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Leadership and school improvement

Introduction

There is great interest in educational leadership in the early part of the

twenty- first century. This is because of the widespread belief that the
quality of leader- ship makes a significant difference to school and
student outcomes. In many parts of the world, including both
developed and developing countries, there is recognition that schools
require effective leaders and managers if they are to provide the best
possible education for their students and learners. As the global
economy gathers pace, more governments are realising that their main
assets are their people and that remaining, or becoming, competitive
depends increas- ingly on the development of a highly skilled
workforce. This requires trained and committed teachers but they, in
turn, need the leadership of highly effec- tive principals with the
support of other senior and middle managers.

Leadership or management?

Educational leadership and management are fields of study and

practice con- cerned with the operation of schools and other
educational organisations. Bolam (1999: 194) defines educational
management as ‘an executive function for carrying out agreed policy’.
He differentiates management from educational leadership which has
‘at its core the responsibility for policy formulation and, where
appropriate, organisational transformation’ (p. 194). Writing from an
Indian perspective, Sapre (2002: 102) states that ‘management is a set
of activ- ities directed towards efficient and effective utilisation of
organisational resources in order to achieve organisational goals’.
Glatter (1979: 16) argues that management studies are concerned
with ‘the internal operation of educational institutions, and also with
their relationships with their environment, that is, the communities in
which they are set, and with the governing bodies to which they are
formally responsible’. In other words, managers in schools and colleges
have to engage with both internal and
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 LEADERSHIP AND SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT 2

external audiences in leading their institutions. This statement

delineates the boundaries of educational management but leaves open
questions about the nature of the subject.
The present author has argued consistently (for example, Bush 2003)
that educational management has to be centrally concerned with the
purpose or aims of education. These purposes or goals provide the
crucial sense of direc- tion, which should underpin the management of
educational institutions. Management is directed at the achievement of
certain educational objectives. Unless this link between purpose and
management is clear and close, there is a danger of ‘managerialism’, ‘a
stress on procedures at the expense of educational purpose and values’
(Bush 1999: 240). ‘Management possesses no super- ordinate goals or
values of its own. The pursuit of efficiency may be the mission
statement of management – but this is efficiency in the achievement of
objec- tives which others define’ (Newman and Clarke 1994: 29).
Managing towards the achievement of educational aims is vital but
these must be purposes agreed by the school and its community. If
managers simply focus on implementing external initiatives, they risk
becoming ‘managerialist’. Successful management requires a clear link
between aims, strategy and opera- tional management.
The process of deciding on the aims of the organisation is at the
heart of edu- cational management. In some settings, aims are decided
by the principal or headteacher, often working in association with
senior colleagues and perhaps a small group of lay stakeholders. In
many schools and colleges, however, goal setting is a corporate activity
undertaken by formal bodies or informal groups. The school’s aims are
often encapsulated in a ‘vision’ or ‘mission statement’.
School and college aims are inevitably influenced by pressures
emanating from the wider educational environment and this leads to
questions about the viability of school ‘visions’. Many countries,
including England and Wales, have a national curriculum and such
government prescriptions leave little scope for schools to decide their
own educational aims. Institutions may be left with the residual task of
interpreting external imperatives rather than deter- mining aims on the
basis of their own assessment of student need.
Governments have the constitutional power to impose their will but
successful innovations require the commitment of those who have to
implement these changes. If teachers and leaders believe that an
initiative is inappropriate for their children or students, they are unlikely
to implement it with enthusiasm. Hence, governments would like
schools to have visionary leadership as long as the visions do not depart
in any significant way from government imperatives (Bush 2003).
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Leadership
A central element in many definitions of leadership is that there is a
process of influence.
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Most definitions of leadership reflect the assumption that it

involves a social influence process whereby intentional influence is
exerted by one person [or group] over other people [or groups] to
structure the activities and relationships in a group or
organisation. (Yukl 2002: 3)

Leadership may be understood as ‘influence’ but this notion is neutral

in that it does not explain or recommend what goals or actions should
be sought through this process. However, certain alternative constructs
of leadership focus on the need for leadership to be grounded in firm
personal and profes- sional values. Wasserberg (2000: 158), for
example, claims that ‘the primary role of any leader [is] the unification
of people around key values’. Day et al.’s (2001) research in 12
‘effective’ schools in England and Wales concludes that ‘good leaders
are informed by and communicate clear sets of personal and educa-
tional values which represent their moral purposes for the school’ (p.
53).
Vision is increasingly regarded as an essential component of effective
leadership. Beare et al. (1992) draw on the work of Bennis and Nanus
(1985) to articulate ten ‘emerging generalisations’ about leadership,
four of which relate directly to vision:
1. Outstanding leaders have a vision for their organisations.
2. Vision must be communicated in a way which secures commitment
among members of the organisation.
3. Communication of vision requires communication of meaning.
4. Attention should be given to institutionalising vision if leadership is to
be successful.
These generalisations are essentially normative views about the
centrality of vision for effective leadership. There is a high level of
support for the notion of visionary leadership but Foreman’s (1998)
review of the concept shows that it remains highly problematic. Kouzes
and Posner (1996: 24) say that ‘inspiring a shared vision is the
leadership practice with which [heads] felt most uncomfortable’, while
Fullan (1992: 83) adds that ‘vision building is a highly sophisticated
dynamic process which few organisations can sustain’.
It is evident that the articulation of a clear vision has the potential to
develop schools but the empirical evidence of its effectiveness remains
mixed. A wider concern relates to whether school leaders are able to
develop a specific vision for their schools, given government influence
on many aspects of curriculum and management.
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Distinguishing educational leadership and management

The concepts of leadership and management overlap. Cuban (1988)

provides one of the clearest distinctions between leadership and
management. He links
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leadership with change, while management is seen as a maintenance

activity. He also stresses the importance of both dimensions of
organisational activity:

By leadership, I mean influencing others’ actions in achieving

desirable ends. Leaders are people who shape the goals,
motivations, and actions of others. Frequently they initiate change
to reach existing and new goals … Leadership … takes … much
ingenuity, energy and skill. (p. xx)

Managing is maintaining efficiently and effectively current

organisational arrangements. While managing well often exhibits
leadership skills, the overall function is toward maintenance rather
than change. I prize both managing and leading and attach no
special value to either since different settings and times call for
varied responses. (p. xx)

Day et al.’s (2001) study of 12 ‘effective’ schools leads to the discussion

of sev- eral dilemmas in school leadership. One of these relates to
management, which is linked to systems and ‘paper’, and leadership,
which is perceived to be about the development of people. Bush (1998,
2003) links leadership to values or pur- pose while management relates
to implementation or technical issues.
Leadership and management need to be given equal prominence if
schools and colleges are to operate effectively and achieve their
objectives. While a clear vision may be essential to establish the nature
and direction of change, it is equally important to ensure that
innovations are implemented efficiently and that the school’s residual
functions are carried out effectively while certain ele- ments are
undergoing change.

Decentralisation and self-management

Educational institutions operate within a legislative framework set

down by national, provincial or state parliaments. One of the key
aspects of such a framework is the degree of decentralisation in the
educational system. Highly centralised systems tend to be bureaucratic
and to allow little discretion to schools and local communities.
Decentralised systems devolve significant pow- ers to subordinate
levels. Where such powers are devolved to the institutional level, we
may speak of ‘self-management’.
 LEADERSHIP AND SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT 7
Lauglo (1997) links centralisation to bureaucracy and defines it as
follows:

Bureaucratic centralism implies concentrating in a central (‘top’)

authority decision-making on a wide range of matters, leaving only
tightly pro- grammed routine implementation to lower levels in
the organisation ... a ministry could make decisions in considerable
detail as to aims and objec- tives, curricula and teaching materials
to be used, prescribed methods,
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appointments of staff and their job descriptions, admission of

students, assessment and certification, finance and budgets, and
inspection/evalua- tions to monitor performance. (Lauglo 1997: 3–
4)

Lauglo (1997: 5) says that ‘bureaucratic centralism is pervasive in many

develop- ing countries’ and links this to both the former colonial rule
and the emphasis on central planning by many post-colonial
governments. Tanzania is one example of a former colonial country
seeking to reduce the degree of centralisation (Babyegeya 2000).
Centralised systems are not confined to former colonial countries.
Derouet (2000: 61) claims that France ‘was the most centralised system
in the world’ in the 1960s and 1970s, while Fenech (1994: 131) states
that Malta’s educational system is ‘highly centralised’. Bottery (1999:
119) notes that the UK education system ‘has experienced a continued
and intensified centralisation for the last 30 years’. In Greece, the
public education system is characterised by centralisa- tion and
bureaucracy (Bush 2001).
Decentralisation involves a process of reducing the role of central
govern- ment in planning and providing education. It can take many
different forms:

Decentralisation in education means a shift in the authority

distribution away from the central ‘top’ agency in the hierarchy of
authority ... Differ- ent forms of decentralisation are diverse in
their justifications and in what they imply for the distribution of
authority. (Lauglo 1997: 3)

Where decentralisation is to the institutional level, for example in

England and Wales, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and South
Africa, this leads to site-based management. ‘A self-managing school is
a school in a system of edu- cation where there has been significant
and consistent decentralisation to the school level of authority to make
decisions related to the allocation of resources’ (Caldwell and Spinks
1992: 4, emphasis added).
The research on self-management in England and Wales (Bush et al.
1993; Levačic 1995; Thomas and Martin 1996) largely suggests that the
shift towards school autonomy has been beneficial. These UK
perspectives are consistent with much of the international evidence on
self-management and the Organi- sation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD 1994) concludes that it is likely to be
beneficial:
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Greater autonomy in schools … [leads] to greater effectiveness

through greater flexibility in and therefore better use of resources;
to professional development selected at school level; to more
knowledgeable teachers and parents, so to better financial
decisions, to whole school planning and implementation with
priorities set on the basis of data about student [out- comes] and
needs. (Quoted in Thomas and Martin 1996: 28)
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Site-based management expands the role of school leaders because
more deci- sions are located within schools rather than outside them.
Autonomous schools and colleges may be regarded as potentially more
efficient and effective but the quality of internal management is a
significant variable influencing whether these potential benefits can be
realised. Dellar’s (1998) research in 30 secondary schools in Australia,
for example, shows that ‘site based’ management was most successful
where there was a positive school climate and the staff and stake-
holders were involved in decision-making.
The significance of self-management for leadership development is
that the scope for leadership and management is much greater. While
managers in cen- tralised systems are largely confined to implementing
policies and decisions made at higher levels in the bureaucracy, leaders
of self-managing schools typ- ically have substantial responsibility for
budgets, staff and external relations, as well as the interpretation and
implementation of what is usually a prescribed curriculum. They
necessarily have more opportunities for innovation than leaders
working within a tightly constrained centralised framework.
The extra responsibilities mean that it is no longer sensible, if it ever
was, to regard leadership as a singular activity carried out by the
principal or head- teacher. Most self-managing schools now have an
extensive leadership appara- tus, often including other senior
managers (deputy and/or assistant principals) and middle managers
(for example, heads of department or section). Young’s (2006) study of
large English primary schools, for example, shows an elaborate
leadership pattern with large numbers of staff exercising leadership
roles.
The growth in the number of leaders, and the scope of leadership,
has led to developing interest in distributed leadership. As Harris (2004:
13) notes, it is ‘currently in vogue’. However, she adds that it goes
beyond formal roles to engage expertise wherever it exists within the
organisation’ (p. 13). The involvement of larger numbers of staff in
educational leadership and manage- ment enhances the need for
effective and appropriate development for leaders. This is the central
focus of this book.

Leadership and school improvement

Leadership is often linked to school improvement. Almost two decades
ago, Beare et al. stressed its importance:

Outstanding leadership has invariably emerged as a key characteristic

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of outstanding schools. There can no longer be doubt that those
seeking qual- ity in education must ensure its presence and that the
development of potential leaders must be given high priority.
(1992: 99, emphasis added)

This normative statement has been echoed by many other researchers,

and by policy-makers. The establishment of the National College for
School Leadership
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(NCSL) in England is one significant example of the belief that effective
leader- ship is vital for school improvement. The College’s Leadership
Development Framework repeats this mantra:

The evidence on school effectiveness and school improvement

during the last 15 years has consistently shown the pivotal role of
school leaders in securing high quality provision and high
standards … effective leadership is a key to both continuous
improvement and major system transforma- tion. (NCSL 2001: 5,
emphasis added)

Harris (2004: 11) reinforces this view by saying that ‘effective leaders
exercise an indirect but powerful influence on the effectiveness of the
school and on the achievement of students’ (emphasis added).
The relationship between the quality of leadership and school
effectiveness has received global recognition. The Commonwealth
Secretariat (1996), for example, referring to Africa, says that ‘the
head … plays the most crucial role in ensuring school effectiveness’.
The South African government’s Task Team on Education
Management Development also emphasises the importance of
education management:

The South African Schools Act places us firmly on the road to a

school- based system of education management: schools will
increasingly come to manage themselves. This implies a profound
change in the culture and practice of schools. The extent to which
schools are able to make the necessary change will depend largely
on the nature and quality of their internal management.
(Department of Education 1996: 28)

Huber’s (2004a: 1–3) overview of leadership development programmes

in 15 countries reaches a similar conclusion:

The pivotal role of the school leader has been corroborated by

findings of school effectiveness research for the last decades …
The research shows that schools classified as successful possess a
competent and sound school leadership … Studies on school
development and improvement also emphasise the importance of
school leaders.

This widespread belief that leadership and management are significant

factors in determining school outcomes is not well supported by hard
 LEADERSHIP AND SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT 1
evidence of the extent and nature of school leadership effects. This3
issue receives extended con- sideration in Chapter 8 but it should be
noted that Hallinger and Heck’s (1998) widely accepted view is that
school leadership effects account for about 3 to 5 per cent of the
variation in student achievement. This is about one-quarter of all the
effects attributable to school variables. The combination of limited size,
 LEADERSHIP AND SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT 1
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and indirect impact, makes it difficult to detect leadership effects.
While by no means negligible, such a small percentage effect raises
questions about whether the rhetoric of school leadership (‘no longer
in doubt’, pivotal role’, ‘powerful influence’) is really justified. Although
he was writing in the late 1970s, March’s caution needs to be taken
seriously almost three decades later:

It is hard to show effects of organisation and administration on

educa- tional outcomes. Although there are some pieces of
contrary evidence, the bulk of most studies and the burden of
current belief is that little percep- tible variation in schooling
outcomes is attributable to the organisation or administration of
schooling. (March 1978: 221)

The beliefs have changed, and there is now more ‘contrary evidence’, but
much more needs to be understood about whether, to what extent, and
how, leaders impact on school outcomes.

Conclusion

Effective leadership and management are increasingly regarded as

essential if schools and colleges are to achieve the wide-ranging objectives
set for them by their many stakeholders, notably the governments which
provide most of the funding for public educational institutions. In an
increasingly global economy, an educated workforce is vital to maintain
and enhance competitiveness. Soci- ety expects schools, colleges and
universities to prepare people for employment in a rapidly changing
environment. Teachers, and their leaders and managers, are the people
who are required to ‘deliver’ higher educational standards.
There is a widespread belief that raising standards of leadership and
man- agement is the key to improving schools. Increasingly, this is
linked to the need to prepare and develop leaders for their demanding
roles. While this is the main focus of this book, a prior question is the
nature of leadership and management in schools. Which leadership
behaviours are most likely to produce favourable school and learner
outcomes? The next chapter examines the main models of school
leadership and considers the evidence on their relative effectiveness in
promoting school improvement.
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Models of educational leadership

Introduction

In Chapter 1, we explored the research and literature linking

educational lead- ership to school and student outcomes. We also
noted the widespread belief that effective leadership is fundamental to
successful schools and education sys- tems. While there is an emerging
consensus about the main constituents of leadership, there is much
less clarity about which behaviours are most likely to produce the most
favourable outcomes. Awareness of alternative approaches to
leadership is essential in order to inform the design and development
of pro- grammes for aspiring and practising leaders. This chapter
provides an overview of the main models of educational leadership and
links them to similar models of educational management (Bush 2003;
Bush and Glover 2003).
The implementation of the Education Reform Act (1988) and
subsequent legislation in England and Wales, and similar moves
towards self-management in many other countries, have led to an
enhanced emphasis on the practice of educational leadership and
management (Huber 2004a). Heads and principals are inundated with
advice and exhortations from politicians, officials, academics and
consultants, about how to lead and manage their schools and colleges.
Many of these prescriptions are atheoretical in the sense that they are
not underpinned by explicit values or concepts (Bush 1999, 2003). As
we shall see later, however, governments may use conceptual language
while shifting its meaning to support their own politically inspired
intentions.
There is no single all-embracing theory of educational leadership. In
part this reflects the astonishing diversity of educational institutions,
ranging from small rural primary schools to very large universities and
colleges, and across widely different international contexts. It relates
also to the varied nature of the prob- lems encountered in schools and
colleges, which require different approaches and solutions. Above all, it
reflects the multifaceted nature of theory in educa- tional leadership
and management. As a result, several perspectives may be valid
simultaneously (Bush 2003).

9
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 10

The models discussed in this chapter should be regarded as

alternative ways of portraying events. The existence of several different
perspectives creates what Bolman and Deal (1997: 11) describe as
‘conceptual pluralism: a jangling dis- cord of multiple voices’. Each
theory has something to offer in explaining behaviour and events in
educational institutions. The perspectives favoured by managers,
explicitly or implicitly, inevitably influence or determine decision-
making. Morgan (1997: 4–5) uses ‘metaphors’ to explain the complex
character of organisational life and notes that ‘any theory or
perspective that we bring to the study of organization and
management, while capable of creating valuable insights, is also
incomplete, biased and potentially misleading’.
The various theories of educational leadership and management
reflect very different ways of understanding and interpreting events and
behaviour in schools and colleges. They also represent what are often
ideologically based, and certainly divergent, views about how educational
institutions ought to be managed. Waite (2002: 66) refers to ‘paradigm
wars’ in describing disagreements between acade- mics holding
different positions on theory and research in educational adminis-
tration. The models discussed in this chapter are broad compilations of
the main theories of educational leadership and management and are
based on a system- atic review of the literature and research (Bush
2003; Bush and Glover 2003).

Models of educational leadership and management

The present author has presented and classified theories of educational

man- agement for over 20 years (Bush 1986, 1995, 2003). This work
categorises the main theories into six major models: formal, collegial,
political, subjective, ambiguity and cultural (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Typology of management and leadership models

Management model Leadership model

Formal Managerial
Collegial Participative
Transformational
Interpersonal
Political Transactional
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 11
Subjective Postmodern
Ambiguity Contingency
Cultural Moral
Instructional

Source: Bush 2003.

 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 12

More recently, he has reviewed concepts of educational leadership,

notably in work undertaken for the English National College for School
Leadership (NCSL) (Bush and Glover 2003). As with educational
management, the vast literature on leadership has generated a number
of alternative, and competing, models. Some writers have sought to
cluster these various conceptions into a number of broad themes or
‘types’. The best known of these typologies is that by Leithwood et al.
(1999), who identified six ‘models’ from their scrutiny of 121 articles in
four international journals. Bush and Glover (2003) extended this
typology to eight models. These are among the nine leadership models
shown in Table 2.1, along- side the management models mentioned
earlier in this chapter.
The rest of this chapter will examine these models and assess their
signifi- cance for leadership practice in a wide range of educational
contexts. While management models will also be discussed, the
chapter will be structured using the nine leadership models featured in
Table 2.1.

Managerial leadership

Managerial leadership assumes that the focus of leaders ought to

be on functions, tasks and behaviours and that if these functions
are carried out competently the work of others in the organisation
will be facilitated. Most approaches to managerial leadership also
assume that the behaviour of organisational members is largely
rational. Authority and influence are allocated to formal positions
in proportion to the status of those positions in the organisational
hierarchy. (Leithwood et al. 1999: 14)

This definition is remarkably close to that given for ‘formal models’ in

the pre- sent author’s trilogy of books on this topic (Bush 1986, 1995,
2003).

Formal models assume that organizations are hierarchical systems

in which managers use rational means to pursue agreed goals. Heads
possess author- ity legitimized by their formal positions within the
organization and are accountable to sponsoring bodies for the
activities of their institutions. (Bush 2003: 37)

Dressler’s (2001: 175) review of leadership in Charter schools in the

USA shows the significance of managerial leadership: ‘Traditionally, the
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 13
principal’s role has been clearly focused on management
responsibilities’.
Caldwell (1992: 16–17) argues that managers and leaders of self-
managing schools must be able to develop and implement a cyclical
process involving seven managerial functions:
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 14

• Goal setting
• Needs identification
• Priority setting
• Planning
• Budgeting
• Implementing
• Evaluating.

It is significant to note that this type of leadership does not include the
concept of vision, which is central to most leadership models.
Managerial leadership is focused on managing existing activities
successfully rather than visioning a better future for the school. This
approach is very suitable for school leaders working in centralised
systems as it prioritises the efficient implementation of external
imperatives, notably those prescribed by higher levels in the hierarchy.
Bureaucracy, and by implication managerial leadership, is the
preferred model for many education systems, including the Czech
Republic (Svecova 2000), China (Bush et al. 1998), Greece (Kavouri and
Ellis 1998), Israel (Gaziel 1998), Poland (Klus-Stanska and Olek 1998),
South Africa (Sebakwane 1997),
Slovenia (Becaj 1994) and much of South America (Newland 1995).
Two of these authors point to some of the weaknesses of bureaucracy
in education:

The excessive centralisation and bureaucratisation, which continue

to exist [in South America] in spite of the reforms undertaken, affect
the effi- ciency of the system. (Newland 1995: 113)
The Greek state should start moving towards restructuring the
organisa- tion of schools. Less complexity, formalisation and
centralisation of the system, and more extended professionalism
and autonomy of teachers and headteachers would be beneficial.
(Kavouri and Ellis 1998: 106)

Managerial leadership has certain advantages, notably for bureaucratic

systems, but there are difficulties in applying it too enthusiastically to
schools and colleges because of the professional role of teachers. If
teachers do not ‘own’ innovations but are simply required to implement
externally imposed changes, they are likely to do so without
enthusiasm, leading to possible failure (Bush 2003: 46).
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 15
Transformational leadership

Bush (2003) links three leadership models to his ‘collegial’ management

model. The first of these is ‘transformational leadership’.
This form of leadership assumes that the central focus of leadership
ought
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 16

to be the commitments and capacities of organisational members.

Higher levels of personal commitment to organisational goals and
greater capaci- ties for accomplishing those goals are assumed to
result in extra effort and greater productivity. (Leithwood et al.
1999: 9)

Leithwood (1994) conceptualises transformational leadership along

eight dimensions:

• Building school vision

• Establishing school goals
• Providing intellectual stimulation
• Offering individualised support
• Modelling best practices and important organisational values
• Demonstrating high performance expectations
• Creating a productive school culture
• Developing structures to foster participation in school decisions.

Caldwell and Spinks (1992: 49–50) argue that transformational

leadership is essential for autonomous schools: ‘Transformational
leaders succeed in gaining the commitment of followers to such a
degree that … higher levels of accom- plishment become virtually a
moral imperative. In our view a powerful capacity for transformational
leadership is required for the successful transition to a system of self-
managing schools.’
Leithwood’s (1994) research suggests that there is some empirical
support for the essentially normative transformational leadership
model. He reports on seven quantitative studies and concludes that
‘transformational leadership practices, considered as a composite
construct, had significant direct and indirect effects on progress with
school-restructuring initiatives and teacher- perceived student
outcomes’ (p. 506).
The transformational model is comprehensive in that it provides a
normative approach to school leadership, which focuses primarily on
the process by which leaders seek to influence school outcomes rather
than on the nature or direction of those outcomes. However, it may also
be criticised as being a vehicle for control over teachers and more likely to
be accepted by the leader than the led (Chirichello 1999). Allix (2000)
goes further and alleges that transformational leadership has the
potential to become ‘despotic’ because of its strong, heroic and charismatic
fea- tures. He believes that the leader’s power ought to raise ‘moral
qualms’ and serious doubts about its appropriateness for democratic
organisations.
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 17
The contemporary policy climate within which schools have to
operate also raises questions about the validity of the transformational
model, despite its popularity in the literature. The English system
increasingly requires school leaders to adhere to government
prescriptions, which affect aims, curriculum content and pedagogy as
well as values. There is ‘a more centralised, more
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 18

directed, and more controlled educational system [that] has

dramatically reduced the possibility of realising a genuinely
transformational education and leadership’ (Bottery 2001: 215).
Transformational leadership is consistent with the collegial model in
that it assumes that leaders and staff have shared values and common
interests. When it works well, it has the potential to engage all
stakeholders in the achievement of educational objectives. The aims of
leaders and followers coalesce to such an extent that it may be realistic
to assume a harmonious relationship and a gen- uine convergence
leading to agreed decisions. When ‘transformation’ is a cloak for
imposing leaders’ or governments’ values, then the process is political
rather than collegial.

