[Link].

in

4.10 SONAR Technology 4.10.1 Types of SONAR

SONAR (Originally an acronym for Sound They are two types of SONAR
Navigation And Ranging) is a technique 1. Active SONAR
that uses sound propagation. Sonar uses
2. Passive SONAR
the echo principle by sending out sound
waves under water or through the human
Active SONAR
body to locate objects.
Active SONAR is emitting pulses of sound
When man or animal or machine
and listening echoes. It sends out sound
makes a noise, it sends sound waves into
pulses. Then receives the returning sound
the environment around it. Those waves
echo.
bounced back after hitting any nearby
objects, and some of them reflect back to Passive SONAR
the object that made the noise. SONAR
works using, this echo principle. It is essentially listening for the sound made
by vessels. It receives sound echoes without
A method or device detecting transmitting their own sound signals.
or locating the objects especially in
underwater by means of sound waves sent 4.10.2 Uses of Active SONAR
out were reflected by the objects. Also a
1. Detecting and tracking submarines,
device for detecting the presence or a
vessel (such as a submarine) by the sound, ships, etc (under- water combat)
it emits in water. Figure 4.12 shows the 2. Mapping the ocean flour (navigation
SONAR technology. / Surveillance)
3. Detecting under water mines

4.10.3 Uses of Passive SONAR

1. Listening to the noise from enemy
submarines, surface vessels etc over
long range.
2. Many animals use echo – location for
hunting and navigation purposes.

4.10.4 Applications of SONAR

1. To detect, track and destroy enemy
ships and submarines.
2. Detecting underwater mines.
3. To determine navigational location.
4. Mapping the Ocean floor.
5. In research, it is used to find animal
location and tracking.
6. In medical, it is used in zonography
FIGURE 4.12 SONAR Technology and auditory research.
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4.11 Tsunami System 4.11.3 Tsunami Warning System

4.11.1 What is Tsunami? Tsunami warning system is used to detect

tsunami in advance and issue warnings to
A Tsunami is a series of fast moving prevent losses of life and property damage
waves in the ocean caused by powerful
earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. A It is made up of two equally
tsunami has a very long wavelength. It can important components
be hundreds of kilometres long. 1. A network of sensors to detect
tsunamis.
4.11.2 Need of Tsunami Warning 2. A communication infrastructure
System to issue timely alarms to permit
evacuation of the costal areas.
The east and west coasts of India and the
island regions are likely to be affected
by tsunamis generator mainly due to 1. International
Where is thetsunami warning
tsunami warning
earthquakes in the seduction zones. systems
system located in India?
Hence, there was a need for developing 2. Regional warning systems
tsunami warning system. Answer: In Hyderabad

FIGURE 4.13 shows the Tsunami warning system.

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a seismometer, coupled with a recording

system.
A Seismograph is an instrument
which is used to detect and record earthquake.
Generally, it consists of a mass attached to a
fixed base. During an earthquake, the base
moves and the mass does not.
The motion of the base with respect
to the mass is commonly transferred into
an electrical voltage. Figure 4.14 shows
the seismograph.
The electrical voltage is recorded
on paper, magnetic tape or recording
medium. This record is proportional to the
motion of the seismometer mass relative
to the earth but it can be mathematically
converted to a record of the absolute
FIGURE 4.13 Tsunami warning system motion of the ground.
The magnitude of an earthquake
4.12 S
 eismograph and is determined by recording of the seismic
Avionics waves resulting from the vibration
generator by the seismic source. Sensitive
seismograph, which greatly magnify these
4.12.1 Seismograph ground motions that can detect strong
A Seismograph is a device for measuring earthquakes from sources anywhere in the
the movement of the earth and consists of world. The time, locations and magnitude
a ground-motion detection sensor, called of an earthquake can be determined from
the data recorded by seismograph station.

FIGURE 4.14 Seismograph

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FIGURE 4.15 The cockpit of flight Airbus A380

4.12.2 Avionics system

Avionics are the electronic Systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites and space craft.
Avionic system included communications, navigations, the display and magnet of multiple
system and the hundreds of systems that’s are fitted to aircraft to perform individual
function.

