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CHAPTER 2
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS

2.1 GENERAL 4a. 1.2D þ 1.0(W or WT) þ L þ (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)

5a. 0.9D þ 1.0(W or WT)
Buildings and other structures shall be designed using the
provisions of either Section 2.3 or 2.4. Where elements of a EXCEPTIONS:
structure are designed by a particular material standard or
specification, they shall be designed exclusively by either 1. The load factor on L in combinations 3a and 4a is permitted
Section 2.3 or 2.4. to equal 0.5 for all occupancies in which Lo in Chapter 4,
Table 4.3-1, is less than or equal to 100 psf (4.78 kN/m2),
with the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of
2.2 SYMBOLS public assembly.
Ak = Load or load effect arising from extraordinary event, A 2. In combinations 2a and 4a, the companion load, S, shall be
D = Dead load taken as either the flat roof snow load (pf ) or the sloped roof
Di = Weight of ice snow load (ps ).
E = Earthquake load 3. Where using WT in combination 4a, (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)
F = Load caused by fluids with well-defined pressures and is permitted to be replaced with 0.5 (Lr or R).
maximum heights other than those caused by groundwater
Where fluid loads, F, are present, they shall be included with
pressure
the same load factor as dead load, D, in combinations 1a through
F a = Flood load
4a. Where loads, H, are present, they shall be included as
H = Load due to lateral earth pressure (including lateral earth
follows:
pressure from fixed or moving surcharge loads), ground
water pressure, or pressure of bulk materials 1. Where the effect of H adds to the principal load effect,
L = Live load include H with a load factor of 1.6;
Lr = Roof live load 2. Where the effect of H resists the principal load effect,
N = Notional load for structural integrity, Section 1.4 include H with a load factor of 0.9, where the load H is
R = Rain load permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
S = Snow load
T = Cumulative effect of self-straining forces and effects arising Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated.
from contraction or expansion resulting from environmental 2.3.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load When a
or operational temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture structure is located in a flood zone (Section 5.3.1), the
changes, creep in component materials, movement caused following load combinations shall be considered in addition to
by differential settlement, or combinations thereof the basic combinations in Section 2.3.1:
W = Wind load In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones:
W i = Wind-on-ice, determined in accordance with Chapter 10
W T = Tornado load, determined in accordance with Chapter 32 4b. 1.2D þ 1.0W þ 2.0Fa þ L þ (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)
5b. 0.9D þ 1.0W þ 2.0Fa
2.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR STRENGTH DESIGN
In noncoastal A-Zones:
2.3.1 Basic Combinations Structures, components, and
foundations shall be designed so that their design strength 4b. 1.2D þ 0.5W þ 1.0Fa þ L þ (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)
equals or exceeds the effects of the factored loads in the 5b. 0.9D þ 0.5W þ 1.0Fa
following combinations. Effects of one or more loads not acting
shall be considered. Seismic load effects shall be combined loads, 2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice and
in accordance with Section 2.3.6. The most unfavorable effects Wind-on-Ice Loads When a structure is subjected to
from wind loads, tornado loads, and earthquake loads shall be atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads, the following load
considered, where appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act combinations shall be considered:
simultaneously. Refer to Sections 1.4, 2.3.6, 12.4, and 12.14.3 for
the specific definition of the earthquake load effect, E. Each 2b. 1.2D þ 1.6L þ 0.2Di þ 0.3S
relevant strength limit state shall be investigated. 4c. 1.2D þ L þ Di þ Wi þ 0.3S
4d. 1.2D þ Di
1a. 1.4D 5c. 0.9D þ Di + Wi
2a. 1.2D þ 1.6L þ (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)
3a. 1.2D þ ð1.6Lr or 1.0S or 1.6R) þ (L or 0.5W) 2.3.4 Load Combinations Including Self-Straining Forces
and Effects Where the structural effects of T are expected to

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 7
 adversely affect structural safety or performance, T shall be Heb = Load due to lateral earth pressure or pressure of bulk
considered in combination with other loads. The load factor materials, including the effect of buoyancy from ground
on T shall be established considering the uncertainty associated water pressure on the lateral pressure of earth or bulk
with the likely magnitude of the structural forces and effects, the materials but otherwise excluding ground water pressure
probability that the maximum effect of T will occur Hw = Load due to ground water pressure in soil
simultaneously with other applied loadings, and the potential
adverse consequences if the effect of T is greater than assumed. Where loads Heb and Hw are present, they shall be included in
The load factor on T shall not have a value less than 1.0. the basic load combinations of Section 2.3.1 as follows:
1. Where the effect of Heb adds to the principal load effect,
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2.3.5 Load Combinations for Nonspecified Loads Where