Participative leadership

Participative leadership … assumes that the decision-making

processes of the group ought to be the central focus of the group.
(Leithwood et al. 1999: 12).
This model is underpinned by three assumptions:
• Participation will increase school effectiveness.
• Participation is justified by democratic principles.
• In the context of site-based management, leadership is potentially
available to any legitimate stakeholder.
(Leithwood et al. 1999: 12).
Sergiovanni (1984: 13) points to the importance of a participative
approach. This will succeed in ‘bonding’ staff together and in easing the
pressures on school principals. ‘The burdens of leadership will be less if
leadership functions and roles are shared and if the concept of
leadership density were to emerge as a viable replacement for principal
leadership’ (ibid. emphasis added).
Savery et al. (1992) demonstrate that deputy principals in Western
Australia wish to participate in school decision-making although their
desire to do so var- ied across different types of decision. They conclude
that ‘people are more likely to accept and implement decisions in which
they have participated, particularly where these decisions relate directly to
the individual’s own job’ (p. 24).

Interpersonal leadership
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 19
The third leadership model relevant to collegiality is the relatively new
concept of interpersonal leadership. West-Burnham (2001: 1) argues
that ‘interpersonal intelligence is the vital medium’.
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 20

Interpersonal intelligence is the authentic range of intuitive

behaviours derived from sophisticated self-awareness, which
facilitates effective engagement with others. (Ibid.: 2)

Interpersonal leadership links to collegiality in that it stresses the

importance of collaboration and interpersonal relationships (Tuohy and
Coghlan 1997). Bennett et al.’s (2000) research with nine English
primary schools provides evidence about the significance of
interpersonal leadership and its contribution to a collegial approach to
school management:

In four of the sample schools the headteacher was seen as

leading from within the staff with strong interpersonal
relationships. Here, staff inter- viewees referred to ‘teams’,
‘friends working together’ and ‘certainty of consultation and
support’. In this situation … collegiality may be more readily
achieved. (p. 347)

Transactional leadership

Bush (2003) links transactional leadership to the political model. Miller

and Miller (2001) contrast it with transformational leadership:
Transactional leadership is leadership in which relationships with
teachers are based upon an exchange for some valued resource.
To the teacher, interaction between administrators and teachers is
usually episodic, short- lived and limited to the exchange
transaction. Transformational leader- ship is more potent and
complex and occurs when one or more teachers engage with
others in such a way that administrators and teachers raise one
another to higher levels of commitment and dedication,
motivation and morality. Through the transforming process, the
motives of the leader and follower merge. (p. 182)
Miller and Miller’s (2001) definition refers to transactional leadership
as an exchange process. Exchange is an established political strategy for
members of organisations. Heads and principals possess authority
arising from their posi- tions as the formal leaders of their institutions.
They also hold power in the form of key rewards such as promotion
and references. However, the head requires the co-operation of staff to
secure the effective management of the school. An exchange may
secure benefits for both parties to the arrangement. The major
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 21
limitation of such a process is that it does not engage staff beyond the
immediate gains arising from the transaction. As Miller and Miller’s
defini- tion implies, transactional leadership does not produce long-
term commitment to the values and vision being promoted by school
leaders.
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 22

Postmodern leadership

Bush (2003: 127) notes that post-modern leadership aligns closely with
his sub- jective model of management. It is a relatively recent model of
leadership, which has no generally agreed definition. For example,
Starratt’s (2001) discus- sion of ‘a postmodern theory of democratic
leadership’ (p. 347) does not define the concept beyond suggesting
that postmodernism might legitimise the prac- tice of democratic
leadership in schools.
Keough and Tobin (2001: 2) say that ‘current postmodern culture
celebrates the multiplicity of subjective truths as defined by experience
and revels in the loss of absolute authority’. They identify several key
features of postmodernism:
• Language does not reflect reality.
• Reality does not exist; there are multiple realities.
• Any situation is open to multiple interpretations.
• Situations must be understood at local level with particular attention
to diversity. (Ibid.: 11–13)
The postmodern model offers few clues to how leaders are expected to
operate. This is also a weakness of the parallel subjective model. The
most useful point to emerge from such analyses is that leaders should
respect, and give attention to, the diverse and individual perspectives
of stakeholders. They should also avoid reliance on the hierarchy
because this concept has little meaning in such a fluid organisation.
Starratt (2001) aligns postmodernity with democracy and advocates a
‘more consultative, participatory, inclusionary stance’ (p. 348), an
approach which is consistent with participative leadership.
Sackney and Mitchell (2001: 13–14) also stress the centrality of
individual interpretation of events while also criticising
transformational leadership as potentially manipulative: ‘Leaders must
pay attention to the cultural and sym- bolic structure of meaning
construed by individuals and groups … postmodern theories of
leadership take the focus off vision and place it squarely on voice.’
Instead of a compelling vision articulated by leaders, there are multiple
visions and diverse cultural meanings.

Moral leadership

This model assumes that the critical focus of leadership ought to be on the
val- ues, beliefs and ethics of leaders themselves. Authority and influence
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 23
are to be derived from defensible conceptions of what is right or good
(Leithwood et al. 1999: 10). Sergiovanni (1984: 10) says that ‘excellent
schools have central zones composed of values and beliefs that take on
sacred or cultural characteristics’. Subsequently, he adds that
‘administering’ is a ‘moral craft’ (1991: 322). The
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 24

moral dimension of leadership is based on ‘normative rationality;

rationality based on what we believe and what we consider to be good
(ibid.: 326).
West-Burnham (1997) discusses two approaches to ‘moral’
leadership. The first he describes as ‘spiritual’ and relates to ‘the
recognition that many leaders possess what might be called “higher
order” perspectives. These may well be … represented by a particular
religious affiliation’ (p. 239). Such leaders have a set of principles,
which provide the basis of self-awareness.
West-Burnham’s (1997) second category is ‘moral confidence’, the
capacity to act in a way that is consistent with an ethical system and is
consistent over time. The morally confident leader is someone who
can:

• Demonstrate causal consistency between principle and practice

• Apply principles to new situations
• Create shared understanding and a common vocabulary
• Explain and justify decisions in moral terms
• Sustain principles over time
• Reinterpret and restate principles as
necessary. (West-Burnham 1997: 241)

Gold et al.’s (2003) research in English primary, secondary and special

schools provides some evidence about the nature of the values held and
articulated by heads regarded as ‘outstanding’ by Office for Standards in
Education (Ofsted) inspectors. These authors point to the inconsistency
between ‘the technicist and managerial view of school leadership
operationalised by the Government’s inspection regime’ and the heads’
focus on ‘values, learning communities and shared leadership’ (p. 127).
These heads demonstrated certain values and beliefs through their words
and deeds:

• Inclusivity
• Equal opportunities
• Equity or justice
• High expectations
• Engagement with stakeholders
• Co-operation
• Teamwork
• Commitment
• Understanding.
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 25
Gold et al. (2003: 136) conclude that their case study heads ‘mediate the
many externally-generated directives to ensure, as far as possible, that
their take-up was consistent with what the school was trying to
achieve’.
Sergiovanni (1991) argues that both moral and managerial
leadership are
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 26

required to develop a learning community:

In the principalship the challenge of leadership is to make peace

with two competing imperatives, the managerial and the moral.
The two impera- tives are unavoidable and the neglect of either
creates problems. Schools must be run effectively if they are to
survive … But for the school to trans- form itself into an
institution, a learning community must emerge … [This] is the
moral imperative that principals face. (p. 329)

Instructional leadership

Instructional leadership differs from the other models reviewed in this

chapter because it focuses on the direction of influence, rather than its
nature and source. The increasing emphasis on managing teaching and
learning as the core activities of educational institutions has led to this
approach being emphasised and endorsed, notably by the English NCSL
(2001) which includes it as one of its 10 leadership propositions.
Hallinger (1992a) argues that instructional lead- ership has been
supplanted by transformational leadership in the USA, but these
models are not seen as incompatible by NCSL.
Leithwood et al. (1999) point to the lack of explicit descriptions of
instruc- tional leadership in the literature and suggest that there may
be different mean- ings of this concept. Southworth (2002: 79) says
that ‘instructional leadership
… is strongly concerned with teaching and learning, including the
professional learning of teachers as well as student growth’. Bush and
Glover’s (2003) defin- ition stresses the direction of the influence
process:

Instructional leadership focuses on teaching and learning and on

the behaviour of teachers in working with students. Leaders’
influence is tar- geted at student learning via teachers. The
emphasis is on the direction and impact of influence rather than
the influence process itself. (Bush and Glover 2003: 10)

Blase and Blase’s (1998) research with 800 principals in American

elementary, middle and high schools suggests that effective
instructional leadership behav- iour comprises three aspects:

• Talking with teachers (conferencing)

 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 27
• Promoting teachers’ professional growth
• Fostering teacher reflection.

Southworth’s (2002) qualitative research with primary heads of small

schools in
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 28

England and Wales shows that three strategies were particularly

effective in improving teaching and learning:

• Modelling
• Monitoring
• Professional dialogue and discussion.

Southworth’s third category confirms Blase and Blase’s (1998) first

point but his other strategies introduce new notions of which
instructional leadership prac- tices are likely to be successful. He also
concurs with Hill (2001) that ‘school leaders may lack sufficient
knowledge of teaching and learning to provide ade- quate, let alone
successful, instructional leadership’ (Southworth 2002: 87) and
advocates that this dimension should be included in leadership
development programmes.
In contrast, Leithwood (1994: 499) claims that ‘instructional
leadership images are no longer adequate’ because they are ‘heavily
classroom focused’ and do not address ‘second order changes …
[such as] organisation building’ (p. 501). He adds that the instructional
leadership image ‘is now showing all the signs of a dying paradigm’ (p.
502).
Despite these comments, instructional leadership is a very important
dimen- sion because it targets the school’s central activities, teaching and
learning. It may also be undergoing a renaissance in England, not least
because of its spe- cific endorsement by the NCSL (2001). However, this
paradigm may be per- ceived as narrow because it underestimates other
aspects of school life, such as socialisation, student welfare and self-
esteem (Bush 2003: 16–17).

Contingent leadership

The models of leadership examined earlier in this chapter are all partial.
They provide valid and helpful insights into one particular aspect of
leadership. Some focus on the process by which influence is exerted
while others emphasise one or more dimensions of leadership. However,
none of these models provide a complete picture of school leadership. As
Lambert (1995: 9) notes, there is ‘no single best type’.
The contingent model provides an alternative approach, recognising the
diverse nature of school contexts and the advantages of adapting
leadership styles to the particular situation, rather than adopting a ‘one
size fits all’ stance:
 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 29

This approach assumes that what is important is how leaders

respond to the unique organizational circumstances or
problems … there are wide variations in the contexts for
leadership and that, to be effective, these
 MODELS
contexts require OF EDUCATIONAL
different LEADERSHIP
leadership 30
responses … individuals
providing leadership, typically those in formal positions of authority,
are capable of mastering a large repertoire of leadership practices.
Their influence will depend, in large measure, on such mastery.
(Leithwood et al. 1999: 15)

Yukl (2002: 234) adds that ‘the managerial job is too complex and unpre-
dictable to rely on a set of standardised responses to events. Effective leaders
are continuously reading the situation and evaluating how to adapt their
behav- iour to it’. Leadership requires effective diagnosis of problems,
followed by adopting the most appropriate response to the issue or
situation (Morgan 1997). This reflexive approach is particularly important in
periods of turbulence when leaders need to be able to assess the situation
carefully and react as appro- priate rather than relying on a standard
leadership model.

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 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 31

Mövzu 9
What is Knowledge Management?

Abstract

This chapter defines knowledge and knowledge management (KM) and establishes
its roots. KM is not a brand new topic; organizational learning and organizational
memory are related topics that have been fields of research for many years. This
chapter relates these concepts to a relational model that shows that the three
topics are related and influence organizational effectiveness. Additionally, this
chapter explains that KM has become a research area due to a confluence of
trends that have made KM necessary and technically useful.

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2 Jennex MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 32

Introduction

Knowledge management (KM) is a hot topic in many business communities.

Although, the term knowledge management might suggest a rather simple
definition, there are plenty of opinions on what exactly it is and how it should be
used, if used at all. However, because of the ever-increasing pace of business
development, the task of effective and competitive management of
organizations becomes essential, and KM, if understood and implemented
properly, may be a useful tool for business transformation as well as the key to
competitive advantage. In this first chapter I would like to introduce the basic
definitions and concepts of KM.
I thought this would be an easy chapter to write, as it seemed that we all knew
what we were talking about when discussing KM. However, I became aware of
the need to establish a definition of KM through the publication of an expert
opinion in the Business Intelligence Journal. The editors asked three experts
(this author included) about integrating KM and data warehouses. When the
issue was released, I was surprised that the three experts all had different
opinions on what KM was (Corral, Griffin, & Jennex, 2005). One expert described
the purpose of KM as disseminating knowledge quickly and KM systems as
essentially document management systems. The other expert considered KM as
the process of handling unstructured knowledge. The final view (mine)
combined technical and organizational ini- tiatives to manage structured and
unstructured knowledge in order to help the organization improve its
effectiveness through improved retention and reuse of knowledge. Three
experts expressed different definitions of KM and illustrated the need to define
KM so that there is a common ground for discussion. The first step, though, is to
define what is meant by the term knowledge, since this is the central theme in
KM.

Knowledge

Davenport and Prusak (1998) view knowledge as an evolving mix of framed

experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a
framework for evaluat- ing and incorporating new experiences and information.
They found that in organizations, knowledge often becomes embedded in
documents or repositories and in organizational routines, processes, practices,
and norms. They also say that in order for knowledge to have value, it must
include the human additions of context, experience, and interpretation. Nonaka
(1994) expands this view by stating that knowledge is about meaning in the
sense that it is context-specific. This implies that users of knowledge must
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understand and have experience with the context, or surrounding conditions
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 33
and influences, in which the knowl- edge is generated and used in order for it to
have meaning to them. This also implies that in order for a knowledge
repository to be useful, it also must store the context in which the knowledge
was generated. That knowledge is context-specific and argues against the idea
that knowledge can be applied universally; however, it does not argue against
the concept

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 What is Knowledge
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Management?
34 3

of organizational knowledge. This chapter considers organizational knowledge

to be an integral component of what organizational members remember and
use, meaning that knowledge is actionable.
Various knowledge taxonomies exist. Alavi and Leidner (2001) and Jennex and
Croasdell (2005) found that the most commonly used taxonomy is Polyani’s
(1964, 1967) and Non- aka’s (1994) dimensions of tacit and explicit knowledge.
This book uses this taxonomy for knowledge. Tacit knowledge is that which is
understood within a knower’s mind. It consists of cognitive and technical
components. Cognitive components are the mental models used by the knower
that cannot be expressed directly by data or knowledge representations and
also is known as unstructured knowledge. Technical components are concrete
concepts that can be expressed readily and also is known as structured
knowledge. Explicit knowledge also consists of these technical components that
can be expressed directly by knowledge representations. Knowledge transfer in
an organization occurs when members of an organi- zation pass tacit and
explicit knowledge to each other. Information technology (IT) assists knowledge
transfer by providing knowledge repositories and methods for capturing and
retrieving knowledge. The extent of the dimension of the knowledge being
captured limits the effectiveness of IT in assisting KM. IT works best with
knowledge that is primarily in the explicit dimension. Knowledge that is
primarily in the tacit dimension requires that more context be captured with the
knowledge in which context is the information used to explain what the
knowledge means and how it is used. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) propose four
modes of knowledge transfer and creation (known as the SECI model):

• Socialization is the process of sharing experiences and thereby creating

tacit knowledge such as mental models and technical skills. Tacit
knowledge can be obtained without using language through observation,
imitation, and practice.
• Externalization is the process of articulating tacit knowledge in the form of
explicit concepts, taking the shapes of metaphors, analogies, concepts,
hypotheses, or mod- els.
• Combination is the process of systemizing concepts into a knowledge
system by combining different bodies of explicit knowledge. Explicit
knowledge is transferred through media such as documents, meetings, and
e-mail and/or phone conversations. Categorization of this knowledge can
lead to the generation of new knowledge.
• Internalization is the process of converting explicit knowledge into tacit
knowledge and is closely related to learning by doing.

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 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 35
These four modes or processes show that the transfer of knowledge is
dependent upon the transfer of a common understanding from the knower to
the user of the knowledge. Com- mon understanding consists of the context
(the story behind the knowledge, the conditions and situations that make the
knowledge understandable) and the experience (those activities that produce
mental models of how the knowledge should be used) expressed in a culturally
understood framework.

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4 Jennex MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 36

Knowledge Management

Jennex (2005) defined KM as the practice of selectively applying knowledge from

previous experiences of decision making to current and future decision-making
activities with the express purpose of improving the organization’s effectiveness.
Also, Jennex (2005) viewed a KM system as that system created to facilitate the
capture, storage, retrieval, and reuse of knowledge. This perception of KM and
KM systems is that they holistically combine organizational and technical
solutions to achieve the goals of knowledge retention and re- use in order
ultimately to improve organizational and individual decision making. This is a
Churchman (1979) view of KM that allows KM systems to take whatever form
necessary to accomplish these goals. For some organizations, this may mean
that the KM system es- sentially is a document management system. However,
as a community, we don’t want KM perceived essentially as a document
management technology. Also, in some organizations, KM may be used only to
manage unstructured knowledge. This may meet those organiza- tions’ needs,
but again, the KM community is not comfortable accepting that KM handles only
unstructured knowledge. Another key definition of KM includes Holsapple and
Joshi (2004), who consider KM as an entity’s systematic and deliberate efforts to
expand, cultivate, and apply available knowledge in ways that add value to the
entity in the sense of positive results in accomplishing its objectives or fulfilling
its purpose. The entity’s scope may be individual, organizational,
transorganizational, national, and so forth. Finally, Alavi and Leidner (2001) in
their seminal work concluded that KM involves distinct but interdependent
processes of knowledge creation, knowledge storage and retrieval, knowledge
transfer, and knowledge application.
It is important to note that none of these definitions of KM is purely technical in
nature. They all include information system (IS) support, but they also include
organizational con- siderations, and all include an impact on organizational
productivity and effectiveness. This is important, because many experts consider
KM to be a form of IS. However, while the IS component is important, in order
for KM to be effective as a change or transformation tool, it must include more;
it requires management support and an organizational culture.
A better understanding of KM is obtained by incorporating the concepts of
organizational memory (OM) and organizational learning (OL). Jennex and
Olfman (2002) found that the three areas are related and have an impact on
organizational effectiveness. Organizational effectiveness is how well the
organization does those activities critical to producing what the organization
sells. OL is the process the organization uses to learn how to do these activities
better. OL results when users utilize knowledge. That OL may not always have a
positive effect is examined by the monitoring of organizational effectiveness.
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Effective- ness can improve, get worse, or remain the same. How effectiveness
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 37
changes influences the feedback provided to the organization using the
knowledge. KM and OM are the processes used to identify and capture critical
knowledge. Knowledge workers and their organizations “do” KM; they identify
key knowledge artifacts for retention and establish processes for capturing it.
OM is what IT support organizations do; they provide the infrastructure and
support for storing, searching, and retrieving knowledge artifacts. Figure 1
illustrates these relationships, and the following sections expand on these
concepts.

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 What is Knowledge
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Management?
38 5

Figure 1. The KM/OM/OL model (Jennex & Olfman, 2002)

Impact to Organizational Effectiveness

Access and Use Memory

Org to perform actions that
Management
Learning affect Organizational
Performance
Monitor Knowledge Users
Organizational
Effectiveness and Evaluate Events for
AdjustKnowledge Use of Applicable
Requirements as Memory to perform
needed actions that affect
Knowle Organizational
dge Performance
Engine
ers

System
Designer
s/IT
KM OM

Drives Users to
put Information
and Knowledge
Identify and into their OMS Store,
Acquire Retrieve, and
Knowledge Search
for future use Memory Base

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 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 39

Organizational Learning

Organizational learning (OL) has been defined as a quantifiable improvement in

activities, increased available knowledge for decision making, or sustainable
competitive advantage (Cavaleri, 1994; Dodgson, 1993; Easterby-Smith, 1997;
Miller, 1996). Malhotra (1998) defines Organizational Learning as the process of
detection and correction of errors. In this view, organizations learn through
individuals acting as agents for them. Individual learning activities are seen as
being facilitated or inhibited by an ecological system of factors that may be
called an organizational learning system. Learning in this perspective is based on
Kolb’s (1984) model of experiential learning in which individuals learn by doing.
Huber, Davenport, and King (1998) believe that an organization learns if,
through its pro- cessing of information, its potential behaviors are changed.
Huysman, Fischer, and Heng (1994) as well as Walsh and Ungson (1991) believe
organizational learning has OM as a component. In this view, OL is the process
by which experience is used to modify current and future actions. Huber (1991)
considers four constructs as integrally linked to OL: knowl- edge acquisition,
information distribution, information interpretation, and organizational
memory. In this case, OM is the repository of knowledge and information
acquired by the organization. Organizational learning uses OM as its knowledge
base.
A different perspective on OL from Sandoe et al. (1998) is that organizations do
not learn; rather, only individuals learn. During work, people gain experience,
observe, and reflect in making sense of what they are doing. As they analyze
these experiences into general abstrac- tions, their perceptions on how work
should be done changes. As these individuals influence their co-workers, the
“organization” learns, and the process gradually is changed. Learning in this
perspective also is based on Kolb’s (1984) model of experiential learning.

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6 Jennex MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 40

Organizational Memory

Huber, Davenport, and King (1998) summarize organizational memory (OM) as

the set of repositories of information and knowledge that the organization has
acquired and retains. Stein and Zwass (1995) define OM as the means by which
knowledge from the past is brought to bear on present activities, resulting in
higher or lower levels of organizational effectiveness. Walsh and Ungson (1991)
define OM as stored information from an organization’s history that can be
brought to bear on present decisions.
OM can be viewed as abstract or concrete. It is comprised of unstructured
concepts and information that exist in the organization’s culture and the minds
of its members, and can be partially represented by concrete/physical memory
aids such as databases. It also is comprised of structured concepts and
information that can be represented exactly by com- puterized records and files.
Sandoe and Olfman (1992) and Morrison (1997) describe these two forms of
OM as having two functions: representation and interpretation. Representation
presents just the facts (or knowledge or expertise) for a given context or
situation. Inter- pretation promotes adaptation and learning by providing
frames of reference, procedures, guidelines, or a means by which to synthesize
past information for application to new situ- ations. Comparing to the definition
of knowledge, it is obvious that knowledge and OM are related through
experience and learning. We consider knowledge to be a subset of OM and the
processes of KM a subset of OM processes.

Knowledge Management Summary

To summarize knowledge is something that is actionable; that is, it is something

that users can retrieve and apply to organizational activities. KM is the process
used to make knowl- edge actionable to members of the organization. It
involves capturing, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge. KM involves the
creation of a KM system. The KM system includes an environment that
promotes organizational learning. In this respect, KM can be an or- ganizational
change or transformation tool, as it can help management to create a learning
organizational culture. Also, KM is a tool for improving organizational
effectiveness, as it promotes knowledge reuse to improve decision making.
Incorporating the concepts of OM, OL, and the previous discussion, this chapter
proposes this working definition of KM:

KM is the practice of selectively applying knowledge from previous

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 experiences of decision making to current and future decision-making
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 41
activities with the express purpose of improving the organization’s
effectiveness. (Jennex, 2005)

This definition, while perhaps not perfect, does represent the idea that when
organizations implement KM, they are doing so with the expectation that
organizational effectiveness will be improved and that organizational members
will do this by acting on and using knowledge. The remaining chapters in this
book may use differently worded definitions of KM, but all agree with this
discussion and the spirit of this working definition.