4.12.3 Aircraft AVIONICS

How does the word Avionics come
The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location
from?
for avionic equipment, including control,
monitoring, communication, navigation, T he word avionics comes from

weather, and anti-collision systems. The Aviation + electronics
majority of aircraft power their avionics
using 14- or 28volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft
(such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, 115
volts AC. A separate international organisation called Airlines Electronic Engineering
Committee (AEEC) prepare the International standards for Avionics equipment. Figure
4.15 shows the Cockpit of flight Airbus A380.

learning outcome
After studying this chapter, students can understand the following
1. The principle of an OFC.
2. Advantages and disadvantages of an OFC.
3. The difference between OFC and cable communication.
4. The different types of satellite and their applications.
5. The basic function of RADAR and SONAR.

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QUESTIONS 7 Microwave frequency ranges were

a) 1 GHz to 30 GHz
I. Choose the best answer from the
given four options. b) 100 KHz to 30 MHz

1. The principle of an OFC technology c) 550 KHz to 1650 KHz

was d) 300 MHz to 300 GHz
a) Electromagnetic induction 8. ___________works as microwave
b) Total internal reflection repeater.
c) Electro motive force a) Amplifier

d) Mutual inductance b) Satellite

2. ___________ is called as father of c) Antenna

fiber optics. d) SONAR
a) John Tyndall 9. Radar is used to determine location
b) Dr. Narinder singh kapany or speed of an ________.
c) Charles babbage a) Ship

d) [Link] b) Object

3. ___________is the primary source c) Wave

of power for satellites. d) Metal
a) Sun b) Light 10. SONAR uses principles by sending
c) Heat d) None of the above out sound waves under water.
4. Satellite communication is also a) Electromagnetic
called __________. b) Electromotive
a) Space communication c) Echo
b) Microwave communication d) Mutual inductance
c) Cable communication
d) Optical fiber communication II. Answer in few sentence.
5. Nano Satellites weigh less than 1. What are fiber optics?
___________. 2. What are the basic elements of fiber
a) 5 Kg b) 20 Kg optics?
c) 10 Kg d) 15 Kg 3. What are the disadvantages of an
6. Microwave Communication is also OFC?
called ________. 4. Write short notes on an artificial
a) Satellites Communication satellite.
b) Optical fibre Communication 5. Write about weather satellite.

c) Line of sight Communication 6. Define microwave communication.

d) Space Communication 7. What is RADAR?

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8. Write short notes about SONAR. IV. Briefly explain the following
9. What is Tsunami? questions.
10. Define Seismograph. 1. Explain briefly the difference
between optical fiber and co-axial
cable.
III. Explain the following questions.
2. What are the applications of an OFC?
1. Write about the working principle of
3. Explain about any five artificial
an OFC.
satellites.
2. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of Microwave
communication?
3. Draw the block diagram of RADAR.
4. What are the uses of RADAR?
5. Explain about SONAR Technology.

Answer
1(b) 2(b) 3(a) 4(a) 5(c)
6(c) 7(d) 8(b) 9(b) 10(c)

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05

CHAPTER
Digital Image Processing

learning objective
The students can understand the following in this chapter
„ Analog and Digital Image Processing.
„ Representation of Digital Image.
„ Components of Digital Image Processing.
„ Fundamental steps of Digital Image Processing.
„ Applications of Digital Image Processing.

5.1 Introduction Pixel is the term most widely used to denote

the elements of digital image. An image is a
The field of digital image processing refers
two-dimensional function that represents
to processing digital images by means
a measure of some characteristic such as
of digital computer. Digital image is
brightness or color of a viewed scene. An
composed of a finite number of elements,
image is a projection of a 3- D scene into a
each of which has a particular location and
2D projection plane. Figure. 5.1 shows the
value. These elements are called picture
concepts of Digital Image Processing.
elements, image elements, pels and pixels.

