, uncle and aunt, nephew and niece, and cousins are
consanguineous kin, that is, related through blood. With this connection, it can be pointed out that
blood bond may be actual as well as supposed.
 In polyandrous tribes, the real father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as if it were
one's own biological child. As a result, blood relationship may be established not only on biological
basis but also by social recognition.

Genogram

 A genogram is a graphical representation of one's family and its members' relationship to one
another.
 It is widely used in medicine, sociology, and genealogy to determine medical, psychological,
sociological, or historical patterns of health and behavior.

63
Below are the basic symbols used in making a genogram. You should know, however, that more symbols are available
to use for more complicated family relationships.

In making a genogram, make sure to note the following:

 children must be drawn from oldest to youngest and from left to right, respectively,
 one level or layer presents one generation, and
 the shapes corresponding to family members always represent sex, not gender.

Descent System
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent from a real
or mythical ancestor. This system of acknowledged social parentage, which varies per society, is
where a person may claim kinship ties with another.
 If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be kin to everyone else. But
in most societies, some restrictions are imposed on the perception of common ancestry so that an
individual regards many of his associates as not his kin.
 The importance of descent comes from its use as a means for one person to assert rights, privileges,
duties, and status with another person who may be related to the first, either because one is an
ancestor of the other or because the two acknowledge common ancestors.
 Descent has limited influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow kinship
lines.

One method of limiting the recognition of kinship is to emphasize relationships through one parent only.
Such is called a unilineal kinship system. There are two types of this system−

64
patrilineal systems, in which relationships reckoned through the father are emphasized, and matrilineal
systems, in which relationships reckoned through the mother are emphasized.

In a bilateral descent, all descendants of an ancestor enjoy membership of a common descent group by any
combination of male or female linkages.

See it!

A friend of your family visited your house and noticed that you have several medals and trophies displayed
in the living room. She exclaimed, "You have a very smart child!"

In what other way do your parents reaffirm your relation to them aside from using the expression, "Nasa
dugo eh" or "It runs in the blood"?

Try it!

Make a genogram of your family. Try to look over the net for more genogram symbols that may describe any
unique relationship within your family (e.g. engaged but not married couple, adopted children, twins).

What do you think?

Have family and kinship always meant the same thing throughout history? Justify your answer.

Keypoints

 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the
patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure composed of a set of social actors (individuals or
organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors.
 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related through
blood.
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created its
terminology but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based language, is
widely used.
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent from a real
or mythical ancestor.
 There are different descent kinship systems, such as unilineal (with two main types—patrilineal and
matrilineal) and bilateral kinships.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Marriage

Organization in Society

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and explain the different concepts of marriage and
discuss how marriage becomes the formation of kinship ties and social networks.

 What types of networks are formed through marriage?

 What are the different kinds of marriages and what causes their formation?
 What factors are to be considered for the residency of newlyweds?

Kinship Ties and Social Networks

65
  The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people together
in a group is called kinship.
 According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized
relationships based on genealogical bonds. These relationships are the products of social interaction
and are recognized by society.
 In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the
study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relations, membership,
links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in the attainment of the goals
of society.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get
updated, and become aware. Furthermore, social networks act as social support systems that provide
people information and guidance in times of need.

Kinship by Marriage
 Marriage is a formal and legal union of two people as partners in life. It is the universal social
institution that promotes procreation and establishes the bonds that are the basis of the household,
family, and kinship system.
 Marriage is a legally recognized social contract between two people, traditionally based on a sexual
relationship, and implying a permanence of the union. The statuses the spouses acquire go through
from institution to companionship that may endure and sustain in their life cycle (Burgess and Locke,
1945). They play complementary roles to meet their material, sexual, emotional, psychological, and
spiritual needs for their survival.
 Marriage gives the offspring a position in society as he or she may be categorized as a legitimate son
or daughter. It establishes continuing connections between the kin of each party. It is always
symbolically marked in some way, usually a public ceremony.

Cross-cultural Marriage
A cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.

How does this happen? As they say, "Love is blind." It does not care about race, color, or culture. We see
more and more marriages of people from different cultures nowadays.

In marrying a person from the same country, distinct differences in family life, values, educational
attainment, ideas, and ways of living already exist. By comparison, marrying a person from a different
country has even more differences.

Examples:

 A traditional Ifugao man is married to a liberated Catholic woman.

 A Japanese woman is married to an English man.

In a cross-cultural marriage, it is important to respect your spouse's native culture and deal with your
differences in a loving manner.

Here are some tips for avoiding challenges in cross-cultural marriage/relationships:

 embrace the opportunity,

 understand, respect, and compromise,
 get first-hand experience of each other's cultures,
 pass on both cultures to your children,
 think positively about your differences,
 maintain contact with family, and
 when possible, travel together.

Monogamy vs. Polygamy

By the number of spouses, a marriage can either be a monogamy or polygamy.