approved by the Authority Having Jurisdiction, the registered compute Heb based on the maximum ground water eleva-
design professional is permitted to determine the combined load tion and include Heb with a load factor of 1.6.
effect for strength design using a method that is consistent with 2. Where the effect of Heb resists the principal load effect,
the method on which the load combination requirements in compute Heb based on the minimum ground water eleva-
Section 2.3.1 are based. Such a method must be probability tion, and include Heb with a load factor of 0.9 where the
based and must be accompanied by documentation regarding the load Heb is permanent or a load factor of 0 for all other
analysis and collection of supporting data that are acceptable to conditions.
the Authority Having Jurisdiction. 3. Where the effect of Hw adds to the principal load effect,
include Hw based on the maximum ground water
2.3.6 Basic Combinations with Seismic Load Effects When a elevation with a load factor of 1.0.
structure is subject to seismic load effects, the following load 4. Where the effect of Hw resists the principal load effect and
combinations shall be considered in addition to the basic the soil is permanent, compute Hw based on the minimum
combinations in Section 2.3.1. The most unfavorable effects ground water elevation and include Hw with a load factor of
from seismic loads shall be investigated where appropriate, 1.0, otherwise assign a load factor of 0.0 to Hw.
but they need not be considered to act simultaneously with
wind or tornado loads.
Where the prescribed seismic load effect, E = f ðE v ; E h Þ, de- 2.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ALLOWABLE
fined in Sections 12.4.2 or [Link], is combined with the effects STRESS DESIGN
of other loads, the following seismic load combinations shall be 2.4.1 Basic Combinations Loads listed herein shall be
used: considered to act in the following combinations; whichever
6. 1.2D þ E v þ Eh þ L þ 0.15S produces the most unfavorable effect on the building,
7. 0.9D − Ev þ Eh foundation, or structural member shall be considered. Effects
of one or more loads not acting shall be considered. Seismic load
Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, effects shall be combined with other loads, in accordance with
Em = f ðE v ; E mh Þ, defined in Sections 12.4.3 or [Link], is Section 2.4.5. The most unfavorable effects from wind loads,
combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic tornado loads, and earthquake loads shall be considered, where
load combination for structures shall be used: appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act simultaneously.
Refer to Sections 1.4, 2.4.5, 12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific
6. 1.2D þ E v þ Emh þ L þ 0.15S
definition of the earthquake load effect, E.
7. 0.9D − Ev þ Emh
Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or
EXCEPTION: load combinations given in this standard unless it can be
demonstrated that such an increase is justified by structural
1. The load factor on L in combination 6 is permitted to behavior caused by rate or duration of load.
equal 0.5 for all occupancies in which Lo in Chapter 4,
Table 4.3-1, is less than or equal to 100 psf (4.78 kN/m2), 1a. D
with the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of 2a. DþL
public assembly. 3a. D þ ðLr or 0.7S or R)
2. In combination 6, the companion load, S, shall be taken as 4a. D þ 0.75L þ 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R)
either the flat roof snow load (pf ) or the sloped roof snow 5a. D þ 0.6ðW or W T Þ
load (ps ). 6a. D þ 0.75L þ 0.75ð0.6ðW or W T ÞÞ þ 0.75ðLr or 0:7S or RÞ
7a. 0.6D þ 0.6ðW or W T Þ
Where fluid loads, F, are present, they shall be included with
the same load factor as dead load D in combinations 6 and 7.
Where loads, H, are present, they shall be included as follows: EXCEPTIONS:

1. Where the effect of H adds to the primary variable load 1. In combinations 4a and 6a, the companion load, S, shall be
effect, include H with a load factor of 1.6. taken as either the flat roof snow load (pf ) or the sloped roof
2. Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load snow load (ps ).
effect, include H with a load factor of 0.9 where the load H 2. For nonbuilding structures in which the wind or tornado
is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions. load is determined from force coefficients, C f , identified in
Figures 29.4-1, 29.4-2, and 29.4-3 and the projected
2.3.7 Alternative Method for Loads from Water in Soil This area contributing wind or tornado force to a foundation
section is permitted as an alternate for combining loads from soil element exceeds 1,000 ft2 (93 m2) on either a vertical or a
and water in soil to the requirements in Section 2.3.1. The horizontal plane, it shall be permitted to replace (W or WT)
alternate is only permitted when using the loads defined in with 0.9 (W or WT) in combination 7a for design of the
Section 3.3. For the purposes of this section, replace Symbol foundation, excluding anchorage of the structure to the
H from Section 2.2 with new symbols Heb and Hw as follows: foundation.