FIGURE 5.1 Concepts of Digital Image Processing

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An image may be defined as a two- changes. It is composed of picture element

dimensional function f(x,y), where x and called pixel. Pixel value must be discrete.
y are spatial (plane) coordinates, and the Figure 5.3 shows the Digital Image.
amplitude to f at any pair of coordinates
(x,y) is called the intensity of the image at
that point. The term gray level is used often
to refer to the intensity of monochrome
images. Color images are formed by a
combination of individual 2-D images.

5.2. Types of Images

5.2.1. Analog Image Processing
The analog image processing is applied
on analog signals and it processes only FIG.5.3 Digital Image
two-dimensional signals. The images
are manipulated by electrical signals.
In analog image processing, analog
Examples: Color processing, Image
signals can be periodic or non-periodic.
recognition, Video processing, etc.
An analog image can be represented as
continous range of values representing
position and intensity. Figure 5.2 shows 5.3 Pixel
the analog image. Pixel is the smallest element of an image.
Each pixel correspond to anyone value.
In an 8-bit grey scale image, the value of
the pixel ranges between 0 and 255. The
value of pixel at any point corresponds to
the intensity of the light photons striking
at that point. Each pixel stores a value
proportional to the light intensity at that
particular location. Figure 5.4 shows the
FIGURE 5.2 Analog Image pixel representation of an image. Pixel
is also known as PEL (Picture Element).
Examples: Television images, In this picture thousands of pixels that
Photographs, Paintings, and Medical together make up the image. If we zoom
images etc. the image to the extent that we are able to
see some pixels division.
5.2.2 Digital Image Processing
A digital image processing is applied to Calculation of total number of
digital images (a matrix of small pixels pixels
and elements). For manipulating the We have defined an image as a two
images, there is a number of software and dimensional signal or matrix. From this,
algorithms that are applied to perform

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FIGURE 5.4 Pixel representation of an image

the number of pixel is equal to number of 0 1 0 

rows multiplied with number of columns. 1 0 0 
 
A pixel can have only one value and this 0 1 0 
value denotes the intensity of light at that
point of image. Now, we can see the unique Formula:
value of 0 (zero’s) and 1 (One’s). The Total no. of pixels = total no. of rows x
value 0 means absence of light and also total no. of columns = 3 x 3 = 9
denotes darkness. The valuve of 1 means It means that an image is formed
the presence of light and also denotes with 9 pixels, and that image is having a
brightness. For example, the following dimension of 3 rows and 3 columns.
matrix is filled with 0s and 1s

5.4. Analog Image Processing vs. Digital Image Processing

Following table shows the differences between Analog Images Processing and Digital
Image Processing:
Analog Image Processing Digital Image Processing
The analog image processing is applied on The digital image processing is applied to
analog signals and it processes only two- digital signals that work on analyzing and
dimensional signals. manipulating the images.
Analog signal is time-varying signals so It improves the digital quality of the image and
the images formed under analog image intensity distribution is perfect in it.
processing get varied.
Analog image processing is a slower and Digital image processing is a cheaper and fast
costlier process. image storage and retrieval processes.
Analog signal is a real-world but not It uses good image compression techniques
having good quality of images. that reduces the amount of data required and
produces good quality of images
It is generally continuous and not broken It uses an image segmentation technique which
into tiny components. is used to detect discontinuity which occurs due
to a broken connection path.

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5.5. Representing the Sampling

Digital Image Digitization of spatial coordinates (x,y) is
A digital image f(m,n) described in a called Image Sampling. To be suitable for
2D discrete space is derived from an computer processing, an image function
analog image f(x,y) in a 2D continuous f(x,y) must be digitized both in spatial and
space through a sampling process that is magnitude domains. Figure 5.6 shows the
frequently referred to as digitization. The Image Sampling.
effect of digitization is shown in figure 5.5

FIGURE 5.6 Sampling

Quantization
Digitizing the amplitude values is called
FIGURE 5.5 Effects of Digital Image Quantization. Quality of digital image is
The 2D continuous image f(x,y) determined to a large degree by the number
is divided into n rows and m columns. of samples and discrete gray levels used
The intersection of a row and a column in sampling and quantization process.
is termed a pixel. The value assigned Figure 5.7 shows the Image quantization.
to the integer coordinates (m,n) with
m=0,1,2..n-1 and n=0,1,2...n-1 is f(m,n).
In fact, in most cases, is actually a function
of many variables including depth, color
and time (t).