66
Post-marital Residency Rules
After marriage comes a new chapter in a couple's lives. One of the primary concerns couples usually are
faced with is where to live. Kinship system, economic concerns, and personal factors are among the
determining factors for residency among newlyweds. Although not a cultural certainty especially in this
modern age, newly married couples opt to live with existing households than establish their own. Now,
comes the question: Whose family is favored or culturally prescribed?

Explore!

What are the personal and societal functions of marriage?

How does marriage extend one’s social networks?

67
Try it!

Find a newly-wed couple and ask them a few questions based on the lesson. Using the table below and the
ideas acquired from your interview, write the common problems and possible solutions of a married life.

What do you think?

Which type of marriage is culturally significant or accepted in our society?

In your observations, which type of residency is usually practiced? Which is a practical choice for you?

Keypoints

 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of the
patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations.
 Marriage is a formal and legal union of a man and a woman as partners in life.
 Cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.
 Monogamy is a wedding between two individuals at a time.
 Polygamy is a common practice among Muslims. It is being married to many spouses at a time.
 Post-marital residency or residence rules are rules or arrangements couples usually consider
following their wedding.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Ritual

Organization in Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the different concepts of kinship by ritual,

 discuss how relationship by ritual works as a social network, and
 recognize the importance of ritual kinship in society.

 What advantages does ritual kinship give to society?

 What goals of society are achieved through the realization of targets of a ritual relationship?

Kinship Ties and Social Networks

 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights,
obligations, and boundaries of the interactions of members of a self-recognizing group.
 Kinship and family ties may be determined through genetic relationships, adoption, or other ritualized
behaviors such as marriage and household economies.
 Kinship systems range in size from a single nuclear-family to tribal or inter-tribal relationships.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined together by a particular pattern
of links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relations,

68
 membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in the attainment
of the goals of society.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get
updated, and become aware. Furthermore, social networks act as a social support system which
provides people with information and guidance in times of need.

Kinship by Ritual
Anthropologist and ethnographers sometimes call kinship by ritual as fictive kinship. The word means "fake"
or "created by imagination." This type of kinship is not false, but it is just that in this type of kinship,
relationships among individuals are based neither on blood ties nor by marriage.

 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among individuals who recognize their associations and
obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds. Fictive kinship may tie people together in
ties of affection, concern, obligation, and responsibility. Examples include adopted or surrogate
families, brotherhood, sororities, or peer groups.
 Kinship by ritual function is used in fictive kinship links for non-kinship purposes. Members of a
brotherhood or fraternity consider each other as brothers despite the absence of blood relations
among them. Such act naturally builds a harmonious relationship between them.

Look at the table below to know about some examples of ritual kinship.

Importance and Functions of Ritual Kinship in Society

Kinship by ritual is an essential social network for it is where a good relationship is built and strengthened. It
has positive contributions for shaping our old and new society. Kinship by ritual, in its various forms, serve
many functions in the community. It reinforces affinity or relationships within society by providing a
framework for social interaction. Defined by acts of sharing and support, it testifies "friends as family."

Below are specific functions of the different types of ritual kinship.

69
Explore!

What makes kinship by ritual necessary in society?

Will society remain functional without the existence of ritual kinship?

Try it!

Give three examples of ritual kinship. Identify them according to type. Provide a brief description of each.

What do you think?

Which is more important or necessary in the society: kinship by marriage or kinship by ritual? Explain your
answer.

Keypoints

 Kinship tie is a framework from which harmonious relationships within society are built.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations.
 Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among people who recognize their associations and
obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds.
 Compadrazgo is a religious rite of sponsorship in church ceremonies, such as marriage, baptism, or
confirmation.
 Blood brotherhood is a sociological custom where two biologically unrelated persons or groups
establish a close relationship through a variety of ceremonies and methods of blood-letting.
 Adoption is the process wherein a non-kin is incorporated into the kin group either traditionally or
legally.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Family and the Household

Organization in Society

70
Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 trace kinship ties within the concept of family and household,

 differentiate family and household, and
 identify one’s type of family and household.

 What is a family?
 What is a household?
 How is family related to kinship ties and social networks?

Kinship and Family Dynamics

Kinship are social relationships derived from universal experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance. Kinship
means being related to others. Being related to other people is something that is defined by culture and not
necessarily determined by biological relations.

A family is a socially recognized group, strengthened by the concept of kinship, where people are connected
by blood, marriage, or adoption, and where a caring relationship mainly occurs. Although kin group and
family are not one and the same, the family is actually one of the strongest kinship ties in our society.

The family has a very important role in society.

 It forms an emotional connection among people and serves as an economic unit of society.
 It is considered as the basic building block of society.
 It is the institution mostly responsible for the “achievement of adult satisfaction and social integration.” (Ross
and Sawhill, 1975)
 It is also responsible for the distribution of economic resources from those who earn them in the
marketplace to those who are dependent on those earnings. (Ross and Sawhill, 1975)

Functions of Family
The family as a form of kinship serves very important functions in society.

 It is the smallest unit that cooperates in production and distribution.

