Amplitude – the maximum value (either positive or negative) which an

alternating quantity attains during one complete cycle.

AC CIRCUITS
Cycle - a complete change in value and direction of an alternating quantity.
Part 1 A cycle of alternating voltage and current completes in 360 electrical
degrees. There are two (2) alternations per cycle.
Single Phase (1Φ) System
Frequency (f) - the number of cycles per second expressed in hertz (Hz).
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS 𝑃𝑁
f=
- An alternating quantity either current or voltage is that which acts in 120
alternate direction and whose magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of where: f - frequency in Hz, or cycle per second (cps)
change in a definite interval of time. P - number of poles
N - speed in RPM
Sine Wave/Sinusoidal Wave
Period (T) - the time it takes to complete one cycle.
1
T=
𝑓

Wavelength (λ) - the length of one complete wave or cycle or the distance
traveled by the wave in one cycle.
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣
λ= =
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓

note: v = velocity of propagation in m/s.

= 3 x 108 m/s (radio waves)
= 344 m/s (sound waves)

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 1

 Instantaneous Value – the value of alternating quantity at any instant.
Maximum Value – the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity
during positive or negative half cycle. This is also called the peak value, or
amplitude of an alternating quantity.
Average Value- the average value of all the instantaneous values of half
(either positive or negative) cycle of alternating quantity.
For sinusoidal voltage wave, Vrms = 0.636 Vm
For sinusoidal current wave, lrms = 0.636 Im

From the above figure, Effective Value = the value of alternating quantity which when applied to a
v(t) = Vm sin ωt volts given circuit for a given time produces the same expenditure of energy as
where: v(t) = instantaneous value of voltage, volts when d.c. is applied to the same circuit for the same interval of time. The
Vm = maximum value of voltage, volts effective value is also called as the "root-mean-square" (rms) value.
ω = angular frequency, rad/sec For sinusoidal voltage wave, Vrms = 0.707Vm
t = time, seconds For sinusoidal current wave, Irms = 0.707Im
ωt = radian 𝑉𝑚
Vrms =
ω = 2πf √2

𝐼𝑚
Irms =
Similarly, if the above voltage wave is a current wave, then the equation is √2
i(t) = Im sin ωt Amp For other waves. average value of voltage and current is given by
where: i(t) = instantaneous value of current, amperes 1 𝑇 1 𝑇
Vave = ∫0 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 Iave = ∫0 𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Im = maximum value of current, amperes 𝑇 𝑇

Note: ωt whose unit is radian can be replaced by 𝞱 in degrees and for RMS of Effective value
1 𝑇 1 𝑇
Vrms = √ ∫0 𝑣 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 Irms = √ ∫0 𝑖 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 2

Form factor – ratio of rms value/effective value to the average value of an Rectangular wave:
alternating quantity. Vrms = Vm, Irms = Im
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Vave = Vm, Iave = Im
Form factor =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Form Factor = 1.0
For sine wave form factor = 1.11 Peak factor = 1.0
Crest/Peak factor – ratio of maximum value to the rms/effective value of Triangular wave:
an alternating quantity. Vrms = 0.577Vm, Irms = 0.577Im
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Vave = 0.5Vm, Iave = 0.5Im
Crest or peak factor =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Form Factor = 1.154
For sine wave crest or peak factor = 1.414 Peak factor = 1.732

Half-wave rectified sinusoidal wave: SUM OF TWO ALTERNATING WAVES

Vrms = 0.5Vm, Irms = 0.5Im ❖ If in-phase
Vave = 0.318Vm, Iave = 0.318Im
Form Factor = 1.57
Peak factor = 2

Full-wave rectified sinusoidal wave:

Vrms = 0.707Vm, Irms = 0.707Im
Vave = 0.636Vm, Iave = 0.636Im In Magnitude: It = I1 + I2 amp
Form Factor = 1.11
Peak factor = 1.414 or in complex form: It = I1∠0° + I2∠0° amp