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 What is Knowledge
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Management?
42 7

This chapter concludes with a discussion on why KM has become an important

organiza- tional endeavor.

Why Knowledge Management?

This book is written with the assumption that KM is something that modern
organizations need to do. It is expected that readers will read with the
assumption that they need to imple- ment KM in their organizations or that KM
is something important to research. However, KM is a relatively new discipline
(as discussed in the next couple of chapters), and it is worthwhile to conclude
this chapter with a short discussion on why KM has become this important of an
endeavor.
Jennex (2006) summarizes a workshop discussion at the 2006 Hawaii
International Confer- ence on System Sciences (HICSS) on the origins of KM and
why KM came into prominence in the late 1990s. The following paragraphs
summarize Jennex (2006).
Many consider the popularization of the term by Davenport and Prusak (1998),
with the publication of “Working Knowledge,” as the beginning of KM. However,
there was a conflu- ence of trends in the mid-1990s that actually caused KM to
become an important topic.
The first trend was the fallout from the business process reengineering (BPR) fad
of the early 1990s. This business process led many organizations to restructure
their businesses by changing processes and reducing staff. These staff
reductions led to many organizations discovering that they had lost key
knowledge and were no longer as nimble and innovative as they needed to be.
This loss of knowledge provided a driver for identifying and managing
knowledge that was internal to the organization.
The second trend was technology. The mid to late 1990s saw accelerated
advancement in the capability of the personal computer. Processing speed and
memory grew rapidly (and continues to grow); also, the Internet became a
practical reality, providing connectivity to many organizations and individuals.
Additionally, the Year 2000 (Y2K) date problem was a driver for many
organizations to replace older computers with current models as well as a
driver to integrate and modernize organizational infrastructures. It was this
trend that enabled KM to develop by providing organizations with technological
capabilities for or- ganizing, storing, searching, retrieving, and manipulating
large amounts of structured and unstructured knowledge.

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The third trend was the explosion in content, information, and knowledge
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 43
caused by the rapid growth of the Internet and corporate intranets, data
warehouses, and databases. This explosion in the amount of data, information,
and knowledge and its easy availability to decision makers of all ranks led to a
loss of information and knowledge control by manag- ers. This loss of control
served as a driver to managerial awareness that there was a problem that
needed to be solved.
The fourth trend was organizational issues of maintaining business value and
reducing risk of litigation and overall liability by managing human and
intellectual capital better. A shift in many American businesses to a service-
based economy led to an increasing focus on an organization’s skills and
capabilities as well as sustaining these capabilities by retain-

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8 Jennex MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 44

ing high-value employees. This served as a driver to managerial awareness that

employee knowledge was a valuable organizational asset.
The confluence of these trends led to the behaviors observed by Davenport and
Prusak (1998) and to the emergence of knowledge management as a necessary
discipline. Why do we care? One of the major concerns is the sustainability of
KM. We don’t want to waste our time and energy on a fad; we want to make
sure that what we are doing is sustainable. Some of this concern is self-serving;
we want to ensure that our peers recognize the importance of our research so
that our research will be accepted and published and we can obtain promotion
and tenure. Also, we want to ensure that we have a steady supply of students
wanting to study our discipline and that these students have careers waiting for
them in industry. Finally, we want to make a difference; we want to enable
organizations to continue to prosper and better utilize their resources, as
ultimately, this leads to a better society.

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 MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 45

Mövzu 10

A Birds-Eye View of Knowledge Management:

Creating a Disciplined Whole from Many Interdisciplinary Parts

Abstract

Knowledge management is a fragmented field, whether of necessity or of

design. In this chapter, we present and discuss data that maps out a number of
the characteristics of the field. We then discuss trends that indicate how
knowledge management is evolving into a discipline in its own right and present
some thoughts on what the dominant characteristics of that discipline need to
be.

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 A Birds-Eye
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL View of
LEADERSHIP Knowledge Management
46
19

Introduction

Defining a new discipline is no easy task, and establishing one is yet a harder task.
Yet from the past decade of research, either directly called or indirectly related
to knowledge manage- ment (KM), emerges a discipline. However, KM remains
a fragmented field with multiple, often conflicting terminologies and goals. In
this chapter, we present and discuss data that map out a number of the
characteristics of the field. We then discuss trends that indicate how knowledge
management is evolving into a discipline in its own right and present some
thoughts on what the dominant characteristics of that discipline need to be.
One may be tempted to learn from the example of information systems as a
discipline. But after more than 40 years of Information Systems research, there
still remains great diver- gence and diversity in how accurately to define this
important field. Banville and Landry (1989), Backhouse, Liebenau, and Land
(1991), Vessey, Ramesh, and Glass (2002), Adam and Fitzgerald (2000),
Baskerville and Myers (2002), and Avison (2003) are but six of the many attempts
to reach a broadly accepted definition. Fortunately, the lack of acceptance of any
such definition has in no way hampered the development of the field. On the
contrary, some, such as Frank (1998), question whether a common profile for
Information Systems research is even desirable.
This same sort of qualification process might be applied to the endeavor of
knowledge management, and we could ask what constitutes the field of KM,
what common profile can be ascribed to KM researchers, and if we, in fact, can
consider knowledge management as a discipline in its own right. Jennex and
Croasdell (2005) have called for a determination that knowledge management
be considered a discipline. As they discuss, meeting Kuhn’s (1996) criteria for
the establishment of a discipline may be a necessary step; it is clearly not
sufficient. The actual nature, characteristics, behaviors, and interaction of those
researchers identifying themselves as KM researchers ultimately will determine
whether we emerge a discipline or not. The analysis presented in this chapter
moves us a step forward in that di- rection by taking a broad analytical view of
KM research underway from both departmental and geographic standpoints.
In this chapter, we will focus to a large extent on the publication process of one
of the most comprehensive knowledge management works of recent years, the
Encyclopedia of Knowledge Management (Schwartz, 2006). We will present
some of the findings from the editorial process first reported in Schwartz (2005)
and draw insights regarding the global knowledge management community. We
will begin with a number of findings based on the initial response to a call for
papers for the Encyclopedia of Knowledge Management that was issued in
October 2003 (Schwartz, 2003). We will present some descriptive statistics that
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form what in essence is a profile of the self-described knowledge management
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 47
community. We will then present an overview of the actual contents of the
encyclopedia and analyze it from a high-level perspective in an attempt to map
out the field itself. By presenting a lay- ered view of knowledge management in
which different streams of research are categorized, we believe a clearer picture
of the state of KM emerges. Not only that, but by following a layered systematic
approach, we can draw implications for both the study of KM and the adoption
of KM in modern organizations.

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20 Schwartz MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 48

Background and Motivation

Managing the editorial process to create the Encyclopedia of Knowledge

Management meant creating an overall map of research being conducted that
impacts KM both directly and indi- rectly. It required reaching out to
practitioners and academics in a wide range of disciplines in order to elicit their
views on what makes knowledge management the pursuit that it is. And it
meant attempting to organize that knowledge in a meaningful way so that it can
be delivered to and made use of by KM researchers and practitioners in the
future. In essence, the same acquire-organize-distribute model (Schwartz,
Divitini, & Brasethvik, 2000) that can be used to manage the knowledge of a
single enterprise was modified and applied to a multi-organizational and multi-
party knowledge management editorial task.
In an attempt to provide as broad of coverage as possible for KM, the call for
papers, in- cluding a detailed list of topics and subtopics (Figure 1) was prepared
in consultation with the international editorial advisory board ([Link]
[Link]/reference/details. asp?ID=4464&v=editorialBoard). It was through
the interactions of the EAB that the CFP metamorphosed from what was
originally a very IT-centric worldview to the knowledge and organization-centric
view of its final form. Further modifications (shown in italics) were the result of
feedback from potential contributors subsequent to the release of the CFP.

Soliciting Contributions

Proposals for contributions to the EKM were solicited through five main channels:

1. The ISWORLD mailing list,

2. The DBWORLD mailing list,
3. The knowledge acquisition/modeling/management (KAW) mailing list,
4. The publisher’s (IGI) master mailing list, and
5. The editorial advisory board; each member of the editorial advisory board
was asked to distribute the CFP through his or her personal mailing list of
relevant researchers.

Departmental Affiliation

One place to start understanding the directions being taken in knowledge

management re- search is the departmental affiliation of those authors working
in an area that they identify as relevant to knowledge management.

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Authors affiliated with 29 distinct disciplines found it relevant to contribute article
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49
proposals. Table 1 shows the main departmental affiliation of proposal authors
from the preliminary round of submissions to the Encyclopedia of Knowledge
Management. Where an author indicated multiple affiliations, the first affiliation
listed was used.

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 A Birds-Eye
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL View of
LEADERSHIP Knowledge Management
50
21

Figure 1. Detailed major topics from the Encyclopedia of Knowledge

Management CFP, each of which divides into multiple subtopic entries
Knowledge
Theoretical Aspects of Knowledge Calibration
Management
Modeling
Defining and Understanding
Knowledge Knowledge
Types of Knowledge
Knowledge Integration
Philosophical Knowledge Sharing
underpinnings Knowledge
Ontologies of Dissemination
Knowledge Knowledge
Management Historical Maintenance
Underpinnings Organizational and Social Aspects of
Organizations and the Inquiring Knowledge Management
Organization Knowledge
The People
Transfer
Perspective
Corporate
Knowledge
Culture
Management Models
Motivation
Processes of Knowledge
Management Organizational
Knowledge
Memory
Creation
Organizational
Knowledge
Learning Cross-
Discovery
border
Knowledge
knowledge
Acquisition
Innovation
Knowledge
Processes Social
Classification
Capital
Knowledge Verification
Social Network
and Validation
Analysis
Knowledge Codification
Community-based
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 knowledge
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 51
Organizational Legal Aspects of Knowledge Management
Intellectual
Structure
Managerial Aspects of Knowledge Property/Capital
Management
Privacy Issues
KM Strategies and Practices
Digital Rights Management
KM Systems Analysis and Design
Liability and the Reliance upon KM Systems
KM Systems
Ethics
Management and Technological Aspects of Knowledge
Lifecycle Human Management
Resource Management Knowledge
Representation
Knowledge
Organization and
Indexing Meta-
knowledge and
Metadata Storage and
Retrieval
Presentation and
Application Integration
Artificial Intelligence in KM
Computational
Experimentation
Data Mining in KM
Other specific technologies
impacting KM Application-specific
Knowledge Management Issues
Biomedical Knowledge
Management
Commercial and
Financial KM
Industrial Knowledge
Management Military
Knowledge
Management Mobile
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Knowledge Workflow
MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 52
Management Systems
Safety-Critical Engineering
Systems Design
Customer Knowledge Legal Knowledge
Management Management
Mathematical Social Welfare
Knowledge Organizations
Management KM in Franchise KM
Counter-terrorism Software Maintenance Knowledge
Noteworthy Knowledge Management
Higher Systems and Initiatives
Education

The top four affiliations show an overwhelming concentration in the fields in

which knowl- edge management has been addressed actively over the past
decade.
These top four affiliations reflect what may be expected from most of the
knowledge man- agement community. Of greater interest perhaps is the
participation in KM research in what can be termed nontraditional KM
affiliations.

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22 Schwartz

Table 1. Departmental affiliation of responding authors

Rank Main Departmental Count %

Affiliation
1 Information Systems 111 44.58%
2 Computer Science 39 15.66%
3 Information and Library Science 15 6.02%
4 Management 12 4.82%
5 Communications 6 2.41%
6 Economics 6 2.41%
7 Marketing 6 2.41%
8 Cognitive Science 5 2.01%
9 Management Science 5 2.01%
10 Philosophy 5 2.01%
11 Engineering Management 4 1.61%
12 Social Psychology 4 1.61%
13 Information Management 3 1.20%
14 Organizational Science 3 1.20%
15 Sociology 3 1.20%
16 Education 2 0.80%
17 Engineering 2 0.80%
18 Finance 2 0.80%
19 Human Resource Management 2 0.80%
20 Innovation Studies 2 0.80%
21 Mathematics 2 0.80%
22 Media Management 2 0.80%
23 Technology Management 2 0.80%
24 Banking 1 0.40%
25 Business Administration 1 0.40%
26 Cultural Studies 1 0.40%
27 Real Estate 1 0.40%
28 Science and Technology 1 0.40%
29 Statistics 1 0.40%
249 100%

A second point of interest from Table 1 is the wide range of

departmental participation, lending strength to the
interdisciplinary nature of KM and providing an indication as to
what types of courses a form program knowledge management
studies might need to include.
Also of note is the complete lack of any departmental affiliation
specific to knowledge man- agement. While a number of authors
were associated with KM Research Labs or facilities, these were
clearly research-oriented initiatives and not teaching initiatives or
programs.
 Geographic Distribution

Another area of interest is that of geographic distribution. Here,

we see concentrations of KM research by country and geographic
region.
Table 3 presents the total number of authors by country in which
they work (i.e., main
university/employer affiliation).

Mövzu 11
6
Management as modernity

Introduction
For Giddens (1991), in a somewhat Foucauldian mood, ‘[w]ho says
modernity says not just organisations, but organisation—the regularised
control of social relations across indefinite time-space distance’ (p. 16).
For Foucault, of course, we all of us belong to organizations and all
organizations are alike and take the prison as their model, so we are all
imprisoned within a field of organizational power, even when we are
sitting alone (Burrell, 1998). Who says organization, we could add, also
says ‘management’, and who says management also says ‘masculine’.
There is a well-established history of equating modernity with
masculinity. Modernity is that world-view whose roots can be found in
fourteenth and fifteenth century Europe where ‘man’s conception of
the world and his place in it’ (Gordon, 1991, p. 17, emphasis added)
ushered in an Enlightenment that, in the post-modernist reading,
provided the foundations for a modernism which strives after
explanation and control. It brought with it the guiding notion that it is
only through reason that we can achieve control, with explanation to be
sought through a knowledge that is objective and to be striven for
through a faculty of reason sharply demarcated from nature. This tight
and exclusive view of reality, based within empiricism and rationalism,
provides a single standard of rationality against which all actions can be
measured. It is a world-view that is profoundly masculine, by which I
mean it is imbricated with those attributes that are generally accorded
to the male and which serve in the constitution of men’s identities.
Women, and female identities, are here the Other, and it is the
Enlightenment project which accounts for such a distinction. For
Merchant (1983, cited in Nast and Kobayashi, 1996), for example, the
Enlightenment saw a dichotomous and mechanistic Man/Nature
relation, with the male body regarded, under Descartes’ influence, as a
machine, while woman’s body remained inextricably tied to Nature. This
‘ontological hiving off of male from female, Man from Nature’ saw
Nature constructed in terms of a passive materiality that was controlled
by the masculine, rationalizing gaze
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 130

and hand of science. For ‘Nature’ read ‘woman’ and for its now binary
opposite, science, read ‘man’. Thus organizations, science and the state
became masculine domains, the men who inhabit them living a
Cartesian dualism which disdains sexuality and emotional life, for the
animal nature has, in modernity, to be controlled and so, too, the
emotions (Seidler, 1994). Male identity is bound up with rationalism and
self-control, knowledge is separate from the body and reason is
universal and neutral precisely because it is bodiless, and separate from
nature and the domain of women (Alcoff, 1996). Man becomes the
opposite of woman, so:

To say that ‘reason is male’ is more than simply to say that men
have been biased against women’s capacity to be rational. It is to
say that reason has been defined in opposition to the feminine,
such that it requires the exclusion, transcendence and even the
domination of the feminine, of women and of women’s traditional
concerns, which have been characterized as the site of the
irreducibly irrational particular and corporeal.
(ibid., p. 14)

Thus masculinity and modernity are conflated, and organizations are

masculine environments, so both modernity and organizations are
constructed through the lens of masculinity. However, queer theory,
notably in the work of Judith Butler (1990, 1993, 1997), blows apart the
relationship between genitalia and a cultural imputation of gendered
identities. The argument from queer theory is of fluid gender identities
propelled into abnormal postures within the compulsion of
heteronormativity. Characteristics of ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ in
the post-modern are therefore torn free from their moorings upon male
or female bodies, and become free-floating signifiers within
power/knowledge complexes that serve to constitute abject subject
positions. In this chapter I am using the freedoms allowed by queer
theory to explore how managerial identities are gendered in the form of
a single, dominant masculinity to which all managers, regardless of their
sexual identity, must aspire.
In my borrowings from queer theory, the assumption that modernity
and organizations are mimetic of the male is turned upon its head, and
the male is seen as constituted through modernity and organizations:
the exploration thus turns to a discovery of how masculinity is rendered
performative through both male and female bodies, via the discourses
which speak through modernity and through organizations. This
chapter’s aim is therefore that of exploring textbooks and, indirectly,
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 131
organizations, to discover the ways in which they perpetuate a
performative, deracinated masculinity which imposes one gender
identity upon all organizational members, regardless of their biological
gender. It requires an exploration also of feminist interpretations. The
chapter is inspired by Kosofsky
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 132

Sedgwick’s (1991) Epistemology of the Closet, which explores how

novels of the nineteenth century served in the constitution of the new
identity of homosexual. Her aim, which I borrow for this chapter, is ‘to
attend to performative aspects of texts, and to what are often blandly
called their “reader relations”, as sites of definitional creation, violence,
and rupture in relation to particular readers, particular institutional
circumstances’ (Kosofsky Sedgwick, 1991, p. 3).
Thus when we explore the confusion in the textbooks about how to
adjust to the appearance of women in management, a confusion that
goes far beyond issues of equality or discrimination, we must keep in
mind Foucault’s guidance:

There is no binary division to be made between what one says and

what one does not say; we must try to determine the different
ways of not saying such things… There is not one but many
silences, and they are an integral part of the strategies that
underlie and permeate discourses. ‘Closetedness’ [or here the
masculinity of organizations] itself is a performance initiated as
such by the speech act of a silence— not a particular silence, but a
silence that accrues particularity by fits and starts, in relation to
the discourse that surrounds and differentially constitutes it.
(Quoted in Kosofsky Sedgwick, 1991, p. 3)

The Koontz textbook is at a loss as to how to approach women’s entry

into management. This is seen most obviously in its insouciantly limited
exploration of women as managers, for as recently as its tenth edition
(1993) it includes the statement that ‘In the last decade or so, women
have made significant progress in obtaining responsible positions in
organizations’ (Weihrich and Koontz, 1993, p. 7 and repeated on p.
365). They have achieved this not because of any reasons intrinsic to
women, but due, they state, to legislation, changing societal attitudes
towards women in the workplace, and the favourable image companies
project by placing ‘qualified women’ in managerial positions. Women,
this statement asserts, can become managers not by reason of their
qualifications and abilities, but only by others opening up paths for
them, just as men have long opened doors for women or carried their
new wives over the threshold of the marital home in order to avoid the
evil spirits lying in wait. Discrimination, they write, is only ‘one reason’
for there being not one woman on her way to a chief executive’s job in
the Fortune 500 corporations. The textbook remains silent about other
possible reasons, a silence pregnant with the hoary, venerable and
utterly discredited implication that ‘women aren’t equipped for the
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 133
public domain’. But this is a silence that Foucault directs us to be alert
to, for it says much. I suggest it is saying that just as masculinity is a
codeword for modernity, femininity, it follows, is a codeword for
something
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 134

else—for jouissance, for pleasure, for exceeding boundaries, all those

things that must be kept out of organizations. Thus the attempts to
ensure management remains masculine is about far more than keeping
women (i.e. those people whose biology allocates to them the
designation of ‘woman’) in order—it is about keeping at bay those
things which women are seen to represent. It is about maintaining the
logical and rational organizational order.
Women can thus enter management,1 or at least its lower and middle
ranks, but only so long as they are gendered as masculine, i.e. that same
sort of masculinity which is the ideal for the organizational man. This
requires that women lay aside those characteristics which are regarded
as feminine, and perform themselves as masculine. That they are always
already female, and thus bound to fail, accounts somewhat for the
continuation of inequalities in the workplace. The textbooks now
carefully use both male and female pronouns when the plural form
cannot be used, but this disguises other methods of reinforcing the
masculine, through the use of the charts, diagrams and photographs
that now so liberally sprinkle the pages of the textbooks. These
construct management as masculine.
Thus the coincidence, in the history of the textbook, in (1) its reaching
a satisfied assumption of the legitimate status of management, (2) the
introduction of photographs and diagrams to replace the written word
and the accompanying ‘dumbing down’ of the text, and (3) the
appearance of large numbers of women in management positions, is
more than coincidence. It is again that divide between modernity and
post-modernity, but here we apparently see the continuing intrusion of
modernity, inscribed upon managers’ gendered bodies, into
postmodernity, an issue I will explore in the conclusion to this chapter.
This chapter therefore turns to a major aspect of the ‘dumbing
down’— the replacement of text by photographs and diagrams. Its
layout is as follows. I will first explore how management and
organizations continue to be constructed as masculine, through
analysing first the photographs in the textbooks. The boxes and
diagrams are too numerous to allow a coherent analysis, so my focus
will be, second, upon organizational charts. My excursion into art
history in the previous chapter revealed one of the subtexts of the
photographs. In this chapter I will build on that analysis to
demonstrate that the photographs and the charts contained in the
textbooks are impregnated with an androcentrism that is projected onto
the reader and thus onto management. This presentation requires a
further borrowing of ideas from art history, specifically Abigail
Solomon-Godeau’s (1997) interpretation of the male nude in art.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 135
The analysis of the charts and diagrams which follows requires a
different approach, one that involves taking one example, the
organization chart, and its place in organizations and in the textbook,
and deconstructing it using methods developed in geography. The
organization chart, this exercise reveals, not only symbolizes
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 136

but contributes to the constitution of management as masculine.

Finally, I will place this analysis within the context of the turn to post-
modernity, exploring in more depths the reasons for the maintenance
of the masculinity of management.