 It enables and promotes socialization processes for the youth.
 It creates alliances with other family units.
 It regulates sexual behavior.
 It provides care and protection.
 It is the foundation of social placement and social status.
 It gives emotional support and affection.

Types or Forms of Family

A family can be classified based on birth, marriage, nature of residence, ancestry, size, or nature of relations.

On the Basis of Birth

 family of orientation–the family into which a person is born and in which early socialization takes place
 family of procreation–the family that is formed through marriage and by having or adopting children.

On the Basis of Marriage

 polygynous family–a type of family consisting of one husband, and more than one wife, and all the children
born to all wives or adopted by each of them.; It is based on polygynous marriage.
 polyandrous family–a type of family consisting of one wife and more than one husband, and the children,
either born or adopted by each one of them; It is based on polyandrous marriage.
 monogamous family–the family consists of one husband and wife, including children, and is based on
monogamous marriage

On the Basis of the Nature of Residence

71
  family of matrilocal residence–a type of family where the wife remains in her mother’s household after
reaching maturity and brings her husband to live with her family after marriage
 family of patrilocal residence–a type of family where the husband remains in his father’s household while his
wife leaves her family to move in with him
 family of changing residence– a type of family where the family stays in the husband’s house for some time,
and moves to wife’s house, stays there for a period of time, and then moves back to the husband’s parents or
starts living in another place

On the Basis of Ancestry or Descent

 matrilineal family–a type of family where the ancestry or descent is traced through the female line or
through the mother’s side
 patrilineal family–a type of family in which the authority is carried down the male line, and descent is traced
through the male line or the father’s side

On the basis of size or structure

 nuclear or the single-unit family–a type of family consisting of a husband, a wife, and children (unmarried),
naturally-conceived or adopted; It is the nucleus of family structures. It is more or less an autonomous unit
that is not under the control of adults or elders of the family. It consists of two generations only. The
adoptation of children legally happen through an adoption process where the legal responsibilities and
privileges of being a parent or parents are transferred from the biological parents to adoptive parents.
 joint or extended family–a type of family that consists of three generations living together under the same
roof, and sharing the same kitchen or economic expenses; It consists of three nuclear families living together.
In this setup, aunts, uncles, and grandparents may live in a family of parents and their children.
 reconstituted or blended family–a type of family that is formed out of another relationship, otherwise
known as a step-family

On the Basis of the Nature of Relations

 conjugal family–a type of family made up of adults among whom sexual relationships exist; It refers to a
family system of spouses and their dependent children. The emphasis is placed on the marital relationship
that exists between spouses.
 consanguine family–a type of family where blood relation exists, or those who are consanguineal kin (e.g. a
family consisting of parents and children, or siblings)

Kinship and Household Dynamics

A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and consumption that
coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing, and provision of shelter. It is important to note that family and
household are not one and the same.

A household may be made up of a person, or persons, who lives in a shared space or dwelling. A household
can be a family household or a non-family household. It would mean that persons living in a household
maybe related or unrelated.

Example of a non-family household: Two friends living in the same condominium unit are considered a
household.

There are different kinds of households:

 nuclear household–a domestic group that contains one adult couple that may or may not have children,
 extended–a domestic group that contains more than one adult married couple, and
 single-person or single-parent–a domestic group that is composed of one adult person that may or may not
have children living with him or her.

Explore!

 How is the concept of family related to the concept of kinship?

 How do you identify your type of family and household?

72
Try it!

Try and trace your family kinship ties through proper agencies or online research. See how far you can trace
your family's roots.

What do you think?

Compare and contrast nuclear and extended families and households. What are the advantages and
disadvantages?

Keypoints

 A family is a socially recognized group that is strengthened by the concept of kinship where people are
connected by blood, marriage, or adoption.

Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Politics of Kinship

Organization in Society

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of politics of kinship,

 discuss how politics of kinship affect the functions of society to people, and
 recognize the existence of issues arising from the politics of kinship.

 What caused the existence of politics of kinship?

 Is politics of kinship an advantage or disadvantage?
 How does the politics of kinship affect society?

Kinship Ties and Social Networks

 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights,
obligations, and boundaries of the interactions of members of a self-recognizing group.
 Kinship and family ties may be determined by genetic relationships, adoption, or other ritualized
behaviors such as marriage and household economies.
 Kinship systems range in size from a single, nuclear family to tribal or inter-tribal relationships.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relations, membership,
links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in the attainment of societal
goals.
 Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get connected, get
updated, and become aware. Aside from that, social networks act as social support systems which
provide people with information and guidance in times of need.

Politics of Kinship
 The idea that "blood is thicker than water” and similar concepts apply to politics. Kinship is the
primary source of political support and action in small or even bigger societies.

73
  Kinship alliances are naturally formed and traditionally remain a power bearer that dominates
Filipino culture.
 An explanation for this phenomenon would be the family orientation of the Filipinos. For some
reason, the obligation to one's kinship group compels one to prioritize his or her family before the rest
of society. This, from time immemorial, has generated issues in power allocation in our community.
 Topics include political dynasty, padrino system, and the use of political power to build business
empires or personal gains.