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 3

❖ If out-of-phase by 90° ❖ Sum of more than Two-out of phase Alternating waves

In Magnitude: It = √𝐼1 + 𝐼2 amp

or in complex form: It = I1∠0° + I2∠ − 90° amp

❖ If out-of-phase by an acute angle 𝞱,

In magnitude:
∑ 𝐼ℎ = I1 + I2cos𝜃2 + I3cos𝜃3
∑ 𝐼𝑣 = I2sin𝜃2 - I3sin𝜃3
It = √(∑ 𝐼ℎ )2 + (∑ 𝐼𝑣 )2
In Magnitude: It = √(𝐼1)2 + (𝐼2 )2 − 2𝐼1 𝐼2 cos (180 − θ) amp Note: Standard Sign Conventions
Vector current directed to the right (⟶), positive.
or in complex form: It = I1∠0° + I2∠ − 𝜃° amp Vector current directed to the left (←), negative.
Note: Trigonometric Identity Vector current directed upward (↑), positive.
cosωt = sin (ωt + 90°) Vector current directed downward (↓), negative.
sinωt = cos (ωt - 90°) In complex number: It = I1∠0° + I2∠𝜃2 ° + I3∠ − 𝜃3 ° amp

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 4

 AC CIRCUIT LOADS & THEIR BEHAVIORS 1. Real or True or Active or Average Power (P)
❖ RESISTOR – it takes a current that is in-phase with the voltage across P = EI cos𝞱 watts
it. 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= cos𝞱 watts
2

P = 12R watts
2. Reactive Power (Q)
Q = EI sin𝞱 vars
𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Q= sin𝞱 vars Phasor Diagram
2

Circuit Diagram Sine wave Q = 12X vars

E = IR I is in phase with E, 𝞱 = 0° 3. Apparent Power (S) Energy expended,
Where: E = effective or RMS voltage S = EI volt-ampere (VA) W = Pt joules or watt-sec
I = effective or RMS current 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚
S= va
R = effective or ac resistance 2

For sinusoidal Voltage supply, S = 12Z va

𝐸𝑚 𝞱 = P.F angle or phase angle
E= = 0.707𝐸𝑚
√2 p.f. = power factor = cos𝞱 = P/S
𝐼𝑚 r.f. = reactive factor= sin𝞱 = Q/S
I= = 0.707𝐼𝑚
√2 tan𝞱 = Q/P
Em = ImR For pure R, since 𝞱 = 0°
For Instantaneous supply, p.f. = cos 0° = 1 or unity
e = Em sinωt r.f. = sin 0° = 0
i = Im sinωt P=S;Q=0

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 5

❖ IDEAL INDUCTOR – it takes a current that lags the voltage across it For pure L, since 𝞱 = 90°
by 90° P = EI cos 90° = 0
Q = EI sin 90° = EI
S = EI
S=Q
For instantaneous supply,
e = Em sinωt
i = Im sin (ωt - 90°)
Em = ImXL
Circuit Diagram Sine wave Energy expended
E = IXL I lags the E by 90° 𝐿 𝐼2 𝐿 𝐼𝑚 2
𝑊𝐿 = = joules
Where: XL = inductive reactance in ohms 2 4
XL = ωL = 2πfL ohms
f = frequency in Hz ❖ IDEAL CAPACITOR – it takes a current that leads the voltage across it
L = inductance in Henry by 90°
ω = angular frequency in rad/sec

Phasor Diagram Circuit Diagram Sine Wave

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 6

 Em = ImXL
E = IXc Energy expended
Where: Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms 𝐶𝐸 𝐶 𝐸𝑚 2
𝑊𝑐 = = joules
Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC ohms 2 4
f = frequency in Hz
C = capacitance in farad ❖ SERIES RL CIRCUIT
ω = angular frequency in rad/sec

Phasor Diagram Note: I is constant for series circuit

For pure C, since 𝞱 = 0° XL = ωL = 2πfL Ω
P = EI cos 90° = 0 Phasor Diagram:
Q = EI sin 90° = EI
S = EI
S=Q
For instantaneous supply,
e = Em sinωt
i = Im sin (ωt + 90°)