The photographs in the textbook

A swift glance through management textbooks offered for sale in
university bookshops reveals a superfluity of photographs, nearly all
showing white men wearing suits, but with a sprinkling of women and
black people. The photographs have one of two ostensible purposes:
either a portrait of a person whose work is being discussed, or an
illustration of a tenet of managerial practice (achieved by showing
managers in meetings, giving talks, etc.). In order to discover what these
photographs signify I am drawing on Abigail Solomon-Godeau’s (1997)
study of the disappearance, after a reign of 2,300 years, of the male
nude from the French art canon, and its replacement with the
objectified female nude. Solomon-Godeau, in focusing upon portrayals
of the male, provides a lens that facilitates the identification of the
polysemic or multi-signifying functions of the photographs of male
managers in the textbooks. These serve, I will argue, a function similar
to that of male nudes in seventeenth and eighteenth century classical
painting, for in disguising all references to sex they perpetuate a
gendered world. Furthermore, in offering images intended for
consumption by readers they provide aspirational models. Finally, they
represent the values of a’transcendent and sovereign subjectivity,
endowed with reason and judgement, a self-mastering cogito’
(Solomon-Godeau, 1997, p. 195). This extrapolation from Solomon-
Godeau’s work allows the discovery of the spectator produced in these
images.
Let us start this analysis, however, with a portrayal of the objectified
male body that is nearer to us both temporally and spatially, for the
1980s saw the reappearance, through the medium of advertising, of the
visual representation of the objectified male body. This occurred at the
same time as the turn to the visual in management textbooks, a turn
that similarly allowed the visual representation of the male body.
Representations of masculinity, Solomon-Godeau argues, are shaped by
the presiding terms of gender and gender conflict (ibid., p. 204) and in
the adverts of the 1980s she saw produced an avatar of masculinity in
the form of the passive, beautiful and seductive youth, presented and
posed in ways commonly associated with the display of desirable female
bodies (ibid., p. 18). She argues that this current array of ideal
masculinities attests, if nothing else, to an iconographic return of the
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 137
repressed: in other words a desublimation of masculinity in the visual
field whereby the masculine body is again, after an absence of two
centuries, permitted to be an object of desirous looking (ibid., p. 23). I
would suggest that a similar conclusion can be drawn from
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 138

the photographs in management textbooks, for the males portrayed

become ‘objects of desirous looking’. The desiring gaze is that of
aspirant and practising managers, male and female, who are
encouraged to emulate and identify with those they see in the pictures.
In gazing at the photographs in management texts, in perhaps
absorbing their symbolic meanings into the subjectivity of the
managerial self, the observer sees a privileging of the masculine. Here
we see a renaissance, albeit in a different forum, of a tradition in
classical art styles inaugurated in fifth century BCE Greece and
continued through to Neo-classicism, which provided a visual language
for (and of) male supremacy. This tradition established maleness,
Solomon-Godeau writes, as the emblem of (ideal) humanity, and
relegated femaleness to the realms of alterity, difference and
corporeality (the body itself), thus promoting a dichotomy that affirms
the equivalence of ‘Man’ with ‘human’ and all that that implies (ibid.,
p. 13). The photographs in the management textbooks, in privileging the
male as manager, undoubtedly continue this tradition. They must be
contrasted with the male of the advertising legend who is seen often
half-naked, holding a baby, and demonstrating, in the projection of male
sexual appeal, that side of him which is closest to nature. The males in
the management textbooks are, in comparison, active rather than
passive, they are involved in doing rather than being gazed at, and they
offer their minds rather than their bodies. This division of ideal
masculinities into ‘hard’ or ‘soft’, phallic or feminized incarnations is,
Solomon-Godeau points out, a consistent feature within the larger
cultural context of bourgeois and pre-bourgeois ideologies of gender.
Thus we see the concurrent development, in the 1980s, of two avatars
of masculinity: the ‘soft’ masculinity of the advertising hoarding that
contrasts with the ‘hard’ masculinity of the management textbook. The
juxtaposition of the two offers two versions of masculinity, two versions
of lived male subjectivities (and there are many models of masculinity
(Haywood and Mac an Ghaill, 1996) and these are but two of them) —
the daytime/weekday male who suppresses the body and focuses upon
‘the mind’; the nighttime/weekend male who can parade the body and
allow its dominance over the mind. Often the ‘soft’ male is portrayed
semi-nude, whereas the ‘hard’, managerial male is portrayed always in a
suit, sexuality stiffly buttoned up and contained, rigidly cordoned off
from the most important and always revealed part of the managerial
body—the head. It is a male constructed through the host of hidden
rules that turn organizations into a discursively masculine world that
requires its inhabitants ‘to exhibit male-associated characteristics of
toughness, competitiveness, aggressiveness and control’, concepts that
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 139
make up part of our understandings of a management ‘riddled with
notions of masculinity’ (Hearn and Parkin, 1986, pp. 78–9). Further, the
ethos of organizations has traditionally been male, but a specific type of
male—the elite, small in number, who ‘put their rules, their stamp, and
their model of behaviour on
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 140

organizational expectations: a pattern extant in today’s corporations’,

one in which the masculine ethos is one of ‘masculinity, strength, [and]
aggression [which] themselves have become linked to dominance and
its micro forms—management and leadership’ (Mills, 1992, p. 135).
The manager’s suit is prominent in the photographs, as it is in the
managerial workplace. [Link]’s analysis of The Psychology of
Clothes (1930, in Silverman, 1988) is informative here. Flugel shows
that a major change in male clothing customs occurred in the late
eighteenth century. After centuries of increasing opulence it now
became purified of ornamentation, and it took upon itself an
appearance of austerity and ascetism which continues to this date.
This ‘Great Masculine Renunciation’, he argues somewhat questionably,
assisted the collapse of social and class distinctions between men and
the signification of solidarity between male subjects. More convincingly,
he sees it as allowing masculine allegiance to the larger social order
and man’s privileged position therein. The consequence of this, Flugel
writes, is that ‘modern man’s clothing abounds in features which
symbolize his devotion to the principles of duty, of renunciation, and
of self-control. The whole relatively “fixed” system of his clothing is, in
fact, an outward sign of the strictness of his adherence to the social
code (though at the same time, due to its phallic attributes, it
symbolizes the most fundamental features of his sexual nature)’ (Flugel,
1930, p. 113, quoted by Silverman, 1988, p. 25). In this, Silverman
indicates, Flugel is highlighting the contradiction between the male
clothing allowing the detachment of the male body more and more
from sexuality, and at the same time its construction of male sexuality
through its phallic representation. Solomon-Godeau concurs in the
phallicized ideal of the desirous male body. Within what she
conceptualizes as homosociality, or networks of relationships between
men that involve both power and desire and which may be expressed in
cultural production (SolomonGodeau, 1997,
p. 29), that do not ‘necessarily depend on the outright elimination of
femininity, but rather, on the more powerful bonds that unite men to
one another and which collectively operate to secure the subordinate
position of women’ (ibid., p. 86), she identifies the desire as political as
much as it is sexual. It is a political desire that aspires to the abstract
and largely unrealizable ideal that culture and society designate as its
masculine norm. It is a phallicized ideal, in Lacan’s meaning of the term
as a categorical distinction between the phallus and the penis, the
merely provisional ability of the latter to represent the former, where
the entire male body can represent the phallus and thus masculine
power and knowledge. The male nudes analysed by Solomon-Godeau
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 141
spoke to spectators of the phallic power of the male, just as the
photographs in the textbooks speak to readers of the phallic power of
the manager.
Thus we recognize the powerful symbolism of the photographs in
management texts. The total excision of sexuality allows the besuited
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 142

manager, opened to the gaze of male readers and portrayed as actively

being managers, to become phallicized—the photographs signal to
readers the power of the manager, of managerial knowledge and thus
of the power/ knowledge nexus. Here, where the ‘exercise of power
perpetually creates knowledge and, conversely, knowledge constantly
induces effects of power’, knowledge and power are integrated with
one another so that it ‘is not possible for power to be exercised without
knowledge, it is impossible for knowledge not to engender power’
(Foucault, 1980, pp. 51–2), so the power of the phallus as symbolic
signifier of masculine dominance banishes those knowledges that
cannot be absorbed into the patriarchal, androcentric order of
management.
The whole of the besuited, male body thus becomes a signifier for
symbolic knowledge, power and privilege.
What spectator is being addressed (and produced) in such images?
The spectator here is the reader of the management textbook, who
becomes produced as a supplicant at the altar of heterosexual
masculinity. Arousal is sought of his/her narcissistic desire to emulate
the active male managers portrayed. S/he is urged to aspire to possess
the phallus, for female readers, as many as 50 per cent, if not more, of
the readership, are also enjoined to participate in this gendered gaze.
What female spectator is being produced? The answer to this question
can be found, I suggest, in the timing of the appearance of the
photographs. They appeared first in the 1980s, just as women were
making their way in large numbers into junior and middle-level
managerial ranks, and feminism was proving impossible to suppress.
These photographs speak to this ‘invasion’ of women into male space
and perform a function similar to that of the paintings of idealized male
nudes at the time of the French Revolution. Where the paintings
examined by Solomon- Godeau could symbolize the divide between
public and masculine space and private and feminine space, and the
banishment of women to the latter, the photographs in management
textbooks undertake the symbolic labour of banishing women but using
a form of banishment that differs from that of earlier epochs. It is now
no longer possible to expel women from the public realm, but it is
possible to proscribe that which has been deemed dangerous in
women, i.e. a feminine identity that both tempts with its promise of
sexuality and arouses psychological yearning with its reminder of the
mother. The woman reader gazing upon these photographs of male
managers is urged to suppress her sexuality and to become ‘male’. She
must, if she is to enter the managerial realm, like Lady Macbeth seek to
be unsexed, leaving her gendered identity at the organization’s door
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 143
and taking on a masculine gendered identity.
Here we see on the managerial stage an atavistic recourse to the
conceptions of gender that informed Shakespeare’s comedies, of a
continuum rather than a binary divide (Fletcher, 1995). In this
perspective sex, like gender, is seen as a ‘discursive construction’, for
it is only within
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 144

the last two centuries that a dimorphic divide between male and female
biology has been recognized. That ‘men are men and women are
women’ needing ‘a crow bar to separate them’ seems so obvious to our
twenty-first century eyes that any denial seems absurd, yet prior to the
Enlightenment the sex of humans was regarded not as dimorphic but
monomorphic. One sex only was recognized, although some members
of this sex carried their genitalia externally, others, seen as inferior,
carried identical sexual organs internally. That is, ‘men were women
with exteriorised sexual organs’. Anatomists saw, where we see
difference, different stages upon a teleological journey towards the
perfection of the male (Hood-Williams, 1996). Sex was thus invented in
the eighteenth century not, Hood-Williams emphasizes, as the result of
greater knowledge of the human body, for as knowledge accumulated it
supported the one- as much as the two-sex model, but as an outcome
of a search for difference.
The photographs in management textbooks therefore symbolize a
‘one- sex’ model of management, arranged along a continuum from
those who possess the phallus on one side, to those who possess the
penis and who aspire to possess the phallus in the middle, and those
who in their castrated status aspire fruitlessly to possess the phallus at
the other end, but must act as if they had such a possession.
Masculinized but castrated of the attributes of the woman, women will
present no challenge to masculinity. The invitation the photographs
send out is for attendance at a managerial party that is strictly
predicated upon conformity to the rational, emotionless, masculine
norm. Women are allowed entry, but only if they first unsex
themselves. Men are allowed entry, but only if they first render
themselves devoid of any attributes that do not conform to this one
model of masculinity. Research has indeed shown that women entering
jobs defined as masculine constantly define and redefine, construct and
reconstruct their gender identities to accommodate the interwoven
gender regimes of workplaces and home (Grant and Porter, 1994). The
management textbooks, we have seen, encourage this construction and
reconstruction from the beginning of a woman’s training in
management. And similarly also for male managers.
Theories of women’s management style at first sight contradict this
conclusion. Women managers are seen as bringing in a gendered model
of management which states that female managers do more ‘caring’
work for, when compared to male managers, they:

– have a higher percentage of contacts with people;

– have shorter time on desk work;
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 145
– spend more time at home on administration work;
– spend more time communicating;
– tour buildings and care for the physical environment more;
– are more likely to use informal styles of communication;
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 146

– develop more flexible agendas for meetings;

– increase the chances of co-operative planning during scheduled
meetings.
(Adler et al., 1993)

This is a management style which is contrasted with the objective,

remote, directive style of traditional management. It appears that
women managers are bringing the culture of the home into the
workplace. There are two points here. The first focuses upon the
apparent paradox that one trend in management thinking extols the
value of this supposedly female way of working, a style which is
collaborative and consultative, caring, flexible, participative and sharing
of power. For many thinkers, including Charles Handy, this is the style of
management which should be dominant in this stage of organizational
history. We have, it seems, two managerial styles, the male and the
female. These are binary opposites defined by each being the antithesis
of the other—what one is the other is not. This perspective appears at
first sight to be a major development beyond the androcentric bias in
management and organization theory. However, closer study of the
arguments shows that those who argue in favour of the female
management style are not arguing in favour of female managers, but
are propounding another management practice which (male) managers
should adopt in order to achieve more productive organizations. This is
a highly instrumentalist adoption of yet another technique. That these
prescriptions are rendered inane by their being decontextualized so that
they ignore the reality of organizational and managerial life can be seen
from the foregoing discussion. Masculine and feminine are cultural
codes which have a psychic dimension and which are deeply embedded
in the design and functioning of organizations. Thus organizations are
not sets of pre-given, gender-neutral spaces, which are only
subsequently occupied by people with gendered identities, but are
social constructions that arise from a masculine vision of the world and
that call on masculinity for their legitimation and affirmation (Davies,
1995). Organizations thus require us, as adults at work, to act in
‘appropriately gendered ways’ (Mills, 1992).
The photographs in the textbooks have thus met the incursion of
women into the managerial workplace head-on, by giving them the
message that in constructing themselves as managers they must
constitute themselves as unsexed and gendered as masculine. The
words in the textbooks may tell one story, the photographs tell its
converse.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 147
Organizational charts
By the end of this section I wish to have shown that the organization
chart symbolizes a projection of the masculine, managerial self of
modernity. First, however, I will set the scene by summarizing Munro’s
(1995) reading of the organizational chart. This, of course, in the rules of
academia I am supposed
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 148

to do, for any theorist worth her salt must, if she is to maintain
academic credibility, demonstrate that she has consulted the crops
grown by other theorists in her particular field. However, in a chapter
that explores the conflation of masculinity, modernity and organizations
it behoves the writer to explore whether those crops have been
modified by the authors’ possession of the masculine gene. Indeed, I
must confess to being fascinated that authors who can blithely analyse
the most intricate of Derridean, Heideggerean and Foucauldian
arguments remain ignorant, perhaps it would be unkind to use the
adjective ‘blissfully’, but ignorant nonetheless, of the powerful critique
offered by feminism and gender studies. It seems that the academic
world in this sense is as much a ‘phallusy’ as the world of management
described by Hearn (1992), although in academia it is the brandishing of
the phallicized theorist (my Derrida is bigger than your Foucault) that
adds the necessary inches. But I digress.
Munro’s analysis of the organizational chart, steeped in Derrida,
Heidegger and Foucault, strangely echoes the harmonious world-view of
functionalism, for Munro’s chart is a straightforward graphic
description of a justly ordered world. He rejects the idea that the
organization chart is ‘increasingly marginalized as window dressing’,
that by treating it as ‘merely symbolic’ it becomes trivialized, for he
argues that, as with other examples of ‘formal material and devices’, it
‘interpenetrates everyday social interaction’ (Munro, 1995, p. 143) and
is indeed at its most powerful when it is being made ‘recessive’. He
shows that ‘hierarchy’ (represented by the lines) and ‘interaction’
(represented by the gaps) are binary opposites, each depending for its
existence upon the other. Thus the organization chart, and here Munro
is following Robert Cooper, is a ‘di-vision’ or two visions, with each
vision an intrinsic component of a possibly divided reading of the chart
as having possibilities of bringing together (symbolized by the lines) or
holding apart (symbolized by the gaps) the parts of the organization.
One of these will be the ‘figure’, one the ‘ground’; each is co-
constituting of the other. Importantly, he rejects the distinction
between formal and informal, arguing we produce such differences as
‘effects’, created by actors. The chart, for actors, is also a symbol of a
shared expression, so it is ‘more than an incantatory device through
which relative positions can be affirmed’ for it has the potentially
transformative powers of ‘all ritual devices’, and ‘[w]hat is interesting is
the extent to which each of us can help the other feel the occasion to
be formal or informal’ (ibid., p. 148, emphasis in the original). It is this
‘us’ that calls up the ghosts of happy functionalists. The chart can thus in
Munro’s analysis become a ‘shared expression’ (he does not say shared
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 149
between whom) which is ‘already active’. The organization chart hence
prefigures interaction without freezing it, and it sets up one reading
rather than another, so it travels in advance, allowing the formal to
affect the informal and vice versa. Indeed, he argues that contemporary
management techniques rely on formal devices such as the chart to
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 150

interpenetrate the informal, and that people in their everyday

organizational situations manage to keep making hierarchy happen.
Following Heidegger, Munro argues that we construct our worlds
through making them conform to our representations of it as it
should or could be. This, he argues, is the function of the organization
chart, to make hierarchy seem first fundamental, then natural and,
at the last, normal. Drawing on Foucault he shows that the ‘other’
spaces, the informal, etc., are all spaces of representation governed by
discourse effects. They are all spaces ‘in which accounts, re-
presentations, are travelling ahead of interaction’ (ibid., p. 156). The
formal and informal must exist mutually in interaction, and the
‘technology’ of membership work will therefore involve members
making their dualisms appear both specific and foundational. The
organizational chart, as a device that ‘travels in advance’ of interaction,
forms one device that members draw on when making divisions. His
conclusion that follows from this is important, for his intention is that
‘instead of looking to theory to stand “in advance” of our
representations, we had much better look at how such theories are
already circulating as organizing devices’ (ibid., p. 159), for such
organizing devices ‘animate sociality’ and manufacture differences
between the formal and the informal. It is this perspective of Munro’s,
of the organization chart as a device that animates sociality, that I wish
to take forward here, but I seek to explore how the chart undertakes
this process of animation. By reading in the issues of gender and power
that are missing from Munro’s analysis we gain deeper
insights into the constitutive process revealed in his analysis.

The organization chart in textbook and organization

I have in front of me the chart of a new organization, one that was
formed out of the recent merger of two large health trusts.2 It is
seemingly innocuous, nothing but a diagrammatic expression of how
the organization is structured. Indeed this is how management
textbooks treat charts. An organization chart, students who read Daft
(1997) as their introduction to the world of management will be told, is
the visual representation of an organization’s structure (p. 319). It
‘merely indicates how departments are tied together along the principal
lines of authority’ (Koontz and O’Donnell, 1964, p. 379; Weihrich and
Koontz, 1993, p. 329). An organization without an organizational chart,
the Koontz textbook argues, ‘prepar[es] the way for politics, intrigue,
frustration, buck-passing, lack of coordination, duplicated effort, vague
policy, uncertain decision making, and other evidences of organizational
inefficiency’ (1964, p. 380; 1993, p. 330—the only difference between
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 151
the editions is the insertion of the hyphen in ‘buck- passing). Here we
have a similar conclusion to that of Munro’s, that of the animating
powers of the chart to constitute order, regulation and certainty.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 152

This perspective is contradicted by the discrepancy between the

certitude of the chart I am examining and the experience of people
working in the ‘new’ organization symbolized by the chart. There is
chaos as some managers leave, all move office, some take over the work
of two or more managers. Meanwhile medical consultants take on
expanded managerial roles or become subjected to managerial
control, and the staff who make up the organization writhe under the
pressures of uncertainty and too heavy workloads exacerbated by the
departures of colleagues who have left in a period when the personnel
department is incapable of authorizing replacements. But the new
organization depicted by the chart suggests order, clarity, definition,
harmony. The new organization operates through several buildings,
miles apart, yet the chart writes out of existence the miles that must be
travelled between offices by managers seeking to bring together teams
from several disparate, factional units. This organization chart is thus a
fiction, describing the ought-to-be rather than the what-is. I have
another organization chart to hand, that of the university where I work,
which ‘restructured’ itself a couple of years ago. Papers were circulated,
working parties drew up various possible structures, meetings were
held, staff consulted (or so we were told), committees drafted and
redrafted various potential organizational charts, and eventually, after
much time and money, the university restructured. My department
‘moved’ to a new faculty, a veritable ‘virtual’ move that required only a
shuffling about on the organizational chart. I turn right rather than left
when I leave my office to go to faculty meetings. That is all that has
changed. However, the drawing on the piece of paper that says
‘Organization Chart’ has changed. This suggests to me that there is
something of metaphor about the organization chart.
The most obvious metaphor is that the organization chart is a map,
and that is what it undoubtedly is, as it ‘reveals to managers and new
personnel how they tie into the entire structure’ (Koontz and O’Donnell,
1964, p. 380; Weihrich and Koontz, 1993, p. 330). It is a map where,
rather than squiggly lines and coloured blobs symbolizing lakes,
mountains, towns and cities, there are straight lines symbolizing
departments and ranks, and where, rather than red, black or yellow
lines representing roads and railways, there are straight lines
delineating lines of authority. The boxes in organizational charts
represent, we are told, not people but positions to which are attached
job descriptions that speak of certainty, assurance, the omnipotence of
the planner of the organization who knows what needs to be done,
where, how and by which particular position holder. The people who
‘fill’ these positions are living, breathing, emoting individuals who
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 153
buckle under stress, who jump into political games with more or less
enthusiasm, who come to work after kicking the dog, kissing the
children, rowing with partners, avoiding the neighbours, fuming at the
news, taking painkillers for the headache. The chart represents thus not
a simulacrum of reality, nor even an expression of
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 154

it; rather it expresses a wish, a hope of a whatmight-be, in the perfectly

functioning organizational world. It tells all people in the organization
‘this is the establishment in which you belong, and you are “here”’, just
as the map in the middle of town or campus features, amid the lines
and the confusion, a comfortable red arrow that points to a square and
announces, in large, encouraging letters, ‘you are here’. It takes years
of acculturation to be able to understand how to project oneself into
the map to the place at the tip of the arrow, and from the canvas back
onto the tarmac again, to be able then to look around and to tread out,
more or less purposefully, in the direction that should take the map-
readers to their destination. In the West, we are map-immersed
peoples, for maps are to us not alien forms but ‘synthesized systems of
supersigns we all grew up with’ (Wood, 1992, p. 144). Our acculturation
encourages our forgetting of the symbolism of maps and charts. We
forget that they are social constructions (Wood, 1992), that they are
contingent, conditional and arbitrary, that they create boundaries
rather than representing ‘realities’ (ibid., p. 19) and most of all that they
create ownership at a location (ibid., p. 21). We forget that maps are
metaphors and that we use spatial metaphors ‘in defining concepts
through their extension, intension’; we use them to ‘provide the setting
for mathematical and logical arguments, and we make them explicit
when talking about “a field of research”, “the frontier of knowledge”’
etc. (Reichert, 1992, p. 90).
We forget too that maps embody the interests of their makers and we
forget also that maps are a function of ‘the representing mind’, products
of the agency of the mapper. They are thus but one perspective on ‘the
common scene’, chosen from among competing interests. They embody
those interests in the map, and the choice of what to embody is never,
and cannot be, objective, for maps always manifest the interests of their
authors. Wood (1992) cautions us to look for the repressed experience,
the suppressed interest, represented in the map. It is, he argues, the
repression of the interest that allows the map to masquerade effectively
as accuracy and truth. The organization chart, seemingly so accurate
and truthful, tells far more than its blankly staring boxes joined by
clear, straight lines would at first sight admit. What it does not say is
important for the refusal to articulate reveals what is repressed. What
remains unsaid in the organizational chart is that in its mapping it
draws the world of public spaces that are always the world of
heterosexual men, for the map enunciates the public/ private binary
divide, a profoundly important ideological concept in liberal western
societies (Benn and Gaus, 1983). This argument is so well known that it
needs little elaboration here, beyond noting that large organizations,
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 155
since they emerged in the increasingly homophobic world of the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, have been worlds where men
have gathered in groups which excluded women (Hearn, 1992). Home
became and remains the locus of the ‘natural’, the forum for those acts
seen as private and closest
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 156

to nature, such as the sexual act, the giving of birth (Martin, 1990) and,
ultimately, dying. These two binary opposites of public/private equate
the private with the female and with nature, and thus with the personal,
the emotional, with intuition and subjection; and the public with the
male and thus with the political, with justice, reason, philosophy, power
and freedom (Pateman, 1983). The many women who throughout have
continued to work in the public world of men have been invisible
refugees from their ‘rightful’ place.
A map, furthermore, is formed from myths that are not required to
declare themselves in language, and this is the power of the map for in
its ‘moment of reception, it evaporates’ and we see only its neutrality
and innocence, an ambiguity that allows the myth to work without
being seen (Wood, 1992,
p. 104). Maps, in short, ‘constitute a semiological system (that is, a
system of values) [that] are ever vulnerable to seizure or invasion by
myth’ (ibid.,
p. 107). They are codes which legislate how something may be
construed as representing something else. Formed simultaneously from
semiotics and image that allow a dual signification of language and icon,
the map image ‘provides a context in which the semantics of the
linguistic code are extended to embrace a variety of latent iconic
potentials; to the same end, it imposes a secondary syntax that shapes
entire linguistic signifiers into local icons’ (ibid., p. 124). The map, in
presentation attains the level of discourse, that is, it is simultaneously
an instrument of communication and persuasion. The organization chart
hence signals to us that we who are not senior managers are the little
people in the organization, who owe allegiance to the ‘big’ people in the
big boxes at the ‘top’ of the chart.
Maps also create and reflect space; they ‘bind space to the exercise of
human will’ (Wood, 1992, p. 150). The organization chart, as map,
can in this reading be seen as a pictorial sign that reflects the language
rather than the landscape of the organization, and the language it
reflects is that of the managerial map-maker, imposed upon ‘the
organization’. This language is implicated by gender bias. The English
language covertly (and overtly) demeans or trivializes females,
presenting males as normative and females as deviant or secondary
(Bonvillain, 1995). The very language we speak allows males to precede
and females appear linguistically in second place, always male and
female, man and woman, husband and wife. Semantic derogation
towards females and linguistic favouritism toward males is implicated in
interpretations of the word ‘man’, supposedly neutral yet imposing
meanings by implication, so that even when ‘man’ is used in generic
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 157
contexts male images surface and women are filtered out (Bonvillain,
1995). Now this is important when we are discussing management, for
the word has taken on a meaning signalled by its first syllable. This is the
syllable which announces the practice of management and equates it
with a practice undertaken by those gendered male. The organization
chart expresses this graphically—it can be seen as a projection of the
body, with the (male)
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 158

managerial head at the top, the manager literally ‘heading’ the

organization, and the spreading, earthy, natural world of the non-
professional and of women, those who are presumed to work with their
bodies rather than their minds, located at the bottom. These are the
areas below the collars and ties in the photographs in the textbooks.
The charts recall for us the metaphors of ‘up’ and ‘down’, remind us
always of the superiority of the former and thus tie us into a
metaphorical enactment of obedience to those ‘at the top’ (Johnson,
1987), who are always already gendered male, for Bonvillain’s analysis
of the gendering of language concludes that:

All the data uncovered in analyses of English linguistic forms

indicate a pervasive, covert ascription of positive and normative
qualities to males and negative or secondary ones to females.
Continual repetition of English words and expressions, both as
speakers and hearers, reinforces cultural evaluations that enhance
males’ status and disvalue females. These judgments do not
originate in the language but arise linguistically to express,
supplement, and justify entrenched cultural constructs.
(Bonvillain, 1995, p. 248)

The organizational chart perpetrates graphically that which is achieved

through language, for it is, like other maps, a projection of the mind of
the map-maker.
Like other maps it ‘appropriates and recasts the representations of
mental space by concretizing them as part of social life, part of second
nature’ (Soja, 1985, p. 94). It is a projection of the mental space of the
managerial cartographer rather than an objectified representation of
the ‘organization’. This may explain why, in map-immersed cultures so
accustomed to mapping what appears to be ‘real’ territory,
organizational maps do not map the building(s) in which the
organization is located but the metaphysical, hierarchical ‘structure’ of
the organization. It explains why the ‘box’ on the chart that relates to
senior management and those boxes that refer to management are not
apportioned according to the number of people they represent: the
section that maps the workers is no larger than that which represents
the senior managers—one box may represent 1,000 workers, another
ten senior managers, all are accorded equal space. In this, the
managerial mapper is, literally, saying to the worker, ‘I’m bigger than
you. I take up ten times, a hundred times, the space that you do’. They
are perhaps saying more. Hearn argues that organizations are places
where men may sublimate their suppressed homosexuality and
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 159
simultaneously parade themselves as sexually active heterosexuals:

Organizations…give ample opportunity for men’s narcissism… But

most important a large amount of men’s contact and discourse in
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 160

public domains, particularly in organizations, is a deflection from, a

sublimation of, or indeed a form of mutual masturbation.
Gathering together, as managers and/or workmates, standing up,
strutting, performing in public, orating, arguing, saying your piece,
in the competitive world of men involves a symbolic waving
around of the penis…as a display of power to others, women and
men, but most importantly men… The whole sordid little show is a
phallusy—a desperate complex of moves by men to take the public
stage by storm, to dominate the material world of reproduction.
(Hearn, 1992, p. 207)

Is the organizational chart therefore a graphic representation of this

‘phallusy’? Does it encapsulate visually the striving for the phallus that I
explored in relation to The Law? I suggest it does. Not only is the
organizational chart encapsulating the phallocentric tendency that
allows us to understand seemingly all life forms only in terms of the
masculine (Grosz, 1988; Harding, 1991; Calas and Smircich, 1992a, b;
Haraway, 1992; Martin, 1996), its phallocentric bias means that when
we examine management and organizations we look for and can only
see this ‘typical’ model of male manager as active and dynamic
aggressor who differs markedly from the supposedly passive,
defenceless female. It is this manager who haunts the organization
chart. It is modernity’s manager.
Further, the organizational chart, like a map, expresses not a
substance but a set of relations between entities that are distributed in
time-space (Urry, 1985). These two, time and space, overlap but must be
examined separately if we are to grasp the significance of the chart as
map.
With regard to time, the dominance in management texts of the
problems of change and the seemingly inexorable increase in the speed
at which time flows are not reflected in discussions of organization
charts. The description of the chart in the Koontz textbook has not
changed, save for the inclusion of a hyphen, in 40 years. The
organization chart is a static map of the organizational hierarchy,
removing fluidity and encapsulating a specific momentary impression
for all time. If the organization is mimetic of the manager’s body (Dale
and Burrell, 2000), then this is a masculine body. The next
organizational restructuring results only in a shifting of the boxes on the
map—the hierarchical structure remains intact. This is significant, as the
juxtaposition of rampant change and time-bound rigidity reveals the
contradictions that run through and through management discourses.
The photographs and diagrams in their representations symbolize
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 161
stability and conformity and contradict the warnings in the text of the
need for managerial vigilance if survival is to be ensured in times of
never-ending, ever-increasing change.
With regard to space, the spaces of the organization are mapped onto
the chart by the boxes and the boundary lines. These speak of a space
at once
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 162

imaginary and real: the organic, lived world of the organization which is
both an arena of action and that has the potential of enabling further
effects, and the captured, paper world of the chart (Lefebvre, 1998).
There are at least two space-worlds, two spaces in the organizational
chart (the ‘informal’ organization is a third)—the working space-world
and the managerial space-world. In the organization itself, however,
ease of movement between the two is restricted: managers in Britain
have long engaged in a retreat from direct management of the
workforce (Anthony, 1986) and managers remain in their offices for 90
per cent of their working day (Stewart et al., 1994), occupying their own
space-world and from there surveying, more Nelson’s eye than
Panopticon, the world that the textbook through its construction of the
managerial consciousness has helped bring into being, one
subordinated to the rule of managerialism. The organization chart thus
presents an image that differs so much from ‘reality’ that it offers, like
maps, ‘a double imposition of force: first in order to maintain a
coherence and, later, in the shape of reductionism, in the shape of the
strategy of homogenization and the fetishization of cohesiveness in and
through reductions of all kinds’ (Lefebvre, 1998, p. 411). In the
‘territorialising spatial practice’ (Duncan, 1996) that is management, the
organizational chart thus maps a simplified, reduced world of
hierarchical lines that unite the dreamed organization of the manager,
devoid of anything but devotion to production, with the lived world of
the people who together constitute the organization. This is Derrida’s
world of the ‘ought to be’, a projection of the managerial map-maker of
the twin desires for orderliness and for a managerial supremacy put
beyond challenge.

Boundary lines—the informal organization

The chart has gaps—in between the boxes and the lines are blank
spaces that are as symbolic as the boxes. What can we find in these
blanknesses? I suggest more than Munro’s binary opposites. Geography
teaches us that the spaces within and between the lines on maps are
borderlands, i.e. ‘social and political constructions that are used to
construct differences’ and ‘relational places where individuals live and
construct themselves in relation to each other’ (Pratt, 1992, pp. 243–4).
Organization charts are formed out of boundary lines which delineate
the organization’s ‘inside’ and ‘outside’, and section the ‘inside’. In
these ‘envelope[s] of space-time’ (Massey, 1996) boundary lines are
‘saturated with meaning’. They contain ‘bounds of convention, limits of
the sayable, trace of a dialectic between inside and outside, penumbra
in which identity and difference merge, thin line covering vast power,
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 163
phallolinear mark’ (Reichert, 1992, p. 87). This ‘phallolinear mark’ is
something to which I will return.
Management textbooks acknowledge the blank spaces on the chart as
‘the informal organization’. Weihrich and Koontz map it onto the chart
in 1993
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 164

(p. 145) in the form of amoeba-shaped outlines superimposed upon the

‘formal’ organization, showing routes by which the formal lines of
authority are transgressed as department managers have coffee, go
bowling and play chess with the vice presidents two ranks above them
in the hierarchy. Amoebae, school biology lessons tell us, are single-
celled animals that have no brains, that absorb sustenance from their
environment and into themselves, but are important in that they
contribute to the food chain. This is reflected in the definition of the
informal organization that the Koontz textbook borrows from Chester
Barnard, as ‘any joint personal activity without conscious joint purpose,
even though contributing to joint results’ (Weihrich and Koontz, 1993, p.
246). Other metaphors in the textbooks suggest, however, that the
informal organization is savage and untamed, is perhaps the Freudian id
(the unconscious place into which drives and desires are repressed) to
the organizational ego (the organized sense of personal identity), with
the manager as superego (critic and protector of the ego) (Minsky,
1996). The informal organization (the id) precedes formal organization
(the ego), the textbooks tell us, just as the ego and later super- ego is
carved out of the id. Communication (that which is buried in the
unconscious is inaccessible to the conscious mind) is difficult until
formal organization is achieved, but there is a ‘gregarious’ impulse that
leads to the seeking of company (so as to provide the organized sense
of identity, or self). Unless controlled the informal organization can
challenge the formal, just as the unconscious id so influences conscious
behaviour that the ego is permanently precarious. The informal
organization can, the textbooks tell us, be tamed, i.e. coordinated, given
a conscious joint purpose and a structure for gaining that purpose, and
thus it can become a part of the formal organization, just as the super-
ego can work to control the unconscious.
The boxes on the organization chart, it follows, represent the
‘cultured’ part of the organization, and the spaces in the chart those
areas that are unknown and unknowable and which always challenge
the organized, conscious world of the manager. The organization chart
represents the managerial cartographer’s projection of his self-identity
onto the organization, so that the organization is literally made in his
own image. It is possible to say this because organization charts, like
maps, are not empty mirrors but are things that at once hide and reveal
the hand of the cartographer; they are fleshly, of the body and of the
mind of the individuals that produce them, drawing the eye of the map-
reader (Pile and Thrift, 1995). The ‘mapping subject’ ‘is an exclusive
structure encoded with a particular gender, class and racial positioning;
…a structure for subjectivity unresponsive to the perspectives of many
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 165
non-dominant subjectivities, particularly women’ (Kirby, 1996, p. 46).
This mapping subject both reflects and reinforces ways of conceiving
both the subject and space, through a symbiotic shaping of environment
and (managerial) self identified by Freud,
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 166

whereby the self is achieved through the delimitation of an external

environment, and the form of the environment thus produced will
recursively dictate the shape of the self (ibid.). Charts, like maps, thus
represent ‘an immutable space organized by invariable boundaries, an
a- temporal, objective, transparent space’ (ibid., p. 47) that is
contiguous with the subjectivity of the map-maker who thus, through
the chart that is a projection of the managerial self, shapes
organizational subjects and organizational environments in a particular
way.
Further, the boxes on the chart symbolize, in their contained rigidity,
both the separation of the manager from the natural, the untamed, and
the effort of the manager to ‘box in’ that which does not conform to
managerial demands for rationality and order. Maps are framed,
marked with text, simplifications, fabrications:

The map does not simply itemise the world: it fixes it within a
discursive and visual practice of power and meaning; and, because
it naturalises power and meaning against an impassive and neutral
space, it serves to legitimate not only the exercise of that power
but also the meaningfulness of that meaning.
(Pile and Thrift, 1995, p. 48)

The organizational chart thus speaks of management’s attempt to

achieve power over the rest of the organization, establishing the
meaningfulness of the meaning of the organization for themselves and
others. Even if not visibly present when shut away in their offices,
managers are always present, always seeking to tame the non-managerial
Other, the id, the ‘informal organization’ that threatens misrule and
gregarious chaos.

Representing masculine space—the phallolinear mark

Reichert’s (1992) notion of the map as ‘phallolinear mark’ can now be
clearly seen. It is a concept that he does not develop, but it alerts us to
the gendering of the organization’s Other. Maps are inescapably
gendered for they presume intertextuality, a prior knowledge of other
texts that are always already, in the feminist canon, imprinted upon by
patriarchy. Maps form part of the discursive field by which social
structures are constituted— our theoretical interpretations can reflect
only other interpretations and not a bedrock reality. Our theoretical
landscapes are therefore created by, rather than corresponding to, our
interpretative schemes and theories. They cannot be seen as
hermetically sealed from the broader milieu in which they originate, for
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 167
as texts they are inextricably intertwined with their context and what is
outside them. The organizational chart/map is, like other maps, drawn
by male managers who call upon both a history of texts that privilege
the heterosexual male and suppress the female and all others not
meeting
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 168

the heteronormative ideal, and a psychological history that is

intertwined with the subjectivity of gender and the intense experience
of insecurity that is the history of the individual. This latter history calls
to them to distinguish themselves from those who are Other, and this is
a further symbolic function of the little boxes of the map/chart, which
neatly and tightly separate managerial space from the space of the
Other, symbolically locking each into their own sections of the (virtual)
organization (Young, 1997).
The boxes at the top of the chart thus represent what Hearn and
Morgan (1990) refer to as ‘hegemonic masculinities’, i.e. those forms
and practices of masculinity which dominate within societies. These are
historically and culturally conditioned, and today’s dominant model is
white, heterosexist, middle-class and Anglophone. It is a managerial
masculinity reflected in preoccupation with control over others for
management, by definition, exists to control others. In management,
the appropriately gendered behaviour is a masculinity shaped around
notions of rationality, one that is detached and logical, unemotional and
wholly absorbed in the work process. It is a rationality which serves a
double purpose, as it provides a manager with an air of superiority over
manual workers who are supposedly less rational, and it excludes
supposedly irrational females (Mills and Murgatroyd, 1991). It is a
rationality embedded deep within Taylorism, where the ‘ideal workman
would appear to almost lose physical presence, or be a mere
disembodied bearer of role, in effect part of a machine system’, where a
very explicit model of masculinity is given, one of stable, takenfor-
granted power and authority, as in the patriarchal family (Hearn and
Parkin, 1986, pp. 18–19). This, I suggest, is modernity incarnate, or
rather the masculine manager is the materialized metaphysics of
modernity.
The organizational chart can thus be read as a ‘phallolinear mark’,
dividing up the territory of the organization in the image of the senior
managers who control the territory, and thus defining a masculine
space.

Maintaining masculinity
The managerial mapper replicates the masculinist geographers and
anthropologists who have written of the ‘field’ and nature as if they
were feminine, and their forays into fieldwork as masculine acts of
manly dominance (Sparke, 1996). In organization theory this is seen as
the perpetuation by managers of a ‘web of rules of masculinity’ (Mills,
1992, p. 142). Management textbooks contribute to the sustenance of a
gendered world, as can be seen, for example, in Weihrich and Koontz’s
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 169
(1993) discussion of ‘factors determining an effective span’. The number
of subordinates a manager can effectively manage, they write, depends
upon a number of factors, the most important of which is the
‘manager’s ability to reduce the time he or she spends with
subordinates’ (ibid., p. 249). A list of factors that ‘determine’ the
amount of time a manager must spend with
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 170

subordinates is given on p. 250, with the list of attributes that determine

that only little time need be spent being the exact opposite of that
determining that close supervision is needed. The manager must spend
a great deal of time with subordinates who are unwilling to assume
responsibility, who are immature, ineffective in meetings and in their
interactions, unable to communicate, and who have been little trained,
for ‘well trained subordinates, require not only less of their managers’
time but also less contact with their managers’ (ibid., p. 250). The ‘good’
subordinate, it follows, allows the manager to keep a distance, and is
well trained, can undertake well-defined tasks to achieve verifiable
objectives, communicates using appropriate techniques, and is mature
and willing to assume responsibility. The ‘bad’ subordinate
demonstrates features that are seen as close to nature (untrained,
untamed) and thus as violating the heteronormative order. Rationality,
structure, independence are ‘good’; ignorance, ineffectiveness,
emotionality are ‘bad’ and must be controlled by close supervision.
Rationality is good and results in self-management; emotionality is bad
and requires strict, external management. This rationality/emotionality
binary reflects the male/female binary divide, Managers must train/
tame the feminized members of the organization until they become
masculinized so that managers may have their managerial time to
themselves, to do the important jobs of management in their own
territory of the office or meeting room. The process of training/taming
requires their crossing over the boundaries marked on the chart, leaving
the box of the manager for that of the ‘Other’. In Rose’s (1996) terms, it
involves them leaving what is to them their ‘real’ space, one that is fixed
and solid, and entering what is for them an ‘imagined’ space (the space
of the informal organization) that is one of flows, fusion and melding, a
feminine and a gay space.
This distinction between real and imagined space, one that percolates
through geography and cartography, is, Rose argues, drawing on the
work of Judith Butler and Luce Irigaray, ‘a performance of the male
imaginary’ that is part of ‘prior spatialized male imaginary’ (Rose,
1996, p. 73). It is, in Gilmore’s (1990) terms, ‘man-playing’, where the
managerial concept of ‘masculinity’ depends upon how it defines
‘femininity’ as the castrated male other (Grant and Porter, 1996). Its
differential access to power (Haywood and Mac an Ghaill, 1996)
allows the construction of a male, managerial self, but one that
requires the constantly constructed, negotiated and reconstructed
routine social interactions that allow simultaneous processes of
differentiation and identification (Collinson and Hearn, 1996) and thus
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 171
reinforcement of the construction of the manager as masculine.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 172

Returning to Munro
Munro (1995) argued that the organizational chart is a theory of the
organization that ‘travels in advance’ of interaction and thus constitutes
the organization through animating sociality and manufacturing
differences between the formal and the informal. My excursion into
geography leads me to suggest that the chart should be seen as a
metaphor of a map. It is a map that delineates space which,
geographers now argue, is relational and constitutive of social
processes, and which is a complex web of relations of domination and
subordination, of solidarity and cooperation, and is thus ‘power-
geometry’ (Massey, 1992, quoted by McDowell, 1996). The chart
symbolically compresses space, excising those aspects of the
organization which do not conform to the embodied desires of the
managerial map- maker, that is, desires for ‘power-geometry’, for a
world of the managerial ought-to-be, of managerial security in the
status of a dominant masculinity that renders all other actors in the
organization Other, subject to control by a management which is able to
project its omnipresence onto the paper world of the chart and thus
disguise its bodily absence from the organic, lived world of the
organization. For this world that ought-to-be is one that is a projection
of the managerial self-image, of a cultured, rational, masculine
subjectivity that rigidly suppresses the natural and the emotional, the
worker and thus the non-masculine. It is a self-image that has, in
elevating a hegemonic masculinity, severely suppressed all aspects that
do not conform to this very narrow masculinity. The chart thus, in
travelling in advance of interaction, to use Munro’s term, constitutes
not the organization but the manager, and it allows the manager to see
the organization as himor her- (masculinized) self writ large. In so far as
other organizational actors acquiesce in the perspective that is offered
by the chart, then I must concur with Munro’s analysis that the chart
animates the sociality of the organization. This is a sociality, however,
that is not that of the happy functionalist who informs Munro’s theory,
but a sociality imbued, first, with gendered distinctions, and second,
with power/knowledge differentials, for managers make a claim to
possessing a management knowledge, whose symbolic representation is
the organizational chart, that is inseparable from their power.

Conclusion: queering the textbooks/queering the post-

modern
The textbooks, in their turn to the post-modern, work to construct the
identities of readers, i.e. how to be managers, rather than the passive
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 173
offering of advice and guidance on how to do management. They offer
one gender identity to all readers, male or female, and this is the
gendered identity, inscribed in the photographs, diagrams and charts,
of one particular form
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 174

of masculinity, a masculinity not attached to genitalia but to discourse.

This is a masculinity which embodies modernity and thus modernity,
represented through masculinity, is inscribed upon the bodies of both
male and female managerial bodies.
There are two themes in this conclusion which now need to be
explained and explored. The first of these is that in the above discussion
I have drawn largely upon feminist theories, but alluded throughout to
queer theory, and the potential it offers for arguing that gender
identities may be divorced, to a greater or lesser extent, from the
biologically sexed body. The second is the insistence upon modernity
being inscribed, as it were, upon managers’ bodies and through
managerial identities, an insistence that seemingly contradicts my
assertion, through many of the previous chapters, that the textbooks
underwent a postmodernist turn, towards the constitution of identities,
from the 1980s. The following analysis is predicated upon the post-
modern rejection of the ‘either/or’ and the acceptance instead of the
‘both/and’. Queer theory allows a rejection of the either male or female,
so that we can read individuals as both male and female, and similarly it
introduces the necessity of rejecting the sharp distinction between the
modern and the post-modern, and to see the post-modern as having
both the modern and the post-modern collapsed into each other.

Queering the textbooks

I am going beyond feminist theorizing and into queer theory as the
latter allows me to argue that both male and female managers have to
gender themselves according to a dominant model of masculinity, an
argument made possible by queer theory’s demonstration that gender
arises from the performativity of gendered behaviours, or, in Judith
Butler’s words:

The regulatory norms of sex work in a performative fashion to

constitute the materiality of bodies and, more specifically, to
materialize the body’s sex, to materialize sexual difference in the
service of the consolidation of the heterosexual imperative… Thus,
the fixity of body is fully material, but materiality is seen as the
effect of power, as power’s most productive effect. Thus ‘sex’ is
not simply what one has, or a static description of what one is: it
will be one of the norms by which the ‘one’ becomes viable at all,
that which qualifies a body for life within the domain of cultural
intelligibility.
(Butler, 1993, p. 2)
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 175
Butler’s work is famously inaccessible, a reputation belied somewhat by
a paper published in 1996 in which she summarizes the arguments of
her various books. In this paper she argues:
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 176

1 Following Foucault, that identity categories tend to be instruments

of regulatory regimes, whether as the normalizing categories of
oppressive structures or as the rallying points for a liberatory
contestation of that very oppression (Butler, 1996, p. 180).
2 Her suspicion of identity categories. She argues (ibid., p. 181) that
in the construction of the ‘I’ there is much that must be excluded,
left outside. What is excluded is a radical concealment, for whatever
terms we use to describe ourselves the meaning of the term is, first,
always indeterminate and, second, imposed by others. Power thus
comes into play in this use of a label, so that one side of the label is
‘good’ (e.g. heterosexuality) and the other side ‘bad’ (e.g.
transvestite).
3 However, the ‘good’ depends upon the ‘bad’ to know what it, the
good, is and so although it looks as if the ‘bad’ is derived from the
good, it is the other way around.
4 She then uses ‘drag’ to develop her thesis. In drag, a person
performs a sexual identity, or plays at a sexual identity. Butler
argues that we all do this, perform or play out our sexual identities.
We are now at the heart of Butler’s thesis. She suggests, referring
to herself:
5 She concludes (ibid., p. 185) that drag constitutes the mundane way
in which genders are appropriated, theatricalized, worn and done; it
implies that all gendering is a kind of impersonation and
approximation. If this is true, it seems, there is no original or
primary gender that drag imitates, but gender is a kind of imitation
for which there is no original; in fact, it is a kind of imitation that
produces the very notion of the original as an effect and
consequence of the imitation itself. In other words, the naturalistic
effects of heterosexualized genders are produced through imitative
strategies; what they imitate is a phantasmatic ideal of heterosexual
identity, one that is produced by the imitation as its effect. In this
sense, the ‘reality’ of heterosexual identities is performatively
constituted through an imitation that sets itself up as the origin and
the ground of all imitations. Heterosexuality is always in the process
of imitating and approximating its own phantasmatic idealization of
itself—and failing.
6 The very possibility of becoming a viable subject requires that a
certain gender mime be already under way (ibid., p. 187). The
‘being’ of the subject is no more self-identical than the ‘being’ of
any gender; in fact, coherent gender, achieved through an apparent
repetition of the same, produces as its effect the illusion of a prior
and volitional subject. In this sense, gender is not a performance
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 177
that a prior subject elects to do, but gender is performative in the
sense that it constitutes as an effect the very subject it appears to
express. It is a compulsory performance in the sense that acting out
of line with heterosexual norms brings with it ostracism,
punishment and violence, not to mention the transgressive
pleasures produced by those very prohibitions. In short, ‘there is
no
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 178

performer prior to the performed, that the performance is

performative, that the performance constitutes the appearance of a
“subject” as its effect’.