Concepts of Power in Filipino Kinship Politics

Ideally, merit is the top qualification for any position of consideration, particularly in [Link]
circumstances resulting from the interplay of Filipino values, family, and power have influenced codes of
honor on selection processes.

Here's a list of some of Filipino values which have affected the way we make decisions and view power.

Issues Concerning the Politics of Kinship

Kinship means family, which could mean the “world” to some people. Without a doubt, we place the family
first on our list of priorities, and there is nothing wrong with that, as long as you do not put public interest at
stake.

Here is a list of issues concerning the politics of kinship.

Explore!

What are the positive and negative effects of politics created by kinship?
How does kinship affect power allocation in Filipino society?

74
Try it!

Give at least one example for each Filipino value enumerated below:

 debt of gratitude (utang na loob)

 shame (hiya)
 the act of yielding to the majority of the kin group (pakikisama)
 competition for greater status (palakasan)

What do you think?

Is it possible for Philippine society to eliminate bad politics created by kinship?

Keypoints

 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the rights,
obligations, and boundaries of an interactions of members of a self-recognizing group.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern of links
or relations.
 A political dynasty is the concentration, consolidation, or continuation of public office and political
power by persons related to each other.
 Alliance is a relationship between people, groups, or states that have joined for mutual benefit or to
achieve some common purpose, regardless if explicit agreement has been worked out amongst them.
 The padrino system is the practice, among those with power or influence, of favoring relatives or
friends.
 Political activism is the way people participate or get involved in various political processes to
promote, impend, and raise awareness of an issue.
 Utang na loob is a way of reciprocity of debt of gratitude to others within the family circle or
primary group.
 Hiya is the inability to say "no" to offers for the fear of what others will think, say, and do.
 Pakikisama is characterized by togetherness and allegiance to your group with a concern for what
others feel.
 Palakasan is a system wherein those in power compete to obtain special privileges and exemptions
from regulations by bending the rules of law for their kinship group.

Social and Political Structures: Political Organizations

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 discuss how political organizations operate as an entity which maintains societal functions,
 recognize the differences among different types of political organizations, and
 analyze social and political structures.

 In a classroom setting, what are the functions of the elected class officers?
 Do you believe that their existence is needed for the maintenance of order in the class?

Social and Political Structures

Social and political structures are both constructs formed as a result of large scale ties and relations in
society.

Social structure, in a general sense, refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people work,
act, and live together.

Examples: Social class and social institutions like the government and legal community, LGBT community,
and professional community
75
The political structure, on the other hand, is used to call on the institutions and political entity organized in
agreement with regulations, laws, and norms of society or of the entity itself. A society based on political
structure may follow totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or democracy.

The Need for Political Organizations

The need for social order, public affairs and functions, and conflict resolution are perennial or inevitable. In
this premise, the foundation goals of political organizations are required.

Political organizations are entities in a society formed for administrative or political functions. They refer to
the scheme or design of power and authority in society. Political organizations define the scope and limits of
power.

Society, to achieve and maintain its goals and functions, needs an authority figure to set social control and
lead people. Issues like allocation of social and political roles, the exercise of political power and authority,
and resolutions for conflict and clash are among the recurring problems every society faces.

The questions rest on who takes the lead in addressing such problems. On this ground lies the need for
political organizations. Serving as the authority, they set rules and roles and direct actions to take.

Special interests of a particular group may also be addressed through political organizations such as labor
unions, political parties, interest or advocacy groups.

 Labor unions collaborate or negotiate with the company administration to raise employee concerns
regarding salary increase, benefits, and labor rights.
 Political parties are formed for staging interest in the government seat.
 Advocacy and interest groups are designed for campaigning the rights, privileges, and concerns of a
particular group of people in society. Such group of people may not be represented in government

Types of Political Organization

There are four recognized types of political organizations. They are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states.

Band

The band is the most traditional and smallest type of political organization. Familial ties connect a band.
Politically independent, a band usually does not recognize the formal government. There are no written
codes or laws. There is no organized group of leaders. This is the result of their tendency and nature of
moving from one place to another in search of food or shelter.

Tribes

Tribes are traditional societies comprised of people or group of people connected by social, religious,
ancestral, or cultural ties. Bigger than a band, tribes are usually settled in one place and do not rely on
hunting and gathering but on agriculture for subsistence. Just like bands, tribes do not observe formal
governments.

Bands and tribes are egalitarian societies. This means that they see people of the same age and gender as
equals. For instructions and decision, they rely on group consensus.

Chiefdom

Chiefdom, unlike tribal societies, is a permanent and formal government. Chiefdoms are formal political
organizations in a traditional society based on kinship or the leadership of selected families.

State

A state is a formal political organization in a modern or industrial society regarded as an organized

community under a government. Characteristics of a state include owning a certain territory, having a
particular group of people to lead it, a group of people to take administrative roles, and freedom from
external or foreign control.

76
Explore!

Why does society need an authority figure?