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 7

 V = √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 )2 volts ❖ SERIES RC CIRCUIT
V = I√(R)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2 volts
V = IZ volts
Where: Z = impedance in ohms
Z = √(R)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2
p.f. = cos 𝞱 = VR/V = R/Z
r.f. = sin 𝞱 = VL/V = 𝑋𝐿 /Z
tan 𝞱 = VL/VR = 𝑋𝐿 /R
Impedance Triangle:

Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC ohms

Phasor Diagram:
P =VI (p.f.) = 12 R = (𝑉𝑅 )2 /R watts
Q =VI (r.f.) = 12XL = (𝑉𝐿 )2 /𝑋𝐿 vars
S = VI = 12 Z = V2/Z va
Also,
S = √P 2 + Q2 va

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 8

 V = √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐶 )2 volts ❖ SERIES LC CIRCUIT
V = I√(R)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2 volts
V = IZ volts
Where: Z = impedance in ohms Et = |𝐸𝑙 + 𝐸𝐶 | volts
Z = √(R)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2 Zt = |𝑋𝑙 − 𝑋𝐶 | ohms
p.f. = cos 𝞱 = VR/V = R/Z It = Et/Zt amp
r.f. = sin 𝞱 = VC/V = 𝑋𝐶 /Z
tan 𝞱 = VC/VR = 𝑋𝐶 /R
Impedance Triangle:

❖ SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

XL = ωL = 2πfL ohms
Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC ohms
V = √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 volts
V = I√(R)2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 volts
P =VI (p.f.) = 12 R = (𝑉𝑅 )2 /R watts V = IZ volts
Q =VI (r.f.) = 12XC = (𝑉𝐶 )2 /𝑋𝐶 vars Where: Z = impedance in ohms
S = VI = 12 Z = V2/Z va Z = √(R)2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
Also, p.f. = cos 𝞱 = VR/V = R/Z
S = √P 2 + Q2 va r.f. = sin 𝞱 = (VL -VC)/V
= (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )/Z
tan 𝞱 = VL -VC/VR = (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )/R

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 9

 Phasor Diagram:
Note: Transpose XL and XC if XC > XL

P =VI (p.f.) = 12 R = (𝑉𝑅 )2 /R watts

Q =VI (r.f.) = 12 (XL - XC)
=(𝑉𝐿 2/𝑋𝐿 ) - (𝑉𝐶 2 /𝑋𝐶 ) vars
S = VI = 12 Z = V2/Z va
Also,
S = √P 2 + Q2 va IT = √(𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝐿 )2 amp
√𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
❖ PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT = V· amp
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
IT = V/Z
Where: Z = impedance in ohms
Z = RXL /√(R)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2
p.f. = cos 𝞱 = IR/IT = Z/R
r.f. = sin 𝞱 = IL/IT = 𝑍/𝑋𝐿
tan 𝞱 = IL/IR = 𝑅/𝑋𝐿

P =VI (p.f.) = 𝐼𝑅 2 R = V 2 /R watts

Note: V is constant Q =VI (r.f.) = 𝐼𝐿 2 XL = V2 /𝑋𝐿 vars
XL = ωL = 2πfL ohms S = V𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 2 Z = V2/Z va
IR = V/R amp Also,
IL = V/XL amp S = √P 2 + Q2 va

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 10

❖ PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT
Where: Z = impedance in ohms
Z = RXC /√(R)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2
p.f. = cos 𝞱 = IR/IT = Z/R
r.f. = sin 𝞱 = IC/IT = 𝑍/𝑋𝐶
tan 𝞱 = IC/IR = 𝑅/𝑋𝐶

P =VI (p.f.) = 𝐼𝑅 2 R = V 2 /R watts

Q =VI (r.f.) = 𝐼𝐶 2 XC = V2 /𝑋𝐶 vars
Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC ohms S = V𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 2 Z = V2/Z va
IR = V/R amp Also,
IC = V/XC amp S = √P 2 + Q2 va
Phasor Diagram:
❖ PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

IT = √(𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝐶 )2 amp

√𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2
= V· amp
𝑅 𝑋𝐶
IT = V/Z amp XL = ωL = 2πfL ohms
Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC ohms