In this exploration of gendered identities, Butler’s work radically

destabilizes the binary divide between male and female for she shows
that all gender identities are performative and depend not upon
genitalia, nor indeed upon social construction whose base is the
materiality of the body, but upon the iterative performance of a norm
that does not exist. From this, it is possible to explore managers,
whether women or men, as having a gender identity in that part of
their lives when they are managers achieved through the performativity
of iteration: this performative identity is the deracinated masculinity
demanded of managers. It is facilitated by the textbooks which engage
the reader in demonstrating the required masculinity.
Further, queer theory challenges ‘the regulatory power of the
category of the normal’ (Seidman, 2001, p. 358), and offers the
potential to ‘queer’ broader aspects of our lives. Diana Fuss (2001),
taking forward this potential, argues that ‘heterosexuality’ requires
‘homosexuality’ in order to define itself. The opposition of
‘heterosexual/ homosexual’ is, for Fuss, constructed on another related
opposition, the couplet ‘inside/outside’, a binary opposition which
permeates and in so doing helps define Western culture and indeed the
Western psyche, where identity is relational, constituted through
reference to an outside or other which defines the boundaries of the
me and the not/me. But, she asks

how do outsides and insides come about? What philosophical and

critical operations or modes produce the specious distinction
between a pure and natural heterosexual inside and an impure
and unnatural homosexual outside? Where exactly, in this
borderline sexual economy, does the one identity leave off and
the other begin?
(Fuss, 2001, p. 348)

In relation to my foregoing argument, we can similarly ask where, in a

culture of fragmented identities that are constantly in the process of
being generated, and where women and men share many
characteristics, does the identity of ‘masculine’ end and the identity of
‘feminine’ begin, and indeed where does the category of ‘manager’ end
and ‘worker’ begin? Further, however, Fuss’s questions bring to mind
Parker’s adoption of Kosofsky Sedgwick’s metaphors to recommend a
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 179
practice of queering academic discourses to achieve ‘an unceasing
exposure of what was secreted away, and at the same time a closeting
of some other term’ (Parker, 2001, p. 49),
i.e. a refusal of the either/or and the acknowledgement of the both/and.
This insistence upon the ‘both/and’ does not arise solely from
queer theory, of course, but is fundamental to much of, for
example, Derrida’s
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 180

work. However, in our attempts to periodize the modern and the

postmodern it is too easy to assume it is either one or the other (and
indeed to assume that both exist). We find this, most obviously, in
Cooper and Burrell’s exposition in 1988 of two opposing conceptual
positions on organizations, modernism and post-modernism, a
necessary pedagogical device at a time when post-modernism was
somewhat new and strange to many studying organizations and
management. Jameson has been bothered for more than a decade by
the problem of how the postmodern emerged. In 1991 (p. xiii) he wrote
‘The name itself— post-modernism—has crystallized a host of hitherto
independent developments which, thus named, prove to have
contained the thing itself in embryo and now step forward richly to
document its multiple genealogies’. By 2002 (p. 24) he is exploring ‘a
twofold movement, in which the foregrounding of continuities, the
insistent and unwavering focus on the seamless passage from past to
present, slowly turns into a consciousness of a radical break; while at
the same time the enforced attention to a break gradually turns the
latter into a period in its own right’.
This, of course, is what I have been doing for, informed by such works
as Cooper and Burrell’s (1988), I have been programmed, as it were,
to look for such a break and to try to understand how the modern gave
way to the post-modern. I was at the start of this project somewhat
flummoxed by the continuities in management: much of the textbook
remains unchanged and the manager’s uniform of suit and tie is little
different at the beginning of the twenty-first century from the uniform
of managers at the opening of the twentieth century. It seemed that all
was continuity, that management was a modernist redoubt in a post-
modern world until a closer reading suggested that there was such a
break, that the textbooks turned from describing how to do
management to creating managers. The exception appears to be that
of the manager as Enlightenment rationality in motion. This suggests the
following interpretations:

1 The possibility of continuity of aspects of the modern into the

postmodern.
2 An identity that appears to be modern but is in fact a post-
modern simulacrum of a modern identity.

I suggest that it is the second of these, for if we are truly in a

postmodern age then all is simulacrum. The inscription of
Enlightenment rationality upon the manager’s gendered body is thus
distinct and separate from the managerial enactment of Enlightenment
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 181
rationality in the modern era. There the manager’s role was to do
management, today it is to be the manager, and the model for ‘the
manager’ emerged, in the modern era, out of older ideas of control,
older ideas of the need for control (Protevi, 2001).
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 182

I will turn to Fredric Jameson (1991) to explain this. He argues (Jameson, 1991, p. 12) that
in post-modernism depth is replaced by surface, or by multiple surfaces, and that the
alienated subject of modernity is displaced by the fragmented subject (ibid., p. 14).
Rather than the ideas of a ruling class forming the dominant (or hegemonic) ideology of
bourgeois society, the advanced capitalist countries today are ‘now a field of stylistic and
discursive heterogeneity without a norm’ (ibid., p. 16). Rather than original artworks
there is now nothing original, nothing new, but all is pastiche. ‘Pastiche is, like parody, the
imitation of a peculiar or unique, idiosyncratic style, the wearing of a linguistic mask,
speech in a dead language. But it is a neutral practice of such mimicry, without any of
parody’s ulterior motives, amputated of the satiric impulse, devoid of laughter…the
producers of culture have nowhere to turn but to the past: the imitation of dead styles,
speech through all the masks and voices stored up in the imaginary museum of a new
global culture’ (ibid., p. 17). It is this last point I wish to address here, and suggest,
following Foucault, that pastiche applies not only to the more traditional definition of
cultural artefacts, but to ourselves, as the works of art which we make of ourselves.
Foucault asked: ‘Couldn’t everyone’s life become a work of art? Why should the lamp or
the house be an art object, but not our life?’ (Foucault, in Rabinow, 1986). And just as
in other works of art there is no original work, nothing but pastiche, so, in the works of
art that we make of ourselves, we can do nothing but make pastiche. The manager is thus
both a post-modern simulacrum of modernity and a reminder of the promise of
modernity. And so the manager who has the Enlightenment rationality of modernity
inscribed upon his/her body is not a modern monad whose identity lies somewhere
within, an essentialist core in a grey suit, but a pastiche of the idea of what the manager
is. The textbooks provide one of the patterns for knitting this pastiche together

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 183

A Birds-Eye View of Knowledge Management

23

Table 2. Division of respondents into traditional and nontraditional IS/management

fields

Traditional
Information and
Management-Related Nontraditional Fields
Fields
Information Systems 44.6% Economics 2.4%
Computer Science 15.7% Marketing 2.4%
Information Science 6.0% Cognitive Science 2.0%
Management 4.8% Philosophy 2.0%
Communications 2.4% Social Psychology 1.6%
Management Science 2.0% Sociology 1.2%
Engineering 1.6% Education 0.8%
Management
Information 1.2% Engineering 0.8%
Management
Organizational Science 1.2% Finance 0.8%
Human Resource 0.8% Innovation Studies 0.8%
Management
Media Management 0.8% Mathematics 0.8%
Technology 0.8% Banking 0.4%
Management
Business Administration 0.4% Cultural Studies 0.4%
Real Estate 0.4%
Science and Technology 0.4%
Statistics 0.4%
Total 82.3% Total 17.7%

Table 3. National affiliation of responding authors

Rank Author Affiliation by Coun Percent

Country t
1 United States 76 30.52%
2 England 26 10.44%
3 Italy 17 6.83%
4 Germany 16 6.43%
5 Netherlands 16 6.43%
6 Israel 15 6.02%
7 Australia 13 5.22%
8 France 13 5.22%
9 Ireland 10 4.02%
10 Spain 10 4.02%
11 Canada 9 3.61%
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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 184
12 Brazil 5 2.01%
13 Singapore 4 1.61%
14 Switzerland 4 1.61%
15 Denmark 2 0.80%
16 Hong Kong 2 0.80%
17 India 2 0.80%
18 Norway 2 0.80%
19 South Korea 2 0.80%
20 Austria 1 0.40%
21 Greece 1 0.40%
22 Japan 1 0.40%
23 Macau 1 0.40%
24 South Africa 1 0.40%
249 100.00%

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 185

24 Schwartz

Table 4. Regional affiliation of responding authors

Geographic by Count Percentag

Region e
EMEA 98 39%
North America 85 34%
UK 36 14%
Asia Pacific 25 10%
South America 5 2%

The Resulting Volume

The actual table of contents, by topic, of the encyclopedia is presented in the

“Appendix” section. The six logical topics form a structured framework for the
research and study of knowledge management. Within each main section,
specific subtopics are addressed, and within each subtopic, there appear a
number of articles addressing different aspects and perspectives. This result was
achieved after two rounds of review and consultation with the editorial advisory
board.

Discussion

The contents, as described previously, necessitated a new way to think about

how all these topics and subtopics interrelate. And to that end, we developed
the diagram shown in Figure
2. The first five sections of the Encyclopedia of Knowledge Management are the
result of what can be characterized as a layered approach to the discipline of
knowledge management.
The holistic view of knowledge management and its foundations can be used as
a guide for research as well as study. The central core of philosophies (the
middle) must inform our choice of practical knowledge management processes
(the first ring). These processes must be implemented and adapted in order to
address organizational, social, and managerial needs (the second ring). Finally,
the implementation of KM process to meet our organiza- tional needs must be
supported by and implemented through a set of relevant information
technologies (the outer ring).
The primary processes that make up knowledge management in practice ideally
should derive from the core theories. Figure 2 illustrates a number of
philosophers whose theo- ries of knowledge, economics, and business form the
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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 186

core of knowledge management. Understanding these philosophies is

fundamental to creating a lasting discipline. Without grounding our processes in
their theoretical soil, we run the very real risk of simply cobbling together
processes on an opportunistic basis. In a disciplined manner, we must turn to
our theoretical core in determining the essential processes of KM. In cases in
which experience begets a process that has yet to be identified with a core
theory, one must not belittle the need to eventually discover that grounding. At
the end of the day, this is what will help to distinguish fad from enduring
science.

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 187

A Birds-Eye View of Knowledge Management

25

The layer of knowledge management processes presents one view of the

different stages, activities, and cycles that comprise knowledge management.
Up to 30 different processes can be identified, depending on the model of KM
chosen. We have based our diagram on those processes identified and
discussed in Schwartz et al. (2000). Processes need to be pragmatic in terms of
our ability to implement them, comprehensive so that we can achieve an end-
to-end solutions, replicable and generalizable so they can be applied across a
wide range of organizations. Processes are:

• Technology-independent,
• Application-independent,
• Founded on theory, and
• Generalizable.

That is not to say that these processes should be devoid of organizational

context. On the contrary, it is the function of the third layer, organizational,
social, and managerial (OSM) considerations, to mold, combine, and innovate
using the KM processes in order to meet their well-defined theory-driven goals.
OSM elements are:

• Technology-independent,
• Application-specific,
• Founded on practice, and
• Organization-specific.

Encasing all is the outer ring—the enabling technologies that so often seem to
be driving KM rather than facilitating it. Figure 2, of course, is representative
rather than exhaustive. Additional technologies and new applications of existing
technologies will continue to expand this layer. The technologies are:

• Possibly interchangeable,
• Application-independent,
• Founded on practice, and
• Organization-independent.

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 188

Moving from Layer to Layer

One benefit from taking this holistic view of the field is that it enables a novel KM
implemen- tation strategy. It allows us to focus at an operative level on the
issues we need to address in practice; for example, addressing the
organizational, social, and managerial elements of the third ring. Then, we can
move either up or down to determine (a) which KM processes are

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 189

26 Schwartz

Figure 2. Layer upon layer of knowledge management

Theoretical
and
Knowledge
Representation Philosophical
Core
Unstructured Data
Information
Indexing and Storage
Organizational Learning Retrieval
and Organizational Memory
Cooperation

Semantics Intellectual
Meta-knowledge
and Capital
Dissemination Creation
Ontology Kant Strategy
Minsky Plato
Maintenance Discovery
Gadamer Aristotle
Culture Sharing Gathering
Transfer
Heid- Validation
Reuse egger
Polanyi
Knowledge
Software Theorrretttiiicalll
Discovery
Agents Phiiilllosophiiicalll
Corrre KM
KM
Ryle Marshall Processes
Metrics Processes
Privacy
Maimo-
Popper
nides
Mobility
Networks Kuhn Hegel
Desc-
Trust
artes
Motivation
Organizational,
Modeling Calibration
Classification Integration Social, and
Data Mining Social Portals
Communities Managerial
Networks
Elements
Systems Architecture,
Interface, Human Integration and Lifecycle Computer
Factors Mediated
Communication
Security, Encryption Supporting
Organizational,
Access control and Enabling
Social, and
Technologies
Managerial
Elements

Supporting
and Enabling
Technologies

needed to support the OSM elements selected and (b) which technologies can
be leveraged to implement the required processes.
Another benefit to this layered view is helping to focus the study of knowledge
manage- ment in an academic environment. Programs of study first need to
provide specialization in each of the layers and, therefore, must include a
philosophical component; an introduction to process and process-oriented
thinking and planning; OSM theory and practice courses; and finally, enough of a
foundation in the wide range of technologies to allow for intelligent evaluation and
adoption. Second, a KM program of study needs to provide tools and under-
standing in order to enable students to interrelate the layers and to follow how
technology, OSM element, and process complete each other.

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 190

In summary, the advantages of this approach are as follows:

• Each layer can be isolated and studied on its own.

• We can focus on needs and requirements of each layer independently.
• Enables one to consider how each layer is supported by the others.

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 191

A Birds-Eye View of Knowledge Management

27

• Creates a flexible conceptualization of KM that is anchored in research but

support- able in practice.
• Once a layer focus is determined, we can look at connections with other layers.

Conclusion

There is no question that knowledge management has extended its reach into a
staggering number of areas of study. While the fields of computer science,
library science, sociology, psychology, business strategy, and the like will remain
disciplines in their own rights, there clearly are benefits to be gained by starting
to view knowledge management as a discipline separate from the others.
We believe that the layered view of knowledge management can be of great
help in estab- lishing and advancing the discipline.

• The central core of philosophies must inform our choice of practical

knowledge man- agement processes. Primary processes that make up KM
in practice ideally should derive from the core theories. Without grounding
our processes in theory, we risk cobbling together processes on an
opportunistic basis.
• These processes must be implemented and adapted to address
managerial, social and organizational needs. The layer of processes we
have chosen presents just one view of the different stages, activities, and
cycles that comprise knowledge management. Processes need to be:
○ Pragmatic in terms of our ability to implement them.
○ Comprehensive so we can achieve end-to-end solutions.
○ Replicable.
○ Generalizable to be applied across a wide range of organizations.
• The third layer, organizational, social and managerial considerations, uses
an organi- zational context to mold, combine, and innovate using KM
processes.
• Finally, the implementation of the KM process to meet our organizational
needs must be supported by and implemented through a set of relevant
technologies. The outer layer is the enabling technologies that so often
seem to be driving KM rather than facilitating it.

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 192

We have taken some of the first steps to enable this to happen by mapping out
the distinct elements that comprise knowledge management, from each of its
contributing disciplines. We then have shown how these elements are grouped
into logical and interrelated layers. The structured interrelation between the
layers not only serves to create a conceptual framework for research in KM but
also serves as a guide for developing programs of study and as a basis to
develop novel implementation strategies for KM. Developing KM strategies and

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 193

28 Schwartz

plans by moving among layers and taking the necessary elements for a given KM
situation that each layer has to offer will better equip the modern organization to
deal with what can be an overwhelming field.

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 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 194

Mövzu 13

Təhsil Menecmentində Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsi

Giriş

Təhsil menecmentində keyfiyyətin idarə edilməsi təhsil müəssisələrinin mükəmməlliyə

çatmasında vacib rol oynayır. Bu mühazirədə keyfiyyətin idarə edilməsinin əsas anlayışları,
metodları və təhsil təşkilatlarına tətbiqi müzakirə ediləcək.

Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsi Nədir?

Keyfiyyətin idarə edilməsi, təşkilatın məhsul və xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini təmin etmək və

yaxşılaşdırmaq üçün sistematik və planlı yanaşmadır. Təhsil menecmentində bu, təhsil
xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini təmin etmək üçün istifadə olunan proseslər, metodlar və
standartları əhatə edir.

Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsinin Əsas Prinsipləri

1. Müştəri Yönümlülük: Tələbələrin və digər maraqlı tərəflərin ehtiyac və gözləntilərinə

uyğun təhsil xidmətləri təqdim etmək.
2. Liderlik: Keyfiyyət mədəniyyətinin yaradılması və saxlanılması üçün güclü və
effektiv liderliyin əhəmiyyəti.
3. İşçi İştirakı: Təhsil müəssisəsinin bütün işçilərinin keyfiyyətin təmin edilməsində
aktiv rolu.
4. Proses Yanaşması: Təhsil xidmətlərinin təmin olunması proseslərinin sistemli və
strukturlaşdırılmış şəkildə idarə edilməsi.
5. Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: Keyfiyyətin daimi olaraq yaxşılaşdırılması məqsədilə
davamlı səylər göstərmək.
6. Sübutlara Əsaslanan Qərarvermə: Qərarların verilərkən etibarlı və doğru məlumatlara
əsaslanması.
7. Münasibətlərin İdarə Edilməsi: Təşkilatın xarici və daxili maraqlı tərəfləri ilə
səmərəli əlaqələrin qurulması və saxlanılması.

Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsi Metodları və Alətləri

 ISO 9001 Standartları: Təşkilatların keyfiyyət idarəetmə sistemləri qurması və tətbiq

etməsi üçün beynəlxalq standartlar.

ISO 9001 Standartları Nədir?

ISO 9001, Beynəlxalq Standartlaşdırma Təşkilatı (ISO) tərəfindən yaradılan bir keyfiyyət
idarəetmə sistemi (KİS) standartıdır. Bu standart, təşkilatların müştəri məmnuniyyətini
artırmaq və keyfiyyətli məhsul və xidmətlər təqdim etmək üçün proseslərini necə idarə etməli
və inkişaf etdirməli olduğunu müəyyən edir. ISO 9001, dünyanın ən geniş yayılmış və tətbiq
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olunan
of Idea Groupkeyfiyyət idarəetmə standartlarından biridir.
Inc. is prohibited.

ISO 9001 Standartının Əsas Prinsipləri

ISO 9001 standartının əsas prinsipləri təşkilatların keyfiyyət idarəetmə sistemlərini səmərəli
şəkildə qurması və idarə etməsi üçün bələdçi rolunu oynayır. Bu prinsiplər aşağıdakılardır:
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 195

Müştəri Yönümlülük: Təşkilatlar müştərilərin cari və gələcək tələblərini anlamalı və onların

məmnuniyyətini təmin etməyə çalışmalıdırlar.

Liderlik: Liderlər təşkilatın məqsəd və istiqamətini müəyyən etməli və insanları bu

məqsədlərə çatmaq üçün cəlb etməlidirlər.

İşçi İştirakı: Təşkilatın bütün səviyyələrində işçilər, təşkilatın uğuru üçün əhəmiyyətlidir və
onların tam iştirakı təmin olunmalıdır.

Proses Yanaşması: İstənilən nəticələrə daha səmərəli çatmaq üçün fəaliyyət və əlaqəli
resurslar proses kimi idarə edilməlidir.

Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: Təşkilatlar öz ümumi fəaliyyətlərini davamlı olaraq yaxşılaşdırmaq

məqsədi ilə çalışmalıdırlar.

Sübutlara Əsaslanan Qərarvermə: Effektiv qərarlar analitik düşüncə və məlumatların

təhlili əsasında verilməlidir.

Münasibətlərin İdarə Edilməsi: Təşkilat öz tədarükçüləri və digər maraqlı tərəfləri ilə

qarşılıqlı fayda əsasında əlaqələr qurmalıdır.

ISO 9001 Standartının Strukturu

ISO 9001 standartı, keyfiyyət idarəetmə sisteminin qurulması, tətbiqi, saxlanılması və

davamlı yaxşılaşdırılması üçün tələbləri müəyyən edir. Standart aşağıdakı əsas bölmələrdən
ibarətdir:

1. Məqsəd və Tətbiq Sahəsi: Standartın tətbiq sahəsi və məqsədləri açıqlanır.

2. İstinad edilən Standartlar: ISO 9000 kimi digər əlaqəli standartlara istinadlar
verilir.
3. Terminlər və Təriflər: Standartda istifadə olunan əsas termin və təriflər izah olunur.
4. Təşkilatın Konteksti: Təşkilatın daxili və xarici faktorlarının, maraqlı tərəflərinin
tələblərinin və keyfiyyət idarəetmə sisteminin sərhədlərinin müəyyən edilməsi.
5. Liderlik: Liderliyin və idarəetmənin tələbləri, keyfiyyət siyasətinin yaradılması və
rolların təyin edilməsi.
6. Planlama: Risk və fürsətlərin müəyyən edilməsi, keyfiyyət məqsədlərinin təyin
edilməsi və dəyişikliyin idarə edilməsi.
7. Dəstək: Lazımi resursların təmin edilməsi, işçilərin bacarıqlarının inkişaf etdirilməsi
və daxili kommunikasiya.
8. Əməliyyat: Məhsul və xidmətlərin istehsalı və çatdırılması proseslərinin idarə
edilməsi.
9. Performansın Qiymətləndirilməsi: Monitorinq, ölçmə, təhlil və qiymətləndirmə
prosesləri.
10. Yaxşılaşdırma: Uyğunsuzluqların idarə edilməsi, düzəldici tədbirlər və davamlı
yaxşılaşdırma
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ISO 9001 Standartının Təhsil Təşkilatlarına Tətbiqi

ISO 9001 standartı təhsil təşkilatlarına keyfiyyət idarəetmə sistemlərini qurmağa və inkişaf
etdirməyə kömək edir. Bu standartın təhsil sektoruna tətbiqi aşağıdakı üstünlükləri təmin edə
bilər:
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 196

 Tələbə Məmnuniyyəti: Təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini artıraraq tələbələrin

məmnuniyyətini yüksəltmək.
 Effektiv İdarəetmə: Təşkilatın resurslarının daha səmərəli və təsirli istifadəsi.
 Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: Tədris və idarəetmə proseslərinin davamlı olaraq
yaxşılaşdırılması.
 Etibar və İtibar: Keyfiyyət idarəetmə sisteminin mövcudluğu təşkilatın etibarını və
nüfuzunu artırır.

ISO 9001 standartının tətbiqi ilə təhsil təşkilatları öz proseslərini daha yaxşı idarə edə bilər,
keyfiyyətin davamlı yaxşılaşdırılmasını təmin edər və tələbə ehtiyaclarına daha effektiv cavab
verə bilər

 Total Keyfiyyət İdarəetməsi (TQM): Təşkilatın bütün sahələrində keyfiyyətin

davamlı yaxşılaşdırılması məqsədilə kompleks yanaşma.

Təhsildə Total Keyfiyyət İdarəetməsi (TQM): Nədir?

Total Keyfiyyət İdarəetməsi (TQM), təşkilatların bütün səviyyələrində keyfiyyətin davamlı

olaraq yaxşılaşdırılmasını və müştəri məmnuniyyətinin artırılmasını hədəfləyən bir idarəetmə
fəlsəfəsidir. TQM hər kəsin keyfiyyətin təmin edilməsinə cəlb olunmasını, proseslərin
optimallaşdırılmasını və təhsil xidmətlərinin mükəmməlliyinin artırılmasını nəzərdə tutur.

TQM-in Əsas Prinsipləri

Müştəri Fokuslu Yanaşma: Müştəri məmnuniyyəti TQM-in mərkəzində dayanır. Təhsildə

müştərilər tələbələr, valideynlər, cəmiyyət və digər maraqlı tərəflərdir. Təhsil müəssisələri
onların ehtiyac və gözləntilərini təmin etməyə çalışmalıdır.

Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: TQM, təhsil müəssisələrinin xidmətlərini və proseslərini davamlı

olaraq yaxşılaşdırmağı tələb edir. Bu yanaşma daim yeni və daha effektiv metodlar axtarmağı
və tətbiq etməyi nəzərdə tutur.

İşçi İştirakı: TQM bütün işçilərin keyfiyyətin təmin olunmasında fəal iştirakını təşviq edir.
İşçilərin təklif və tövsiyələri dəyərləndirilməli və onların peşəkar inkişafına dəstək
verilməlidir.

Proses Yanaşması: Təhsil xidmətləri müəyyən proseslərdən ibarətdir və bu proseslərin

effektiv idarə olunması keyfiyyətin təmin edilməsi üçün vacibdir. Proses yanaşması, hər bir
fəaliyyətin və prosedurun optimal şəkildə yerinə yetirilməsini təmin edir.

Sistem Yanaşması: Təşkilatın müxtəlif prosesləri bir-biri ilə əlaqəlidir və onların

koordinasiyalı şəkildə idarə olunması ümumi məqsədlərə çatmaq üçün vacibdir.