What type of leadership or leaders should people have to achieve maximum success in maintaining peace
and order?

Try it!

Give at least three political organizations. Write their objectives and projects in society.

What do you think?

Imagine the world without political organizations. What do you see?

What can we expect from people or from a society which works and operates without the supervision of a
political organization?

Keypoints

 Social structure refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people work, act, and live
together.
 Political structure is used to call the institutions and political entities organized in accordance with
regulations, laws, and norms of society or of the entities themselves.
 Political organizations are entities in a society formed for administrative or political functions.
 A band is a group of nomadic people connected by familial ties.
 Tribes are traditional societies comprised of people or groups of people connected by social,
religious, ancestral, or cultural ties.
 Chiefdoms are a formal political organization in a traditional society based on kinship or the
leadership of selected families.
 A state is a formal political organization in a modern or industrial society regarded as an organized
community under a government.

Social and Political Structures: Authority and Legitimacy

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 enumerate and explain the three types of authority,

 discuss how power, authority, and legitimacy work as essential components of a social and political
structure, and
 analyze social and political structures.

 Are power and authority the same? Are authority and legitimacy different?
 How do these components work together in a social and political structure?

Social and Political Structures

Social and political structures are both constructs formed as a result of large-scale ties and relations in
society.

77
Social structure, in a general sense, refers to patterned institutions or groups in society where people work,
act, and live together.

Examples: Social class and social institutions like government and legal community, LGBT community, and
professional community

The political structure, on the other hand, are institutions and political entities organized in agreement with
regulations, laws, and norms of the society or of the entities themselves. A society based on the political
structure may follow totalitarianism, authoritarianism, or democracy.

Power
According to Thomas Hobbes, power is a natural inclination that is sought continuously by individuals. In
sociology and politics, power is the ability to get others to do things even when they might not want to. Put
into action either through coercion or persuasion, power, in simpler terms, is the ability 'to do.' Power may be
exercised through coercion or the use of sanctions, punishment, or threat.

The presence of unlikely consequences may force people to do things. Sometimes, the use of coercion is not
necessary to get people to work. People may work freely and willingly if persuasion, reason, and incentives
or positive reinforcements are presented. It is noteworthy that society works based on power. Ideally, though,
a society imposing its power without the use of coercion is most efficient.

States have power because they can make laws. The police enforces laws by the use of force. If you disobey
the law, you will be fined or jailed. However, we want to be able to make a difference between cases in
which it is right that the state has power, and cases in which it is objectionable or wrong in some way. To
make this distinction, the concepts of authority and legitimacy is needed.

Authority
Authority is the right to command. Authority is observed when an individual has a command to make a
person do things. Such act is a response to that person’s perceived power. This person can be your boss, your
superiors, or those who hold high positions in society.

Aside from what has been mentioned above, authority is shown when a person is an expert in a particular
matter. We ask engineers to make our buildings and structures stand firm. We ask specialists for some health
concerns. We ask teachers for learning strategies.

To clarify the concept, take this example. Public officials are elected by the people and are bestowed with
rights to rule and exercise administrative roles based on existing societal laws. Professionals, on the other
hand, gain authority after effectively learning through years of practice in their respective fields. Authority is
more than power. Authority is guaranteed by legitimacy or in a formal manner. Authority is the sum of
power and legitimacy.

Having all these things presented, authority is the quality of a person, institution, rule, or order. It is also the
right or control over giving commands, making verdicts, or enforcing actions.

Legitimacy
Legitimacy gives form to authority. Together with power, legitimacy dresses authority. It is said to be a
symbol or representation–like professionals having their licenses, employees wearing their uniforms, and
laws being written as formal documents.

In the most basic sense, a state is said to be legitimate if it exists and operates according to the law. If a
government is legitimate, then in some way, the fact that it has power is justified. If so, then we can argue
that we ought to obey it. If power is objectionable, then we do not tend to have an obligation to follow it.

Legitimacy is a belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern. Legitimacy is the force that
makes an action of a governing body necessary.

Three Types of Authority

According to the sociologist Max Weber, there is a category as to how authority is legitimated as a belief
system. These are traditional, charismatic, and rational.
78
Explore!

In your opinion, which type of authority or legitimated rule is more applicable and valid in modern times?

Try it!

Give two evident examples (government, religious order, or scenario) for each type of authority or legitimate
rule.

 traditional
 charismatic
 rational

What do you think?

Why are authority and legitimacy vital components in acquiring and maintaining peace and order in society?

Keypoints

 Power can be defined as the ability to get others to do things even when they might not want to.
 Authority is the legitimate or socially approved use of power.
 Legitimacy is the right and acceptance of authority, usually a governing law or a régime.
 Traditional authority is based on a system in which authority is legitimate because it "has always
existed."
 Charismatic authority rests on the unique qualities of a leader who shows that he possesses the right
to lead under magical powers, prophecies, heroism, etc.
 Rational authority is based on a system of rules that is applied administratively and judicially per
known principle.