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 11

 IR = V/R amp ; IL = V/XL amp; IC = V/XC amp 3. For pure C,
IT = √(𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐶 )2 amp Z = 0 + j𝑋𝐶 Ω
√𝑋𝐿 2 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅2 (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2 Z = |𝑋𝐶 |∠ − 90° Ω
IT = V· amp
𝑅 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
IT = V/Z amp 4. For series RL,
Z = R + j𝑋𝐿 Ω
Where: Z = impedance in ohms Z = √R2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ∠ + 𝞱 Ω
Z=
𝑅𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 Z = |𝑍 |∠ + 𝞱 Ω
√𝑋𝐿2 𝑋𝐶2 + 𝑅2 (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
Where: 0° ˂ 𝞱 ˂ 90°
p.f. = cos 𝞱 = IR/IT = Z/R
r.f. = sin 𝞱 = (IL – IC)/IT = 𝑍(𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )/𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 5. For series RC,
tan 𝞱 = (IL - IC)/IR = 𝑅(𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )/𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 Z = R - j𝑋𝐶 Ω
Note: Transpose IL and IC if IL > IC
Z = √R2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 ∠ − 𝞱 Ω

❖ IMPEDANCE IN COMPLEX FORM Z = |𝑍 |∠ − 𝞱 Ω

1. For pure R, Where: 0° ˂ 𝞱 ˂ 90°
Z = R + j0 Ω
Z = |𝑅 |∠0° Ω 6. For series RLC,
Z = R + j(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 Ω
2. For pure L, Z = √R2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ∠ ± 𝞱 Ω
Z = 0 + j𝑋𝐿 Ω Z = |𝑍 |∠ ± 𝞱 Ω
Z = |𝑋𝐿 |∠90° Ω Note: + 𝞱, if XL > XC
- 𝞱, if XC > XL

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 12

In general, Z = R ± jX
Where: + jX = inductive reactance ❖ SUSCEPTANCE (B) = is the reciprocal of reactance, X.
-jX = capacitive reactance 𝟏
B= mho or siemens
For the complex expression of an impedance, its angles ranges from 0° to 𝑿
90° only either positive or negative. Mathematically, 0° ≤ 𝞱 ≤ 90° 𝟏
*Inductive reactance, BL =
𝑿𝑳
❖ IMPEDANCE IN SERIES 𝟏
*Capacitive reactance, BC =
ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + .. Zn 𝑿𝑪
In complex form, Y = G ± jB
❖ IMPEDANCE IN PARALLEL where: +jB = capacitive susceptance, BC
1 1 1 1 -jB = inductive susceptance, BL
ZT = + + +…+
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3 𝑍𝑛

For two impedances in parallel, ❖ ADMITTANCES IN SERIES

𝑍1 𝑍2 1 1 1 1 1
ZT = = + + +…+
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑌𝑇 𝑌1 𝑌2 𝑌3 𝑌𝑛

Note: In the above equations, impedances must be in complex form. For two admittances in series:
𝑌1 𝑌2
YT =
❖ ADMITTANCE (Y) – is the reciprocal of impedance, Z. 𝑌1 + 𝑌2
𝟏 ❖ ADMITTANCES IN PARALLEL
Y= mho or siemens
𝒁 YT = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + .. Yn
❖ CONDUCTANCE (G) – is the reciprocal of resistance, R.
𝟏 Note: In the above equations, admittances must be in complex form.
G= mho or siemens
𝑹