5.5.1 Sampling and Quantization

FIGURE 5.7 Quantization.
To create a digital image, we need to
convert the continuous sensor signal into The result of sampling and
digital form. This involves two processes. quantization is matrix of real numbers.
1. Sampling
Assume that an image f(x,y) is sampled so
that the resulting digital image has m rows
2. Quantization
and n columns. The values of the coordinates
A continuous image, f(x, y), that we (x,y) now become discrete quantities thus the
want to convert to digital form. An image value of the coordinates at origin become (x,y)
may be continuous with respect to the x = (0,0). The next coordinates value along the
and y coordinates, and also in amplitude. first signify the image along the first row. It
To convert it to digital form, we have to does not mean that these are the actual values
sample the function in both coordinates of physical coordinates when the image was
as amplitude value. sampled. Thus, the right side of the matrix

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represents a digital element, pixel or pel. The them to a form suitable for computer
matrix can be represented in the following processing and classification of individual
form as well. objects. The inputs to the process are
generally images but outputs are attributes
extracted from images.

High level Processing

It involves “making sense” of an ensemble
of recognized objects, as in image analysis,
Hence f(x,y) is a digital image if and performing the cognitive functions
gray level (that is, a real number from normally associated with vision.
the set of real number R) to each distinct
pair of coordinates (x,y). This functional 5.6 Image Processing Tool
assignment is the quantization process. Box (IPT)
Due to processing storage and hardware
consideration, the number of gray levels It is a collection of functions such
typically are an integer power of 2. as MATLAB numeric computing
environment, MATLAB language make
L=2k many image-processing operations easy
Then, the number ‘b’ of bits required to to write in a compact, clear manner, thus
store a digital image is providing an ideal software prototyping
b=m × n × k environment for the solution of image
processing problem.
When M=N, the equation become
b=n2 × k 5.7 Components of Image
When an image can have 2k gray levels, Processing System:
it is referred to as “k- bit”. An image with
256 possible gray levels is called an “8- bit Image Processing System is the
image” (256=28 ). combination of the different elements
involved in the digital image processing.
Image Processing can be classified Digital image processing is the processing
into three main types and are summarized of an image by means of a digital computer.
in the following subsections. It uses different computer algorithms to
perform image processing on the digital
Low level Processing
images. Figure 5.8 shows the components
It involves primitive operations such as of image processing system.
image processing to reduce noise, contrast It consists of the following
enhancement and image sharpening. These components:-
kinds of processes are characterized by the
properties of both the input and output images.
5.7.1 Image Sensors
Mid-level Image Processing
With reference to sensing, two elements
It involves tasks like segmentation, are required to acquire digital image. The
description of those objects to reduce first is a physical device that is sensitive to
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FIGURE 5.8 Components of Image processing System

the energy radiated by the object we wish minimum, utilizes the specialized module.
to image and second is specialized image More sophisticated software packages
processing hardware. allow the integration of these modules.