Faktlara Əsaslanan Qərarvermə: TQM, qərarların verilərkən dəqiq və etibarlı məlumatların

istifadə edilməsini tələb edir. Bu yanaşma məlumatların toplanması və təhlilini əhatə edir.
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of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Münasibətlərin İdarə Edilməsi: Təhsil müəssisələri öz tədarükçüləri, tərəfdaşları və digər
maraqlı tərəfləri ilə qarşılıqlı fayda əsasında əlaqələr qurmalı və idarə etməlidir.

TQM-in Təhsildə Tətbiqi

 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 197

Təhsil müəssisələrində TQM, tədris və idarəetmə proseslərinin keyfiyyətini yüksəltmək və

tələbə məmnuniyyətini artırmaq məqsədi ilə tətbiq olunur. Aşağıdakı addımlar TQM-in
təhsildə tətbiqi üçün mühüm əhəmiyyət kəsb edir:

Keyfiyyət Mədəniyyətinin Yaradılması: Təşkilatın bütün səviyyələrində keyfiyyət

mədəniyyətinin formalaşdırılması. Bu, liderlik və işçilərin tam iştirakı ilə mümkün olur.

Keyfiyyət Hədəflərinin Müəyyən Edilməsi: Müəssisənin keyfiyyət siyasətinin və

məqsədlərinin müəyyən edilməsi. Bu məqsədlər təşkilatın ümumi strategiyasına uyğun
olmalıdır.

Keyfiyyət Komitələrinin Yaradılması: Keyfiyyətin idarə olunması üçün xüsusi komitələrin

yaradılması və onların fəaliyyətinin dəstəklənməsi.

Proseslərin Təhlili və Optimizasiyası: Təhsil proseslərinin təhlili və onların daha səmərəli

və effektli şəkildə yerinə yetirilməsi üçün optimallaşdırılması.

İşçi Təhsili və İnkişafı: İşçilərin peşəkar inkişafına və keyfiyyətin təmin olunmasına yönəlik
təlimlərin təşkil edilməsi.

Keyfiyyət Dəyərləndirməsi və Təhlili: Keyfiyyətin müntəzəm olaraq qiymətləndirilməsi və

təhlil edilməsi. Bu, təşkilatın davamlı olaraq yaxşılaşdırma imkanlarını müəyyən etməyə
kömək edir.

TQM-in Təhsildə Faydaları

 Tələbə Məmnuniyyəti: Təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətinin artması tələbələrin

məmnuniyyətini yüksəldir.
 İşçi Motivasyonu: İşçilərin keyfiyyətin təmin olunmasında fəal iştirakı onların
motivasiyasını artırır.
 Proseslərin Səmərəliliyi: Təhsil proseslərinin optimallaşdırılması təşkilatın ümumi
fəaliyyətini yaxşılaşdırır.
 Etibar və İtibar: Keyfiyyətə fokuslanan təhsil müəssisələri daha etibarlı və nüfuzlu
olur.
 Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: TQM təhsil müəssisələrinin davamlı olaraq inkişaf
etməsinə və yenilikləri tətbiq etməsinə kömək edir.

Təhsildə Total Keyfiyyət İdarəetməsi, təşkilatların keyfiyyət mədəniyyətini inkişaf etdirməsi

və təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini davamlı olaraq yaxşılaşdırması üçün əsaslı bir
yanaşmadır. Bu metodologiya təhsil müəssisələrinə tələbələrin və digər maraqlı tərəflərin
ehtiyaclarına daha yaxşı cavab vermək üçün effektiv alətlər və prinsiplər təqdim edir.

 Baldrige Modeli: Keyfiyyət idarəetməsində mükəmməlliyə nail olmaq üçün istifadə

olunan bir model.

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group

Təhsildə Inc. Copying
Baldrige Modelior distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Baldrige Mükəmməllik Modeli, təşkilatların keyfiyyət və mükəmməllik standartlarını

yüksəltmək üçün istifadə etdiyi bir idarəetmə çərçivəsidir. Bu model ABŞ-ın Milli Standartlar
və Texnologiya İnstitutu (NIST) tərəfindən idarə olunan Malcolm Baldrige Milli Keyfiyyət
Mükafatı proqramının bir hissəsidir və təhsil müəssisələrinin performansını və rəqabət
qabiliyyətini artırmaq üçün nəzərdə tutulmuşdur.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 198

Baldrige Modelinin Əsas Prinsipləri

Baldrige Modeli, təşkilatların performansını dəyərləndirmək və yaxşılaşdırmaq üçün

aşağıdakı yeddi əsas kateqoriyanı əhatə edir:

Liderlik: Təşkilatın liderlərinin vizyon və missiyanı necə müəyyən etdikləri, təşkilatın

dəyərlərini və etik davranışlarını necə dəstəklədikləri.

Strategiya: Təşkilatın uzunmüddətli strateji məqsədlərinin necə müəyyən edilməsi və həyata

keçirilməsi. Strateji planlaşdırma və icra prosesləri.

Müştəri Fokus: Müştəri tələblərinin və gözləntilərinin necə müəyyən edildiyi, müştəri

məmnuniyyətinin necə təmin edildiyi və müştəri münasibətlərinin necə idarə edildiyi.

Məlumatlar və Analiz: Təşkilatın məlumatların toplanması, təhlili və istifadəsi.

Performansın ölçülməsi və məlumatların qərarvermədə necə istifadə edildiyi.

İşçi Fokus: İşçi qüvvəsinin inkişafı, motivasiyası və iştirakının təmin edilməsi. İşçi təlimi və
inkişafı proqramları.

Proseslərin İdarə Edilməsi: Təşkilatın əsas proseslərinin necə idarə edildiyi və

yaxşılaşdırıldığı. Proseslərin effektivliyi və səmərəliliyi.

Nəticələr: Təşkilatın performans nəticələri. Bu, maliyyə və qeyri-maliyyə göstəricilərini əhatə

edir və təşkilatın məqsədlərinə çatma dərəcəsini ölçür.

Baldrige Modelinin Təhsildə Tətbiqi

Təhsil müəssisələri Baldrige Modelini tətbiq edərək təşkilatın performansını və keyfiyyətini

artırmaq üçün sistemli bir yanaşma tətbiq edə bilər. Modelin təhsildə tətbiqi aşağıdakı
addımları əhatə edə bilər:

Özünütəhlil və Dəyərləndirmə:

1. Təhsil müəssisəsi öz mövcud vəziyyətini və performansını dəyərləndirir.

2. Güclü və zəif tərəflər müəyyən edilir.
3. Mövcud keyfiyyət idarəetmə sistemləri təhlil edilir.

Strateji Planlaşdırma:

1. Təşkilatın vizyon və missiyasına uyğun strateji məqsədlər müəyyən edilir.

2. Strateji planlama prosesləri yaradılır və icra edilir.

Müştəri və Tələbə Fokuslu Yanaşma:

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
1. Tələbələrin, valideynlərin və digər maraqlı tərəflərin tələbləri və gözləntiləri
müəyyən edilir.
2. Müştəri məmnuniyyətini artırmaq üçün tədbirlər görülür.

Məlumatların İdarə Edilməsi:

1. Performans göstəriciləri və məlumatlar toplanır, təhlil edilir və idarə olunur.

 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 199

2. Məlumatlara əsaslanan qərarvermə prosesi tətbiq edilir.

İşçi İnkişafı və İştirakı:

1. İşçilərin təlim və inkişaf proqramları təşkil edilir.

2. İşçi məmnuniyyəti və iştirakını artırmaq üçün tədbirlər görülür.

Proseslərin Optimizasiyası:

1. Təhsil proseslərinin effektivliyi və səmərəliliyi artırılır.

2. Davamlı yaxşılaşdırma prosesləri tətbiq edilir.

Performansın Monitorinqi və Qiymətləndirilməsi:

1. Performans nəticələri müntəzəm olaraq monitorinq edilir və qiymətləndirilir.

2. Nəticələrə əsasən təkmilləşdirmə tədbirləri həyata keçirilir.

Baldrige Modelinin Təhsildə Faydaları

 Keyfiyyətin Artırılması: Təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini davamlı olaraq artırmaq

üçün sistemli yanaşma təmin edir.
 Müştəri Məmnuniyyəti: Tələbə və valideyn məmnuniyyətini artırmağa kömək edir.
 Performansın Yaxşılaşdırılması: Təhsil müəssisələrinin performansını və rəqabət
qabiliyyətini artırır.
 İşçi Motivasyonu: İşçilərin motivasiyasını və iştirakını artırır.
 Strateji Yönümlülük: Təşkilatın uzunmüddətli məqsədlərinə çatmaq üçün strateji
planlaşdırmanı dəstəkləyir.
 Məlumatlara Əsaslanan Qərarvermə: Performansın dəyərləndirilməsi və
yaxşılaşdırılması üçün məlumatlara əsaslanan qərarvermə prosesini gücləndirir.

Baldrige Modeli təhsil müəssisələrinə keyfiyyət və performansın davamlı olaraq

yaxşılaşdırılması üçün kompleks və əhatəli bir çərçivə təqdim edir. Bu modelin tətbiqi ilə
təhsil təşkilatları öz proseslərini optimallaşdırır, müştəri məmnuniyyətini artırır və ümumi
fəaliyyətlərini daha effektiv və səmərəli şəkildə idarə edə bilər.

 Six Sigma: Qüsurların minimuma endirilməsi və keyfiyyətin yaxşılaşdırılması üçün

istifadə olunan statistik metodlar.

Təhsildə Six Sigma Modeli: Nədir?

Six Sigma, təşkilatlarda proseslərin keyfiyyətini artırmaq və qüsurları minimuma endirmək

üçün istifadə olunan bir idarəetmə metodologiyasıdır. Bu model, təşkilatların fəaliyyətlərini
təkmilləşdirmək, müştəri məmnuniyyətini artırmaq və maliyyə performansını yüksəltmək
məqsədini güdür. Six Sigma, statistika və məlumat analizi ilə qüsurların və dəyişkənliklərin
idarə ©
Copyright edilməsinə əsaslanır.
2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Six Sigma-nın Əsas Prinsipləri

Qüsur Mümkünlüyü: Six Sigma, hər 1 milyon şansdan yalnız 3.4 qüsurun baş verməsini
hədəfləyir. Bu, keyfiyyət standartlarını yüksək səviyyədə saxlayaraq qüsur nisbətini
minimuma endirmək məqsədini güdür.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 200

Məlumatlara Əsaslanan Qərarvermə: Qərarlar statistik analizlər və faktlara əsaslanaraq

verilir. Məlumatların toplanması, təhlili və interpretasiyası Six Sigma-nın əsas
komponentlərindəndir.

Proseslərin İdarə Edilməsi: Six Sigma, proseslərin strukturlaşdırılmış şəkildə idarə

edilməsini və inkişafını təmin edir. Bu yanaşma proseslərin optimallaşdırılması və davamlı
yaxşılaşdırılması üçün sistematik metodlar təqdim edir.

Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: Təkmilləşdirmə və qüsurların azaldılması üçün davamlı bir

yanaşma tətbiq olunur. Bu yanaşma, təşkilatın bütün səviyyələrində keyfiyyətin və
səmərəliliyin artırılmasını təmin edir.

1.

Six Sigma Modelinin Strukturuna Giriş

Six Sigma modeli, DMAIC və DMADV adlı iki əsas metodologiyadan ibarətdir:

DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control): Mövcud proseslərin

yaxşılaşdırılması üçün istifadə olunur.

1. Define (Təyin Et): Prosesin məqsədlərini və problemləri müəyyən edin.

2. Measure (Ölç): Prosesin mövcud vəziyyətini ölçün və verilənləri toplayın.
3. Analyze (Təhlil Et): Problemləri və səbəbləri təhlil edin. Qüsurların
səbəblərini müəyyən edin.
4. Improve (Yaxşılaşdır): Problemləri həll etmək və prosesləri yaxşılaşdırmaq
üçün tədbirlər tətbiq edin.
5. Control (Nəzarət Et): Yeni proseslərin səmərəli olduğunu təmin etmək üçün
nəzarət üsulları yaradın.

DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify): Yeni proseslərin və ya məhsul

inkişaflarının dizaynı üçün istifadə olunur.

1. Define (Təyin Et): Layihənin məqsədlərini və ehtiyaclarını müəyyən edin.

2. Measure (Ölç): Müştəri tələblərini və keyfiyyət standartlarını ölçün.
3. Analyze (Təhlil Et): Tələblərə cavab verən dizayn variantlarını təhlil edin.
4. Design (Dizayn Et): Tələblərə uyğun yeni proses və ya məhsul dizayn edin.
5. Verify (Doğrula): Yeni dizaynın gözlənilən performansı təmin etdiyini
yoxlayın.

Təhsildə Six Sigma-nın Tətbiqi

Six Sigma modelinin təhsildə tətbiqi təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini artırmaq və proseslərin
səmərəliliyini yaxşılaşdırmaq məqsədini güdür. Təhsildə Six Sigma-nın tətbiqi aşağıdakı
Copyright © 2007,
aspektləri Idea Group
əhatə Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
edə bilər:
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Təhsil Proseslərinin Təhlili:

1. Təhsil proseslərinin təhlil edilməsi və mövcud vəziyyətin qiymətləndirilməsi.

2. Keyfiyyət problemlərinin və qüsurların müəyyən edilməsi.

Tələbə Məmnuniyyəti:
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 201

1. Tələbə məmnuniyyətini artırmaq üçün proseslərin və xidmətlərin

optimallaşdırılması.
2. Tələbə rəyləri və məlumatlarına əsaslanaraq yaxşılaşdırma tədbirlərinin
görülməsi.

Performansın Ölçülməsi:

1. Təhsil fəaliyyətlərinin performansını ölçmək və təhlil etmək.

2. İslahatların təsirini qiymətləndirmək və nəticələri təhlil etmək.

Proseslərin İyiləşdirilməsi:

1. Tədris və idarəetmə proseslərinin yaxşılaşdırılması.

2. Davamlı yaxşılaşdırma və inkişaf tədbirlərinin tətbiq edilməsi.

Keyfiyyət Standartlarının Tətbiqi:

1. Keyfiyyət standartlarına uyğun yeni təhsil proqramlarının və metodlarının

dizaynı.
2. Proseslərin izlənməsi və nəzarət edilməsi.

Six Sigma-nın Təhsildə Faydaları

 Keyfiyyətin Yaxşılaşdırılması: Təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini və effektivliyini

artırır.
 Müştəri Məmnuniyyəti: Tələbə məmnuniyyətini artıraraq təhsil xidmətlərinin
keyfiyyətini yüksəldir.
 Proseslərin Səmərəliliyi: Təhsil proseslərinin daha səmərəli və effektli şəkildə idarə
edilməsini təmin edir.
 Risklərin Azaldılması: Qüsurların və problemlərin müntəzəm olaraq azaldılmasına
kömək edir.
 Davamlı Yaxşılaşdırma: Proseslərin və xidmətlərin davamlı olaraq
yaxşılaşdırılmasını təşviq edir.

Six Sigma modeli, təhsil müəssisələrinə keyfiyyət və proseslərin optimallaşdırılması üçün

təsirli bir alət təqdim edir. Bu metodologiya təhsil xidmətlərinin performansını artırmaq və
tələbələrin ehtiyaclarına daha yaxşı cavab vermək üçün sistematik bir yanaşma təmin edir.

Təhsil Menecmentində Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsinin Addımları

Keyfiyyətin Planlanması:

o Keyfiyyət siyasəti və məqsədlərinin müəyyən edilməsi.

o Tələbə və digər maraqlı tərəflərin tələblərinin analizi.
Copyright © 2007, Idea Keyfiyyət
o Group standartlarının
Inc. Copying or distributing invə meyarlarının
print müəyyən
or electronic forms edilməsi.
without written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Keyfiyyətin Tətbiqi:

o Planlanan keyfiyyət standartlarına uyğun təhsil xidmətlərinin göstərilməsi.

o Keyfiyyətin təmin olunması üçün zəruri resursların ayrılması və istifadə
edilməsi.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 202

Keyfiyyətin Nəzarəti:

o Təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətinin monitorinqi və ölçülməsi.

o Əldə olunan nəticələrin keyfiyyət standartlarına uyğunluğunun yoxlanılması.

Keyfiyyətin Yaxşılaşdırılması:

o Nəticələrin təhlili və yaxşılaşdırma imkanlarının müəyyən edilməsi.

o Keyfiyyətin yaxşılaşdırılması üçün tədbirlər planının hazırlanması və həyata
keçirilməsi.

Təhsil Təşkilatlarında Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsinin Faydaları

 Təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətinin yüksəldilməsi.

 Tələbə məmnuniyyətinin artırılması.
 Təşkilatın rəqabət qabiliyyətinin yüksəldilməsi.
 Resursların səmərəli istifadəsi.
 Təşkilatın etibarının və imicinin yaxşılaşdırılması.

Nəticə

Keyfiyyətin idarə edilməsi təhsil təşkilatlarının uğurlu fəaliyyət göstərməsi üçün vacib bir
komponentdir. Bu mühazirədə müzakirə edilən prinsiplər, metodlar və addımlar təhsil
menecerlərinin keyfiyyətli təhsil xidmətləri təmin etməsi üçün mühüm bir bələdçi rolunu
oynayır. Təhsil müəssisələri bu yanaşmaları tətbiq edərək tələbələrin ehtiyaclarını daha yaxşı
qarşılayar və davamlı yaxşılaşdırma prosesini dəstəkləyər.

Mövzu 14
Təhsil Menecmentində Beynəlxalq Perspektivlər
1. Giriş

Təhsil menecmenti, təhsil müəssisələrinin effektiv idarə edilməsi və inkişaf etdirilməsi üçün
vacib bir sahədir. Beynəlxalq perspektivlər, fərqli ölkələrdə təhsil menecmenti praktikalarını
və strategiyalarını öyrənmək, təhsil sistemlərini daha yaxşı anlamaq və təkmilləşdirmək üçün
əhəmiyyətlidir. Bu mühazirə, müxtəlif ölkələrdə tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti
yanaşmalarını, beynəlxalq standartları və təhsil siyasətlərini araşdıracaq.

2. Beynəlxalq Təhsil Menecmenti Praktikaları

2.1. Dünya üzrə Təhsil Menecmenti Modeləri

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ABŞ-də Idea Group Inc. Copying
Təhsil or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
Menecmenti:
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

1. Mərkəzləşdirilmiş və Desentralizasiya: ABŞ təhsil sistemi,

mərkəzləşdirilmiş federal qaydalar və desentralizasiya edilmiş yerli idarəetmə
arasında bir balans qurur. Dövlət və yerli hökumətlər təhsil siyasətini
müəyyən edir, lakin federal hökumət standartları və dəstəyi təmin edir.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 203

2. Performans Ölçümü: Təhsil müəssisələrinin performansını qiymətləndirmək

üçün müxtəlif ölçü metodları tətbiq olunur, məsələn, standartlaşdırılmış
testlər və qiymətləndirmələr.

ABŞ-də təhsil menecmenti, təhsil müəssisələrinin idarə olunması, inkişaf etdirilməsi və

keyfiyyətinin təmin edilməsi ilə bağlı geniş və çoxsahəli bir sahədir. ABŞ-də təhsil sistemi
federal və yerli səviyyədə müxtəlif qurumlar və təşkilatlar tərəfindən idarə olunur, və bu
idarəetmə yanaşmaları, ölkənin təhsil siyasətini, proqramlarını və resurslarını əhatə edir. Bu
mühazirə ABŞ-də təhsil menecmentinin əsas aspektlərini, strukturlarını və strategiyalarını
araşdıracaq.

ABŞ Təhsil Sisteminin Strukturu

Federal və Yerli İdarəetmə

Federal Təhsil Təşkilatları:

1. Təhsil Nazirliyi (U.S. Department of Education): ABŞ-də təhsil siyasətini

inkişaf etdirən və federal təhsil proqramlarını idarə edən əsas dövlət
orqanıdır. Təhsil Nazirliyi, təhsil standartlarının təyin edilməsi, tədqiqatların
maliyyələşdirilməsi və təhsil müəssisələrinin dəstəklənməsi ilə məşğuldur.
2. Federal Təhsil Proqramları: Federal hökumət, müxtəlif təhsil proqramlarını
maliyyələşdirir və dəstəkləyir, məsələn, Title I proqramı, xüsusi təhsil
proqramları və maliyyə yardım proqramları.

Dövlət və Yerli Təhsil Təşkilatları:

1. Dövlət Təhsil İdarələri: Hər bir ştatın öz təhsil idarəsi var ki, bu idarə ştat
daxilindəki təhsil siyasətini və proqramlarını müəyyən edir.
2. Yerel Təhsil Dairələri: Şəhər və bölgələrdəki təhsil dairələri məktəbləri
idarə edir, yerli səviyyədə təhsil siyasətini həyata keçirir və təhsil
proqramlarını tətbiq edir.

Təhsil Səviyyələri və Struktur

K-12 Təhsil:

1. Başlangıç Təhsili (Elementary School): 1-ci sinifdən 5-ci sinfə qədər olan
mərhələ.
2. Orta Təhsil (Middle School): 6-cı sinifdən 8-ci sinfə qədər olan mərhələ.
3. Yüksək Təhsil (High School): 9-cu sinifdən 12-ci sinfə qədər olan mərhələ.

Ali Təhsil:

1. İcma Kollecləri: İki illik təhsil verən müəssisələrdir və tələbələrə əsas

akademik
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group və peşə
Inc. Copying təhsili intəqdim
or distributing edir. forms without written permission
print or electronic
of Idea Group Inc. is2.
prohibited.
Dövlət və Özəl Universitetlər: Dörd illik bakalavr və magistr dərəcələri
təqdim edir, müxtəlif akademik proqramlar və tədqiqat imkanları təqdim edir.

Təhsil Menecmentinin Əsas Aspektləri.Təhsil Keyfiyyətinin İdarə Edilməsi

Standartlaşdırılmış Testlər:
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 204

1. ABŞ-də təhsil müəssisələrinin performansını ölçmək üçün standartlaşdırılmış

testlər geniş istifadə olunur, məsələn, SAT, ACT və PARCC testləri.
2. Bu testlər tələbələrin akademik nailiyyətlərini qiymətləndirmək və təhsil
müəssisələrinin performansını izləmək üçün istifadə olunur.

Performans Qiymətləndirmələri:Təhsil müəssisələrinin performansı, müxtəlif meyarlar

əsasında qiymətləndirilir, məsələn, məktəb müvəffəqiyyətləri, tələbə məmnuniyyəti və
məzunların işə qəbul statistikaləri.

Təhsil İslahatları və İnkişaf, Təhsil İslahatları: ABŞ-də müxtəlif təhsil islahatları

həyata keçirilmişdir, məsələn, No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) və Every Student
Succeeds Act (ESSA). Bu islahatlar təhsil keyfiyyətini artırmaq, test performanslarını
yüksəltmək və təhsil bərabərliyini təmin etmək məqsədini güdür.

İnkişaf Strategiyaları:Təhsil müəssisələri, akademik nailiyyətləri artırmaq, müəllimlərin

peşəkarlığını inkişaf etdirmək və təhsil resurslarını optimallaşdırmaq üçün inkişaf
strategiyaları tətbiq edir.

Maliyyə və Resurs İdarəetməsi,

Təhsil Maliyyələşdirilməsi: Təhsil müəssisələrinin maliyyələşdirilməsi, federal, ştat
və yerli hökumət səviyyələrindən gələn büdcə ayırmaları ilə həyata keçirilir. İctimai və
özəl sektor tərəfdaşlıqları və maliyyə yardım proqramları, təhsil resurslarının təmin
edilməsinə kömək edir.

Resurs İdarəetməsi:Təhsil müəssisələri resursları (maliyyə, insan və fiziki resurslar)

səmərəli şəkildə idarə etməyə çalışır, bunun üçün planlaşdırma və büdcə idarəetmə sistemləri
tətbiq olunur.

Müəllimlərin İdarə Edilməsi və Peşəkarlıq

Müəllimlərin İdarə Edilməsi:Müəllimlərin təyin edilməsi, qiymətləndirilməsi və inkişaf

etdirilməsi, təhsil menecmentinin vacib bir komponentidir. Müəllimlərin peşəkar inkişafı,
təlim və təhsil siyasətləri bu sahədə tətbiq olunur.