Economic Institutions: Reciprocity

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the functions of economic institutions,

 discuss the concepts of reciprocity in line with sociology and economics,
 analyze the activities of different economic institutions and their impacts on the global community,
and
 relate the practical application of reciprocity to one’s daily life.

If you have been given something, is it expected for you to return the favor? Why or why not?

Economic Institutions
The term 'economic institutions' has a broad meaning. Let us find out.

The term 'economic institutions' refers to:

79
  a network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced,
generated, distributed, and purchased

Examples: producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, buyers

 the particular agencies or foundations devoted to the gathering or studying of economic data, or
authorized with the job of supplying goods and services that are necessary to the economy of a
country

Examples: the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Federal Reserve, the National Bureau
of Economic Research

 the popular and thriving arrangements and structures that are part of culture or society

Examples: competitive markets, the banking system, a system of property rights

Reciprocity
What is reciprocity?

In Sociology

It is defined as the a system of voluntary exchange among individuals based on the understanding that the
giving of favor by one will be reciprocated in the future either to the giver or to someone else.

Example:

Filipinos practice utang na loob. This act is part of our culture. When a person shows you an act of kindness,
it is a must for Filipinos to return the favor.

In Economics

It is defined as an exchange of equal advantages.

Example:

Japan and Philippines made an economic agreement to remove traveling restrictions to flourish the tourism
of both countries.

Types of Reciprocity

What are the types of reciprocity?

Generalized

Generalized reciprocity is giving something without the anticipation of an instant return.

Example:

When a friend gave you a birthday gift, it is not expected that you will also give that friend a gift in return on
the same day, although it is anticipated that you will give him a gift or token sometime in the future or when
his birthday comes.

Balanced

Balanced reciprocity is giving out of something with the anticipation of immediate return.

Example:

When you get something from the store and walks out without paying for the goods, you will be stopped by
shop employees because you have not reciprocated with money the goods that you picked from the store.

Negative
80
Negative reciprocity occurs when the exchange of something already involves taking advantage of someone
or the situation. Most of the time, this type of exchange involves trickery, intimidation, or hard bargaining.

Example:

Province X has no source of electricity for a long time. X Electric Company made an agreement with the
officials of the province to provide them with power supply. In exchange, the whole area should not entertain
any other electric company to offer the same services to them.

Economic Institutions, Reciprocity, and the Impacts on the Global

Community
We have learned in Chapter 2 that economic institutions involve activities such as producing, generating,
distributing, and purchasing goods and services. These activities have an impact on the global community.

See the illustration below.

Legends:

 blue: economic institutions

 red: activities of economic institutions
 yellow: global community

The activities with economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability of world
community. If one system fails to do its activity, there will be an imbalance that will highly affect the whole
community.

Practical Application

81
Reciprocity always necessitates adequacy of responses but does not mean that it should be of the same
amount or volume. More than economic gain, reciprocity is more of a social benefit. We have to make use of
this principle to bring us closer to our neighbors, friends, family, and loved ones.

Try it!

Compare and contrast generalized from balanced reciprocity. Give examples for each.

What do you think?

How does negative reciprocity affect the activities of different economic institutions? What do you think will
be the impact of these on the global community?

Keypoints

 Generally, economic institutions refer to the network of commercial organizations that determine
how goods and services are produced, generated, distributed, and purchased.
 In sociology, reciprocity is defined as the system of voluntary exchanges among individuals based
on the understanding that the giving of favor by one will be reciprocated in the future either to the
giver or to someone else.
 In economics, reciprocity is defined as an exchange of equal advantages.
 There are three types of reciprocity: general, balanced, and negative.
 The activities of economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability of the
global community.
 More than economic gain, reciprocity is more of a social benefit.

Economic Institutions: Transfers

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the concepts of transfer or transfer payment concerning economics, and

 analyze the level of activities of different economic institutions concerning transfer and the impacts
on the global economy.

 Are you aware of the different kinds of goods and services that private and government sectors
provide for the people?
 Does the present government provide more goods and services than it did in the past?
 How does the government redistribute more income?

Economic Institutions
The term 'economic institutions' refers to:

 a network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced,
generated, distributed, and purchased

Examples: producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, buyers

 the particular agencies or foundations devoted to the gathering or studying of economic data, or
authorized with the job of supplying goods and services that are necessary to the economy of a
country

Examples: the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Federal Reserve, the National Bureau
of Economic Research
82
  the popular and thriving arrangements and structures that are part of culture or society

Examples: competitive markets, the banking system, a system of property rights

The Functions of Economic Institutions

The economy of a particular country like the Philippines is composed of different institutions that play a
significant role in providing the needs of the people. These institutions perform economic activities that start
from production to distribution of goods and services to the people.

Here are some of the functions of economic institutions in society:

 Enhance development through financial services

 Provide business opportunity to people by financing and loans
 Fund research projects aimed at improving the lives of the individuals in the society

Transfers
In economics, transfer or transfer payment is a redistribution of income or resources in the market system.
It refers to payments or transactions where there is no value added to the economy. There is no additional
production of goods and services but just a transfer of money from private hands to government.