5.7.2 Specialized Image 5.7.5 Mass Storage

Processing Hardware This capability is a must in image
It consists of the digitizer just mentioned, processing applications. An image of size
plus hardware that performs other primitive 1024 x1024 pixels, in which the intensity
operations such as an arithmetic logic unit, of each pixel is an 8-bit quantity requires
which performs arithmetic operations such one Megabytes of storage space, if the
as addition and subtraction and logical image is not compressed.
operations in parallel on images. Image processing applications falls
into three principal categories of storage.
5.7.3 Computer
„ Short term storage for use during
It is a general-purpose computer and processing.
can range from a PC to a supercomputer „ On line storage for relatively fast
depending on the application. In dedicated retrieval.
applications, sometimes specially designed „ Archival storage such as magnetic
computer is used to achieve a required tapes and disks.
level of performance
5.7.6 Image Display
5.7.4 Software
Image displays in use today are mainly
It consists of specialized modules that color TV monitors. These monitors are
perform specific tasks using a well- driven by the outputs of the image and
designed package, which includes graphics displays cards that are an integral
capability for the user to write code, as a part of the computer system.
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5.7.7 Hardcopy Devices „ Methods whose outputs are attributes

The devices for recording image include extracted from those images.
laser printers, film cameras, heat sensitive Figure 5.9 shows the fundamental
devices, inkjet units and digital units steps in Digital Image Processing.
such as optical and CD ROM disk. Films
provide the highest possible resolution,
but paper is the obvious medium of choice 5.8.1 Image Acquisition
for written applications. In image processing, image acquisition
is the action of retrieving an image from
5.7.8 Networking a source, usually hardware systems like
It is almost a default function in any computer cameras, sensors, etc. It is the first and
system in use today because of the large the most important step in the workflow
amount of data inherent in image processing sequence because, without an image,
applications. The key consideration in is no actual processing is possible by the
image transmission bandwidth. system. Generally, the image acquisition
stage involves processing such as
sampling,scaling and coding. Figure 5.10
5.8. Fundamental Steps
shows the Image Acquisition Process.
in Digital Image
Processing.
5.8.2 Image Enhancement
There are two categories of the steps
It is among the simplest and most appealing
involved in the image processing –
areas of digital image processing. It is
„ Methods whose outputs and input are the process of improving the quality of
images. digitally stored image by manipulating the

FIGURE 5.9 Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing

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Colour Filter Array

FIGURE 5.10 Image Acquisition Process

image with software. The idea is to bring 5.8.3 Image Restoration

out details that are obscured or simply It is the process of recovering an image
to highlight certain features of interest from a degraded version. The degradation
in image. Image enhancement is a very may comes in many forms like blurred,
subjective area of image processing. For noisy image and camera out of focus
example, removing noise, sharpening or problems. In order to restore the original
brightening an image. Figure 5.11 shows image, we have to apply the inverse process
the image enhancement on a noisy image, to restore the degraded pixels.
which exhibits improved features as well
as complete removal of noise. (Salt and It is an objective approach, in the
Pepper Noise) sense that restoration techniques tend to
be based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image processing. Enhancement,
on the other hand is based on human
subjective preferences regarding what
constitutes a “good” enhancement result.
Figure 5.12 shows the restored image
from the out of focus image.
FIGURE 5.11 Enhanced Image after removing the The types of noises are as follows
salt and pepper noise
„ Gaussian noise

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„ It is used in publishing, visualization

and the internet. Figure 5.13 shows
the full colour sensor image.

Pseudo Colour Image Processing

Before few decades, colour sensor and
processing hardware were not available.
FIGURE 5.12 Image Restoration correcting an out of Pseudo colour images are generated
focus image. by assigning a shade of colour to a
monochrome intensity (or range of
intensities). Figure 5.14 shows the pseudo
„ Rayleigh noise
colour image.
„ Gamma noise
„ Exponential noise
„ Uniform noise
„ Impulse (Salt &Pepper) noise

5.8.4 Colour Image Processing

Color image processing deals with basically
color models and their implementation in FIGURE 5.14 Pseudo Colour Image
image processing applications. Colour is The physical nature of colour can
a powerful descriptor which simplifies explained by experimental and theoretical
object identification and extraction. results. The concept of electromagnetic
Example. Face Detection using skin colors. spectrum is shown in figure 5.15.
It can be broadly classified into, Visible light wavelength from
around 400 to 700nm.
1. Full colour Image Processing
2. Pseudo colour image Processing
Characteristics of Light