Peşəkarlıq İnkişafı:Müəllimlərin peşəkar inkişafını artırmaq məqsədilə təlimlər, seminarlar

və inkişaf proqramları həyata keçirilir.

Təhsil Menecmentində İnovasiya və Texnologiya

Təhsil Texnologiyaları:

1. ABŞ-də təhsil texnologiyaları geniş şəkildə istifadə olunur, məsələn, e-

öyrənmə platformaları, interaktiv lövhələr və təhsil proqramları.
2. Texnologiyanın tətbiqi, tədris proseslərinin təkmilləşdirilməsinə və
tələbələrin fərdi ehtiyaclarına uyğun təhsil xidmətlərinin təqdim edilməsinə
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
kömək edir.
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

İnnovativ Təhsil Yanaşmaları:ABŞ-də təhsil müəssisələri, yeni tədris metodlarını və

texnologiyaları tətbiq edərək təhsil sistemini inkişaf etdirir. Bu yanaşmalara layihə əsaslı
öyrənmə, fərdi təhsil planları və texnoloji inteqrasiya daxildir.

ABŞ-də Təhsil Menecmentinin Beynəlxalq Perspektivlərə Təsiri

 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 205

Təhsil Keyfiyyəti və Standartları: ABŞ-də tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti strategiyaları,

beynəlxalq təhsil standartlarının formalaşmasına və təhsil sistemlərinin təkmilləşdirilməsinə
təsir edir.

Təhsil İslahatları və Yanaşmalar: ABŞ-dəki təhsil islahatları və innovativ yanaşmalar, digər

ölkələrdə də tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti praktikalarına təsir göstərir.

ABŞ-də təhsil menecmenti, təhsil müəssisələrinin effektiv şəkildə idarə olunmasını, inkişaf
etdirilməsini və keyfiyyətinin təmin edilməsini əhatə edən geniş bir sahədir. Federal və yerli
səviyyədəki idarəetmə strukturları, təhsil keyfiyyətinin idarə edilməsi, maliyyə və resurs
idarəetməsi, müəllimlərin peşəkarlığı və innovasiyalar bu sahənin əsas komponentləridir.
ABŞ-də tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti strategiyaları və yanaşmaları, beynəlxalq səviyyədə
təhsil sistemlərinin inkişafını və təkmilləşdirilməsini təşviq edir. Bu yanaşmalar, təhsil
keyfiyyətinin artırılması və təhsil siyasətlərinin effektiv həyata keçirilməsi məqsədini güdür.

Avropada Təhsil Menecmenti:

1. Beynəlxalq Standartlar və Akkreditasiya: Avropa ölkələri, təhsil

standartlarını və akkreditasiya proseslərini beynəlxalq səviyyədə uyğundur.
Bologna Prosesi, Avropa təhsil sahəsinin harmonizasiyasını təşviq edir.
2. Kurikulum İdarəetməsi: Təhsil proqramları və kurikulumlar, ölkə spesifik
tələblərə və beynəlxalq standartlara uyğun olaraq inkişaf etdirilir.

Avropada Təhsil Menecmenti:

Avropa ölkələri müxtəlif təhsil sistemləri və idarəetmə yanaşmaları ilə tanınır. Bu

mühazirədə, Avropada təhsil menecmentinin əsas aspektləri, struktur və strategiyaları
araşdırılacaq. Avropa təhsil sistemlərinin xüsusiyyətləri, beynəlxalq standartlarla uyğunluq,
təhsil siyasətləri və islahatları diqqət mərkəzində olacaqdır.

Avropada Təhsil Sisteminin Strukturu

Beynəlxalq Standartlar və İdarəetmə Modelləri

1. Bologna Prosesi (1999-cu ildən etibarən) Avropada ali təhsil sistemlərini

uyğunlaşdırmaq və harmonizasiya etmək məqsədini güdür.
2. Təhsil İyileşdirmə və Ümumi Sistem: Diplomların və akademik
proqramların tanınmasını təmin edir, tələbələrin mübadiləsini təşviq edir və
təhsil sistemlərinin şəbəkələşməsini dəstəkləyir.
3. Təhsil Kvalifikasiyaları: BACHELOR, MASTER və DOCTORATE
dərəcələri ilə uyğunlaşdırılmışdır.

Avropa Təhsil Məkanının İnkişafı:

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is1. EHEA (European Higher Education Area): Avropada
prohibited. ali təhsil
sistemlərinin inteqrasiyasını və keyfiyyətinin artırılmasını təmin edən geniş
bir çərçivədir.
2. Kredits Sistemləri: ECTS (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation
System) kreditlər sistemi tələbələrin təhsil proqramlarını beynəlxalq
səviyyədə tanınan kreditlərlə qiymətləndirməyə kömək edir.

Təhsil Səviyyələri və Strukturlar

 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 206

Əsas Təhsil:

1. İbtidai Təhsil: Avropada uşaqların məktəbə başlaması yaş aralığı ölkədən

ölkəyə dəyişsə də, ümumiyyətlə 6-7 yaşdır.
2. Orta Təhsil: İbtidai təhsildən sonra gəlir və adətən 3-4 il davam edir,
tələbələrdən bəziləri peşə təhsili və ya akademik təhsil seçə bilər.

Ali Təhsil:

1. İcma Kollecləri və Universitetlər: Əsasən bakalavr, magistr və doktorantura

dərəcələri təqdim edir.
2. Beynəlxalq Təşkilatlar və Təhsil Şəbəkələri: Avropa Universitetlər Birliyi
(EUA), Avropa Tələbə Birliyi (ESU) və Avropa Peşəkar Təhsil Şəbəkələri
(EVTA) kimi təşkilatlar təhsil sistemlərinin inkişafına töhfə verir.

Təhsil Keyfiyyətinin İdarə Edilməsi

Təhsil Standartları və Akkreditasiya:

1. Avropada təhsil müəssisələrinin və proqramlarının keyfiyyətini təmin etmək

üçün müxtəlif akkreditasiya orqanları mövcuddur, məsələn, European Quality
Assurance Register (EQAR) və ölkə spesifik akkreditasiya agentlikləri.
2. Keyfiyyət Qiymətləndirmələri: Təhsil proqramlarının və müəssisələrinin
mütəmadi olaraq qiymətləndirilməsi və monitorinqi həyata keçirilir.

1.

Performans Ölçümü:Avropa ölkələrində təhsil sistemlərinin performansı, tələbələrin

nailiyyətləri, məktəb müvəffəqiyyəti və müəllimlərin peşəkarlığı kimi müxtəlif
meyarlarla qiymətləndirilir.

Təhsil İslahatları:Avropada təhsil islahatları, təhsil sistemlərinin müasirləşdirilməsi

və inkişaf etdirilməsi məqsədini güdür. Bu islahatlar, təhsil proqramlarının
yenilənməsi, tədris metodlarının təkmilləşdirilməsi və müəllimlərin peşəkar inkişafını
əhatə edir.

İnkişaf Strategiyaları:Təhsil müəssisələrinin inkişafını təmin etmək üçün strateji

planlaşdırma və idarəetmə yanaşmaları tətbiq edilir. Bu strategiyalar, təhsil
proqramlarının keyfiyyətinin artırılması və tələbə məmnuniyyətinin təmin edilməsi
məqsədini güdür.

Təhsil Maliyyələşdirilməsi:

1. Avropa ölkələrində təhsil maliyyələşdirilməsi dövlət büdcəsindən, regional

və yerli
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group hökumətlərin
Inc. Copying ayırmalarından
or distributing in print or electronicvə beynəlxalq
forms maliyyə
without written mənbələrindən
permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
ibarət ola bilər.
2. Təhsil Resurslarının İdarə Edilməsi: Maliyyə resurslarının səmərəli idarə
olunması, təhsil müəssisələrinin fəaliyyətini və inkişafını dəstəkləyir.

Resursların Optimallaşdırılması:Təhsil müəssisələri, maliyyə, insan və fiziki resursları

optimallaşdıraraq effektiv idarəetməyə çalışır. Bu, büdcə planlaşdırması, resursların
bölüşdürülməsi və təsirli idarəetmə yanaşmalarını əhatə edir.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 207

Müəllimlərin Seçimi və Təlimi:

1. Müəllimlərin seçilməsi, qiymətləndirilməsi və peşəkar inkişafı Avropa təhsil

sistemlərində əsas prioritetlərdəndir.
2. Təlim və İnkişaf Proqramları: Müəllimlərin peşəkar inkişafını artırmaq
məqsədilə təlimlər və inkişaf proqramları həyata keçirilir.

Peşəkar Standartlar və Karyera Yüksəlişi:Müəllimlərin peşəkar standartları və karyera

yüksəlişi, təhsil keyfiyyətinin artırılması və tədris proseslərinin təkmilləşdirilməsi məqsədini
güdür.

Təhsil Texnologiyaları:

1. Avropa ölkələrində təhsil texnologiyalarının istifadəsi artır, məsələn, e-

öyrənmə platformaları, interaktiv lövhələr və təhsil proqramları.
2. Texnoloji İnnovasiyalar: Təhsil müəssisələri, tədris proseslərini inkişaf
etdirmək və tələbələrin fərdi ehtiyaclarına uyğun təhsil xidmətləri təqdim
etmək üçün yeni texnologiyalardan istifadə edir.

İnnovativ Təhsil Yanaşmaları:Avropada innovativ təhsil yanaşmaları, layihə əsaslı

öyrənmə, fərdi təhsil planları və texnoloji inteqrasiya kimi yeni metodların tətbiqini
əhatə edir.

Avropada Təhsil Menecmentinin Beynəlxalq Perspektivlərə Təsiri

Təhsil Keyfiyyəti və Standartları:Avropa ölkələrində tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti

strategiyaları, beynəlxalq təhsil standartlarının formalaşmasına və təhsil sistemlərinin
inkişafına təsir edir.

Təhsil İslahatları və Yanaşmalar:Avropada həyata keçirilən təhsil islahatları və innovativ

yanaşmalar, digər ölkələrdə də tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti praktikalarına təsir göstərir.

Avropada təhsil menecmenti, təhsil müəssisələrinin effektiv şəkildə idarə olunmasını, inkişaf
etdirilməsini və keyfiyyətinin təmin edilməsini əhatə edən geniş bir sahədir. Beynəlxalq
standartlar, təhsil islahatları, maliyyə və resurs idarəetməsi, müəllimlərin peşəkarlığı və
innovasiyalar bu sahənin əsas komponentləridir. Avropa təhsil sistemlərinin beynəlxalq
səviyyədə tanınması və inkişafı, digər ölkələr üçün də faydalı təcrübələr təqdim edir və təhsil
keyfiyyətinin artırılmasına töhfə verir.

4o mini

Asiyada Təhsil Menecmenti:

Təhsil İslahatları: Asiya ölkələri, təhsil sistemlərini müasirləşdirmək və beynəlxalq

standartlara uyğunlaşdırmaq üçün geniş miqyaslı islahatlar həyata keçirir. Məsələn, Çin və
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
Hindistan
of Idea Group Inc.təhsil islahatları ilə tanınır.
is prohibited.

Təhsil Texnologiyaları: Yüksək texnologiyalı təhsil vasitələrinin tətbiqi geniş yayılmışdır.

Asiya ölkələri, e-öyrənmə və texnoloji innovasiyalardan istifadə edərək təhsil sistemlərini
inkişaf etdirirlər.

Asiyada Təhsil Menecmenti:

 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 208

Asiya, müxtəlif ölkə və regionlardan ibarət böyük və çoxmədəniyyətli bir qitədir. Bu

mühazirədə, Asiyada təhsil menecmentinin əsas aspektləri, ölkələrarası fərqliliklər, inkişaf
edən tendensiyalar və strateji yanaşmalar araşdırılacaq. Asiyanın müxtəlif təhsil sistemləri,
keyfiyyətin təmin edilməsi, islahatlar və beynəlxalq təsirler müzakirə ediləcəkdir.

Asiya Təhsil Sisteminin Struru

Regional Fərqliliklər və İdarəetmə Modelləri

Şərqi Asiya:

1. Çin: Çində təhsil sistemi dövlət tərəfindən ciddi şəkildə idarə olunur.
Keyfiyyət idarəetməsi, mərkəzi və yerli hökumətlər tərəfindən həyata
keçirilir. İslahatlar təhsil proqramlarını və müasir texnologiyaları əhatə edir.
2. Yaponiya: Yaponiya təhsil sistemi, yüksək keyfiyyət standartları və
innovativ təhsil metodları ilə tanınır. Təhsil sistemi geniş şəkildə dövlət
nəzarəti altındadır və beynəlxalq standartlara uyğun olaraq inkişaf edir.
3. Cənubi Koreya: Cənubi Koreya, yüksək akademik nailiyyətlər və inkişaf
etmiş təhsil infrastrukturu ilə tanınır. İslahatlar və keyfiyyətin idarə edilməsi
dövlət və yerli səviyyədə həyata keçirilir.

Cənub-Şərqi Asiya:

1. İndoneziya: İndoneziyada təhsil sistemi, müxtəlif regional fərqlilikləri əhatə

edir və həm dövlət, həm də özəl sektor tərəfindən idarə olunur. Keyfiyyətin
artırılması üçün təhsil islahatları həyata keçirilir.
2. Filippin: Filippin təhsil sistemi, beynəlxalq standartlara uyğunlaşdırma
məqsədini güdür. İslahatlar, təhsil proqramlarını və müəllimlərin peşəkar
inkişafını əhatə edir.

Qərbi Asiya:

1. Səudiyyə Ərəbistanı: Səudiyyə Ərəbistanında təhsil sistemi, dövlət

tərəfindən nəzarət olunur və müasir texnologiyaların tətbiqi ilə inkişaf
etdirilir. Keyfiyyətin idarə edilməsi və islahatlar, həm yerli, həm də
beynəlxalq səviyyədə həyata keçirilir.
2. BƏƏ: Birləşmiş Ərəb Əmirlikləri, təhsil islahatları və beynəlxalq təhsil
standartlarına uyğunlaşdırma məqsədini güdür. Təhsil sektoru geniş şəkildə
müasir texnologiyaların tətbiqi ilə inkişaf edir.

Təhsil Səviyyələri və Tədris Proqramları

İbtidai və Orta Təhsil:

1. İbtidai Təhsil: Asiya ölkələrində ibtidai təhsil mərhələsi, müxtəlif yaş

qrupları
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group üçünormüxtəlif
Inc. Copying proqramları
distributing in əhatə
print or electronic formsedir. İbtidai
without təhsil, geniş
written permission şəkildə
dövlət nəzarəti altında və regiondan regiona fərqlidir.
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
2. Orta Təhsil: Orta təhsil mərhələsi, akademik və peşəkar yönümlü
proqramları əhatə edir. Bu mərhələ, tələbələrin gələcək karyeralarını və ali
təhsil imkanlarını müəyyən edir.

Ali Təhsil:
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 209

1. Universitetlər və Kolleclər: Ali təhsil müəssisələri, müxtəlif bakalavr,

magistr və doktorantura proqramları təqdim edir. Ali təhsil müəssisələri,
beynəlxalq standartlara uyğun olaraq inkişaf etdirilir və tədqiqat imkanları
təklif edir.

Təhsil Keyfiyyətinin İdarə Edilməsi

Təhsil Standartları və Akkreditasiya:

1. Asiya ölkələrində təhsil standartları və akkreditasiya prosesləri, beynəlxalq

standartlarla uyğunlaşdırılır. Milli və beynəlxalq akkreditasiya orqanları,
təhsil proqramlarının keyfiyyətini təmin edir.
2. Keyfiyyət Qiymətləndirmələri: Təhsil müəssisələrinin və proqramlarının
mütəmadi olaraq qiymətləndirilməsi, keyfiyyətin təmin edilməsi üçün vacib
bir komponentdir.

Performans Ölçümü:

1. Təhsil sistemlərinin performansı, tələbə nailiyyətləri, məktəb müvəffəqiyyəti

və müəllimlərin peşəkarlığı ilə ölçülür. Bu ölçümlər, təhsil islahatlarının və
inkişaf strategiyalarının effektivliyini qiymətləndirmək üçün istifadə olunur.

Təhsil İslahatları:Asiya ölkələrində müxtəlif təhsil islahatları həyata keçirilir. Bu islahatlar,

təhsil proqramlarının yenilənməsi, tədris metodlarının təkmilləşdirilməsi və təhsil
sistemlərinin müasirləşdirilməsi məqsədini güdür.

İnkişaf Strategiyaları:Təhsil müəssisələrinin inkişafını təmin etmək üçün strateji

planlaşdırma və idarəetmə yanaşmaları tətbiq olunur. Bu strategiyalar, təhsil keyfiyyətinin
artırılması və tələbə məmnuniyyətinin təmin edilməsi məqsədini güdür.

Təhsil Maliyyələşdirilməsi:Asiya ölkələrində təhsil maliyyələşdirilməsi, dövlət büdcəsindən,

regional və yerli hökumətlərin ayırmalarından və beynəlxalq maliyyə mənbələrindən ibarət
ola bilər.

Maliyyə Resurslarının İdarə Edilməsi: Maliyyə resurslarının səmərəli idarə olunması, təhsil
müəssisələrinin fəaliyyətini və inkişafını dəstəkləyir.

Resursların Optimallaşdırılması:Təhsil müəssisələri, maliyyə, insan və fiziki resursları

optimallaşdıraraq effektiv idarəetməyə çalışır. Bu, büdcə planlaşdırması, resursların
bölüşdürülməsi və təsirli idarəetmə yanaşmalarını əhatə edir.

Müəllimlərin Seçimi və Təlimi:Müəllimlərin seçilməsi, qiymətləndirilməsi və peşəkar

inkişafı Asiya təhsil sistemlərində əsas prioritetlərdəndir. Təlim və inkişaf proqramları,
müəllimlərin peşəkar bacarıqlarını artırmaq məqsədini güdür.
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
Peşəkar
of Idea Standartlar
Group Inc. is prohibited. və Karyera Yüksəlişi:Müəllimlərin peşəkar standartlarıvə karyera
yüksəlişi, təhsil keyfiyyətinin artırılması və tədris proseslərinin təkmilləşdirilməsi məqsədini
güdür.

Təhsil Texnologiyaları:Asiya ölkələrində təhsil texnologiyalarının istifadəsi artır, məsələn,

e-öyrənmə platformaları, interaktiv lövhələr və təhsil proqramları. Bu texnologiyalar, tədris
proseslərini inkişaf etdirmək və tələbələrin fərdi ehtiyaclarına uyğun təhsil xidmətləri təqdim
etmək məqsədini güdür.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 210

İnnovativ Təhsil Yanaşmaları:Asiya ölkələrində innovativ təhsil yanaşmaları, layihə əsaslı

öyrənmə, fərdi təhsil planları və texnoloji inteqrasiya kimi yeni metodların tətbiqini əhatə
edir.

Təhsil Keyfiyyəti və Standartları:Asiya ölkələrində tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti

strategiyaları, beynəlxalq təhsil standartlarının formalaşmasına və təhsil sistemlərinin
inkişafına təsir edir.

Təhsil İslahatları və Yanaşmalar:Asiyada həyata keçirilən təhsil islahatları və innovativ

yanaşmalar, digər ölkələrdə də tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti praktikalarına təsir göstərir.

Asiyada təhsil menecmenti, təhsil müəssisələrinin effektiv şəkildə idarə olunmasını, inkişaf
etdirilməsini və keyfiyyətinin təmin edilməsini əhatə edən geniş bir sahədir. Regional
fərqliliklər, beynəlxalq standartlar, təhsil islahatları, maliyyə və resurs idarəetməsi,
müəllimlərin peşəkarlığı və innovasiyalar bu sahənin əsas komponentləridir. Asiya təhsil
sistemlərinin beynəlxalq səviyyədə tanınması və inkişafı, digər ölkələr üçün də faydal

Təhsil Menecmentində Beynəlxalq Standartlar

Bologna Prosesi:

1. Avropada təhsil sistemlərinin uyumlaşdırılması və yüksək təhsil sahəsində

keyfiyyət standartlarının təyin olunması məqsədini güdür.
2. Təhsil proqramları və diplomların beynəlxalq tanınmasını təmin edir.

İSO 9001 və Təhsil:

1.

1. Təhsil müəssisələrinin keyfiyyət idarəetmə sistemlərini beynəlxalq

standartlara uyğun olaraq inkişaf etdirir.
2. Təhsil xidmətlərinin mütəmadi olaraq yaxşılaşdırılmasını təşviq edir.

Təhsil Akkreditasiya Standartları:

1. Beynəlxalq akkreditasiya təşkilatları, təhsil müəssisələrinin və proqramlarının

keyfiyyətini və müvafiqliyini təsdiqləyir.

Beynəlxalq Təhsil Menecmenti Yanaşmaları

Strateji Planlaşdırma və İdarəetmə

 Strateji Planlaşdırma: Beynəlxalq səviyyədə, təhsil müəssisələri uzunmüddətli

məqsədləri müəyyən etmək və strateji planlar hazırlamaq üçün sistemli yanaşmalar
tətbiq edir. Strateji planlaşdırma, təhsil proqramlarının inkişafını, resursların
bölüşdürülməsini
Copyright © 2007, və performansın
Idea Group Inc. Copying qiymətləndirilməsini
or distributing in print əhatə
or electronic forms without edir.
written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.

Təhsil Keyfiyyətinin İdarə Edilməsi

 Keyfiyyətin İdarə Edilməsi Sistemləri: Beynəlxalq təhsil menecmenti, keyfiyyətin

idarə edilməsi üçün müxtəlif sistemlər tətbiq edir, məsələn, Total Keyfiyyət
İdarəetməsi (TQM) və Six Sigma. Bu sistemlər, təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətini
artırmaq və proseslərin səmərəliliyini yaxşılaşdırmaq məqsədini güdür.
 MANAGEMENT AS MODERNITY 211

Təhsil Texnologiyaları və İnovasiya

 Təhsil Texnologiyaları: Beynəlxalq təhsil sistemlərində, təhsil texnologiyalarından

istifadə artır. E-öyrənmə platformaları, onlayn kurslar və digər texnoloji vasitələr
təhsilin daha geniş kütlələrə çatdırılmasını təmin edir.
 İnnovasiya: Təhsil menecmentində innovativ yanaşmalar və yeni texnologiyaların
tətbiqi təhsil proseslərinin inkişafını sürətləndirir.

Təhsil Menecmentində Beynəlxalq Təcrübələrin Azərbaycanda Tətbiqi

Təhsil Sisteminin İnkişafı

 Beynəlxalq Standartların Təqdim Edilməsi: Azərbaycanın təhsil sistemində

beynəlxalq standartların və akkreditasiya proseslərinin tətbiqi təhsil xidmətlərinin
keyfiyyətini artırır və beynəlxalq səviyyədə tanınmasını təmin edir.
 Təhsil Texnologiyaları: Azərbaycan təhsil müəssisələri, beynəlxalq təcrübələrdən
istifadə edərək təhsil texnologiyalarını tətbiq edir və e-öyrənmə vasitələrini
genişləndirir.

İslahatlar və Strategiyalar

 Təhsil İslahatları: Beynəlxalq təcrübələrdən istifadə edərək təhsil islahatlarını həyata

keçirmək, təhsil sisteminin müasirləşdirilməsi və inkişaf etdirilməsi məqsədini güdür.
 Strategiya və Planlaşdırma: Beynəlxalq təhsil menecmenti yanaşmalarından istifadə
edərək strateji planlaşdırma və idarəetmə proseslərini inkişaf etdirmək.

Nəticə

Beynəlxalq perspektivlər, təhsil menecmentinin effektiv şəkildə həyata keçirilməsi üçün geniş
bir baxış və dəyərli təcrübələr təqdim edir. Fərqli ölkələrdə tətbiq olunan təhsil menecmenti
praktikaları, beynəlxalq standartlar və innovativ yanaşmalar, Azərbaycan təhsil sisteminin
inkişafını və keyfiyyətini artırmaq üçün əhəmiyyətli dərslər və tövsiyələr təqdim edir.
Beynəlxalq təcrübələrdən istifadə edərək təhsil sisteminin təkmilləşdirilməsi, tələbə
məmnuniyyətinin artırılması və təhsil xidmətlərinin keyfiyyətinin yüksəldilməsi mümkündür.

Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission
of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.