Examples:

 Taxes
 Social security
 Private pension benefits
 Housing
 Health care

Transfer payments can originate from either government or business sources. Business transfer payments
include corporate gifts to non-profit institutions, payments for personal injury, and taxes paid by domestic
corporations to foreign governments. Far more important, both, in terms and policy significance, are transfer
payments originating from government sources.

How Transfers Work in the Government

The government as an economic institution also provides commercial goods to the people in the form of
public services and transfer payments.

In the Philippines, the government is allocating a huge amount of money to finance different programs like
education, infrastructures, health, and defense.

Among the government agencies that received the highest allocations are:

 the Department of Education (DepEd) with PhP 411.905 billion,

 the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) with PhP 384.287 billion, and
 the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) with Php 124.229 billion

In the United States, transfers are payments made to individuals by the federal government through different
social benefit programs.

In Canada, transfers are payments made to all provinces and territories by the federal government.

Economic Institutions, Transfers, and the Impact on the Global

Economy
Transfer as an activity of every economic institution, such as the industry, finance, and services, distribute
part of their income or profit to provide essential services and assistance to some segments of society,
especially the underprivileged, to help uplift their living conditions without expecting anything in return.

To help you analyze statement above, look at the diagram shown below:
83
In the circular flow of the economy, households and firms pay taxes to the government. In return, the
government distributes transfers in the form of services to the household and subsidies to the firms.

The activities of the household, markets, businesses, government, or financial institutions as economic
systems have a great impact on the global economy because they provide goods and services needed by
people not only of a particular country but also by the world community. The stability of a country's
economy has a direct impact on the global community for it determines its ability to provide the needs of its
people. It also contributes to the stability of the world.

Explore!

Imagine that the Philippine government is doing its job in solving the rampant problem of smuggling. More
taxes are collected, and local and foreign industries are protected. In the end, more effective and efficient
services are provided to the people. How do you connect this scenario to the lesson?

Economic Institutions: Redistribution

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the concepts of redistribution in relation to sociology, economics, and politics;

 analyze the level of activities of different economic institutions concerning redistribution and the
impacts on global community; and
 recognize the various forms of redistribution in own community.

 What do you expect the government will do with the taxes they collect from the people?
 In your church, in what programs or projects do you think they spend the donations coming from the
members?

Economic Institutions
84
The term 'economic institutions' refers to:

 a network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced,
generated, distributed, and purchased

Examples: producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, buyers

 the particular agencies or foundations devoted to the gathering or studying of economic data, or
authorized with the job of supplying goods and services that are necessary to the economy of a
country

Examples: the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Federal Reserve, the National Bureau
of Economic Research

 the popular and thriving arrangements and structures that are part of culture or society

Examples: competitive markets, the banking system, a system of property rights

Redistribution
What is redistribution? Why is it an important activity of societies? How do you compare redistribution from
reciprocity?

In relation to Sociology

Redistribution is an everyday activity of societies. Members of the society contribute by giving their goods
that would be collected by the head of the community followed by a distribution of the goods among the
members.

Example:

A) Church tithes

The church acts as the central organization that pools the goods donated by its members in the form of tithes
or donations. The church manages these tithes and donations for the maintenance of the church itself and its
projects and programs in which most of the time, its members are the recipients. By that process, the tithes or
donations given by the members are being redistributed to them, especially the less fortunate members.

B) Potlatch

It is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts celebrated by most Pacific Northwest tribes. In every
celebration, each person invited to a potlatch receives a gift. Ceremonial formalities were observed in the
distribution of gifts or goods by the donor according to the social rank or status of the recipients.

Potlatch in Relation to Economics

Traditionally, the potlatch is the economic system of the natives of South America. Today, the potlatch is
still evident in our economic system. How?

Example:

In our society today there are rival companies. Let us consider these companies as the rival groups of Native
Americans. Company A releases one product to the market; the Company B will try to surpass that product
by releasing their product better than the product of the Company A.

In Relation to Economics

Redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be given by a central
authority for allocation.

Example:
When the government collects taxes from its population, the government becomes the centralized authority
where all taxes are pooled and managed. The taxes that were pooled will be returned to the people in the
form of social services, welfare benefits, infrastructures, and others which the government will spearhead.
85
In Relation to Politics

Redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed, or changed. This process is a
form of boundary delimitation that changes electoral district boundaries, usually in response to census
results. In democratic governments, redistribution is required by law or constitution.

Example: In the United States, redistribution happens after each ten-year census. The state legislature
approves most states' legislative district redistributions. The highest court rulings require that congressional
districts have roughly equal populations.

The table shows a comparison between redistribution and reciprocity.

Try it!

If you become a wealthy individual who is willing to share part of your fortune to others, which among the
basic needs (food, housing, education, health) will be your priority? Justify your answer.

What do you think?

Why are there many Filipino families who still do not have access to essential goods and services to support
their everyday living?