Full Colour Image Processing 1. For an achromatic (Monochrome)

light source, there is only one
„ Images are acquired from full colour
attribute to describe the quality is
sensor or equipment like colour TV
Intensity.
camera and Colour Scanner.
2. For a chromatic light sources there
are three attributes to describe the
quality:
„ Radiance : Total amount of energy
flow from a light source ( Watts)
„ Luminance : Amount of Energy
received by an observer (Lumens)
„ Brightness : Intensity
FIGURE 5.13 Full Colour Sensor Image

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Gamma Ultravoilet Infrared

rays X-rays rays rays Radar FM TV Shortwave AM

1x10–14 1x10–12 1x10–8 1x10–4 1x10–2 1x102 1x104

Wavelength (in meters)

Visible light

4x10–2 5x10–2 6x10–2 7x10–2

Wavelength (in meters)

High energy Low energy

FIGURE 5.15 Electromagnetic Spectrum

There are three quantities to „ Red, Green and Blue (RGB model)
describe any colour: are called Primary colours, which
HSI (Hue, Saturation, Intensity) are used in colour monitors and
Model is used for image processing video cameras
applications. „ Cyan, Magenta and Yellow (CMY
model) are called the Secondary
1. Hue: The predominant spectral
Colours used for colour printing.
colour of an object.
Secondary colours are the colours
2. Saturation: It means how pure the which can be obtained by the
hue is or how less white light is mixed combination of primary colours.
with it. How less the object is diluted Figure 5.16 shows the primary
by light is called its saturation. and secondary colours.
3. Intensity (Brightness): It is
the subjective descriptor that is
practically impossible to measure.

FIGURE 5.16 Primary and Secondary colours

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5.8.5 Wavelets and Multiresolution Processing

Wavelet transform is used to analyze a signal (image) into different frequency components at
different resolution scales (i.e. multiresolution). These are the foundation for representing
image in various degrees of resolution. Figure 5.17 shows the Multiresoultion Images.

FIGURE 5.17 Multiresolution Images

Multiresolution theory incorporates Image Pyramid techniques. It is a powerful simple

structure for representing images at more than one resolution. It is a collection of
decreasing resolution images arranged in the shape of pyramid as shown in figure 5.18.

FIGURE 5.18 Multiresolution Images arranged in an Image Pyramid

5.8.6 Image Compression

It deals with techniques reducing the storage required to save an image, or the bandwidth
required to transmit it over the network. It has two major approaches
1. Lossless Compression
2. Lossy Compression
Figure 5.19 shows the comparison between original and compressed image.

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FIGURE 5.19 Comparison beween Original and Compressed Image.

Difference between Lossless and Lossy Compression

FACTORS Lossless Compression Lossy Compression
Definition Lossless compression is a Lossy compression is the class of data
class of data compression encoding method that uses inexact
algorithms that allow the approximations to represent the content.
original data to be perfectly These techniques are used to reduce
reconstructed from the the data size for storage, handling, and
compressed data. transmitting content.
Algorithm RLW, LZW, Arithmetic Transform coding, DCT,DWT, Fractal
encoding, Huffman coding compression, Rectangle Segmentation and
and Shannon-Fano coding. Sparse Matrix Storage (RSSMS).
Uses Text or programs, images and Images, audio and video.
sound.
Images RAW, BMP, and PNG are all JPEG and GUI are lossy image formats.
Lossless formats.
Audio WAV, FLAC, and ALAC are MP3, MP4, and OGG are lossy audio
all Lossless. formats.
Video Few lossless video formats Common formats like H-264, MKV, and
are in common consumer WMV are all lossy. H-264 can provides
use, they would result in smaller files with higher qualities than
video files taking up a huge previous generation of video codec because
amount of space. it has a "smaller" algorithm that's better at
choosing the data for throughput.
Advantages It maintains quality. It can make a multimedia file much smaller
than its original size.
Disadvantages It doesn’t reduce the Conversion to another format only with
file size as much as lossy loss of audio information.
compression.

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