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 13

 Note:
❖ POWER IN COMPLEX FORM -j = Q is capacitive, (p.f. is leading)
1. Voltage conjugate method +j = Q is inductive, (p.f. is lagging)
S = IE*
S = I x conjugate of E with respect to the horizontal axis ❖ RESONANCE - A circuit is said to' be in resonance when the applied
S = P ± jQ voltage V and the resulting current I are in phase. Thus at resonance, the
S = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 ∠ ± 𝞱 VA equivalent complex impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance,
Where: S = apparent power, VA R. Since V and I arc in phase, the power factor of a resonant circuit is
P = real or true or average power, watts unity.
Q= reactive power, vars
I = current, amperes ❖ SERIES RESONANCE ( FOR RLC IN SERIES)
E= voltage, volts At Resonance,
E* = conjugate of the voltage, volts 1. VL = VC
𝞱 = power factor angle 2. XL = XC
Note: 1
3. L =
+j = Q is capacitive, (p.f. is leading) 𝜔2 𝐶
-j = Q is inductive, (p.f. is lagging) 1
4. C =
𝜔2 𝐿
2. Current conjugate method 1
5. ω =
S = EI* √𝐿𝐶
S = E x conjugate of I with respect to the horizontal axis ω = angular frequency at resonance, rad/sec
S = P ∓ jQ 1
6. 𝑓𝑟 =
S= √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 ∠ ∓ 𝞱 VA 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

I* = conjugate of the current, amperes 𝑓𝑟 = resonant frequency, hertz (Hz)

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 14

 𝑓𝑟 = resonant frequency, hertz (Hz)
7. Supply voltage, V = VR 7. Supply voltage, V = VR
8. Z = R⟶ a pure resistance 8. Z = R⟶ a pure resistance
Z is minimum Z is maximum
9. Total reactance, XT = 0 9. Total reactance, XT = 0
10. I = V/Z = V/R 10. IT = IR = V/Z = V/R
I is maximum IT is minimum
11. p.f. = 1 or unity 11. p.f. = 1 or unity
12. S = P = VI 12. S = P = VI
13. Q = 0 13. Q = 0

❖ PARALLEL RESONANCE/ANTIRESONANCE (FOR RLC IN ❖ PARALLEL RESONANCE, TWO-BRANCH CIRCUIT

PARALLEL)
1. IL = IC
2. XL = XC
1
3. L =
𝜔2 𝐶

1
4. C =
𝜔2 𝐿

1
5. ω =
√𝐿𝐶 At Resonance,
ω = angular frequency at resonance, rad/sec BL = BC
1 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
6. 𝑓𝑟 = =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝐿2
2 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑋𝐶2
2

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 15

 𝑓𝑟 = √𝑓1 𝑓2
1 𝑅 2 −𝐿/𝐶
ω= √ 𝐿
√ 𝐿𝐶 𝑅 2 −𝐿/𝐶
𝐶 4. For Parallel RLC,
1 𝑅 2 −𝐿/𝐶 𝑅
𝑓𝑟 = √ 𝐿 Q= = ωCR
2𝜋√ 𝐿𝐶 𝑅 2 −𝐿/𝐶
𝐶
𝜔𝐿
❖ Effective Value of a Non-sinusoidal current or voltage wave
QUALITY FACTOR, Q 𝐼2 𝐼2 𝐼2 𝐼2
2
I = √𝐼𝑑𝑐 + 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 … … … + 𝑚𝑛
The quality factor of coils, capacitors and circuit is defined by 2 2 2 2
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Q = 2π𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 2 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
V = √𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 … … … + 𝑚𝑛
2 2 2 2
1. For series RL, Where: I = effective value of the current
𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 V= effective value of the voltage
Q= = =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 Idc = dc component of the current
2. For series RC, Vdc = dc component of the voltage
𝑋𝐶 1 1 Im = maximum value of the ac component of the current,
Q= = =
𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑅 subscript indicates the degree of harmonic, (i.e, 1 for the
3. For series RLC fundamental or predominant sinusoidal component, 2 for the
𝜔𝐿 1 second harmonic, and 3 for the third harmonic and so on.
Q= =
𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅 Vm = maximum value of the ac component of the voltage,
𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑟 subscript indicates the degree of harmonic.
Q= =
𝑓2 − 𝑓1 𝐵𝑊 Harmonics = components of the current or voltage in which the frequencies
Where: f2 and f1 are the frequencies corresponding to the half-power points are multiples of the fundamental.
BW = bandwidth which is the distance between half-power points, f = fundamental freq; 2f = 2nd harmonic freq
measured in hertz (Hz) 3f = 3rd harmonic freq.

ESSU – COE – ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT – ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN 16