8 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-22

 3. Where using WT in combination 6a, 0.75 (Lr or 0.7S or R) is 8. 1.0D þ 0.7Ev þ 0.7Emh
permitted to be replaced with 0.75 (Lr or R). 9. 1.0D þ 0.525Ev þ 0.525Emh þ 0.75L þ 0.1S
10. 0.6D − 0.7Ev þ 0.7E mh
Where fluid loads, F, are present, they shall be included in
combinations 1a through 6a, with the same factor as that used for Where allowable stress design methodologies are used with
dead load, D. the seismic load effect defined in Section 12.4.3 or [Link]
Where loads, H, are present, they shall be included as follows: and applied in load combinations 8, 9, or 10, allowable stresses
are permitted to be determined using an allowable stress increase
1. Where the effect of H adds to the principal load effect, factor of 1.2. This increase shall not be combined with increases
include H with a load factor of 1.0.
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in allowable stresses or load combination reductions otherwise

2. Where the effect of H resists the principal load effect, permitted by this standard, or the material reference document,
include H with a load factor of 0.6 where the load H is except for increases caused by adjustment factors, in accordance
permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions. with AWC NDS.

2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load When a EXCEPTIONS:

structure is located in a flood zone, the following load
combinations shall be considered: 1. In combination 9, the companion load, S, shall be taken as
In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones: either the flat roof snow load (pf ) or the sloped roof snow
load (ps ).
5b. D þ 0.6W þ 1.5Fa 2. It shall be permitted to replace 0.6D with 0.9D in combi-
6b. D þ 0.75L þ 0.75(0.6W) þ 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) þ 1.5Fa nation 10 for the design of special reinforced masonry
7b. 0.6D þ 0.6W þ 1.5Fa shear walls where the walls satisfy the requirement of
Section 14.4.2.
In noncoastal A-Zones:
Where fluid loads, F, are present, they shall be included in
5b. D þ 0.6W þ 0.75Fa
combinations 8, 9, and 10, with the same factor as that used for
6b. D þ 0.75L þ 0.75(0.6W) þ 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) þ 0.75Fa
dead load, D.
7b. 0.6D þ 0.6W þ 0.75Fa
Where loads H are present, they shall be included as follows:

2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice and 1. Where the effect of H adds to the primary variable load
Wind-on-Ice Loads When a structure is subjected to effect, include H with a load factor of 1.0.
atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads, the following load 2. Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load
combinations shall be considered: effect, include H with a load factor of 0.6 where the
load H is permanent or a load factor of 0 for all other
1b. D þ 0.7Di conditions.
2b. D þ L þ 0.7Di
3b. D þ 0.7Di þ 0.7Wi + 0.7S
2.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR EXTRAORDINARY
7c. 0.6D þ 0.7Di þ 0.7Wi
EVENTS

2.4.4 Load Combinations Including Self-Straining Forces 2.5.1 Applicability Where required by the owner or applicable
and Effects Where the structural effects of T are expected to code, strength and stability shall be checked to ensure that
adversely affect structural safety or performance, T shall be structures are capable of withstanding the effects of extraordinary
considered in combination with other loads. Where the (i.e., low probability) events, such as fires, explosions, and
maximum effect of load, T, is unlikely to occur simultaneously vehicular impact without disproportionate collapse.
with the maximum effects of other variable loads, it shall be 2.5.2 Load Combinations
permitted to reduce the magnitude of T considered in
combination with these other loads. The fraction of T considered [Link] Capacity For checking the capacity of a structure or
in combination with other loads shall not be less than 0.75. structural element to withstand the effect of an extraordinary
event, the following gravity load combination shall be
2.4.5 Basic Combinations with Seismic Load Effects When a considered:
structure is subject to seismic load effects, the following load
combinations shall be considered in addition to the basic
combinations and associated exceptions detailed in Section 2.4.1. ð0.9 or 1.2ÞD þ Ak þ 0.5L þ 0.15S (2.5-1)
Where the prescribed seismic load effect, E = f ðEv ; Eh Þ,
defined in Section 12.4.2 or [Link], is combined with the in which Ak is the load or load effect resulting from the
effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations extraordinary event, A.
shall be used:
[Link] Residual Capacity For checking the residual load-
8. 1.0D þ 0.7Ev þ 0.7Eh carrying capacity of a structure or structural element following
9. 1.0D þ 0.525Ev þ 0.525Eh þ 0.75L þ 0.1S the occurrence of a damaging event, selected load-bearing
10. 0.6D − 0.7Ev þ 0.7E h elements identified by the registered design professional shall
be notionally removed, and the capacity of the damaged
Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, structure shall be evaluated using the following gravity load
E m = f ðEv ; Emh Þ, defined in Section 12.4.3 or [Link], is combination:
combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic
load combinations for structures not subject to flood or atmo-
spheric ice loads shall be used: ð0.9 or 1.2ÞD þ 0.5L þ 0.2ðLr or 0.7S or RÞ (2.5-2)

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 9