Keypoints

 Economic institutions are sectors of the economy that provide goods and services to the people.
 One of the activities of different economic institutions of a particular country is to provide transfers.
 A transfer or transfer payment is a redistribution of income or resources in the market system.
 The circular flow of economy helps explain the interrelationship of different sectors of the economy.
 Government and private enterprises play major roles in the world economy.
 The activities of the economic institutions of a particular country have a great impact on the global
community.

Economic Institutions: Redistribution

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the concepts of redistribution in relation to sociology, economics, and politics;

 analyze the level of activities of different economic institutions concerning redistribution and the
impacts on global community; and
 recognize the various forms of redistribution in own community.

 What do you expect the government will do with the taxes they collect from the people?
 In your church, in what programs or projects do you think they spend the donations coming from the
members?
86
Economic Institutions
The term 'economic institutions' refers to:

 a network of commercial organizations that determine how goods and services are produced,
generated, distributed, and purchased

Examples: producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, buyers

 the particular agencies or foundations devoted to the gathering or studying of economic data, or
authorized with the job of supplying goods and services that are necessary to the economy of a
country

Examples: the Philippine Bureau of Internal Revenue, the U.S. Federal Reserve, the National Bureau
of Economic Research

 the popular and thriving arrangements and structures that are part of culture or society

Examples: competitive markets, the banking system, a system of property rights

Redistribution
What is redistribution? Why is it an important activity of societies? How do you compare redistribution from
reciprocity?

In relation to Sociology

Redistribution is an everyday activity of societies. Members of the society contribute by giving their goods
that would be collected by the head of the community followed by a distribution of the goods among the
members.

Example:

A) Church tithes

The church acts as the central organization that pools the goods donated by its members in the form of tithes
or donations. The church manages these tithes and donations for the maintenance of the church itself and its
projects and programs in which most of the time, its members are the recipients. By that process, the tithes or
donations given by the members are being redistributed to them, especially the less fortunate members.

B) Potlatch

It is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts celebrated by most Pacific Northwest tribes. In every
celebration, each person invited to a potlatch receives a gift. Ceremonial formalities were observed in the
distribution of gifts or goods by the donor according to the social rank or status of the recipients.

Potlatch in Relation to Economics

Traditionally, the potlatch is the economic system of the natives of South America. Today, the potlatch is
still evident in our economic system. How?

Example:

In our society today there are rival companies. Let us consider these companies as the rival groups of Native
Americans. Company A releases one product to the market; the Company B will try to surpass that product
by releasing their product better than the product of the Company A.

In Relation to Economics

Redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be given by a central
authority for allocation.

87
Example:
When the government collects taxes from its population, the government becomes the centralized authority
where all taxes are pooled and managed. The taxes that were pooled will be returned to the people in the
form of social services, welfare benefits, infrastructures, and others which the government will spearhead.

In Relation to Politics

Redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed, or changed. This process is a
form of boundary delimitation that changes electoral district boundaries, usually in response to census
results. In democratic governments, redistribution is required by law or constitution.

Example: In the United States, redistribution happens after each ten-year census. The state legislature
approves most states' legislative district redistributions. The highest court rulings require that congressional
districts have roughly equal populations.

The table shows a comparison between redistribution and reciprocity.

Economic Institutions, Redistribution, and their Impacts on the

Global Community

As we have learned in Chapter 3, redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and
groups to be given by a central authority for allocation. Both producers and consumers are economic
institutions in which the government or central authority collects taxes from them and allocates these
funds for projects which are also for the use of economic institutions. If one failed to do his function, there
would be dysfunction and economic imbalance in society.

Redistribution in the Family or Community

Redistribution is evident in our society. Family, as the smallest unit of society, performs simple
redistribution. The mother or father, as the head of the household, collects a part of his or her children’s
income and allocates it to food and pending bills. This serves as the basis for sustained community efforts
under a political leader.

88
Explore!

Think of ways on how redistribution is being effectively practiced in your family, school, barangay, and
municipality or city.

Try it!

Get a partner. Think of at least three situations where small-scale redistribution can occur in the community.

What do you think?

How does redistribution contribute to the development of society?

Keypoints

 Economic institutions refer to the network of commercial organizations that determine how goods
and services are produced, generated, distributed, and purchased.
 In sociology, redistribution is the system of exchange that involves the centralized collection of
products from members of a group followed by the distribution of those goods among the members.
 In economics, redistribution refers to the collection of goods and services of people and groups to be
given by a central authority for allocation.
 In politics, redistribution is the process by which electoral districts are added, removed, or changed.
 Potlatch is a ceremonial distribution of property and gifts by the donor according to the social rank or
status of the recipients.
 Taxation is the process where the government collects taxes from people to turn into social services.
 Church tithes are the donations that are given to religious institutions to be used for their programs
and projects.
 A redistribution is a form of reciprocity. It differs from mere reciprocity, which is a back-and-forth
two-party exchange.
 The activities of the economic institutions play vital roles in shaping and maintaining the stability of
the global community.
 Family, as the smallest unit of society, performs redistribution.

Economic Institutions: Market Transactions

Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

89