MAS 305 Algebraic Structures II
Notes 6 Autumn 2006
Groups of prime-power order
Definition Let p be a prime. A finite group G is a p-group if |G| is a power of p.
For example, D8 is a 2-group.
Lagrange’s Theorem shows that if G is a p-group and g is an element of G then
the order of g is a power of p.
Theorem If G is a non-trivial finite p-group for some prime p then Z(G) 6= {1G }.
Proof Let |G| = pn for some n > 1. Every conjugacy class in G has size dividing pn ,
so has size pr for some r 6 n. Suppose that there are mr conjugacy classes of size pr
for r = 0, 1, . . . , n. Then
m0 1 + m1 p + m2 p2 + · · · + mr pr + · · · + mn pn = pn ,
so p divides m0 . But {x} is a whole conjugacy class of size 1 if and only if x ∈ Z(G),
so m0 = |Z(G)|: therefore m0 6= 0, because {1G } 6 Z(G). So |Z(G)| is a non-zero
multiple of p, and therefore |Z(G)| > p.
(Compare this with the proof of Cauchy’s Theorem.)
Corollary If G is a finite group of order pn , where p is prime, then there are subgroups
{1G } = G0 < G1 < · · · < Gn = G
such that |Gi | = pi and Gi E G for i = 0, . . . , n.
Proof The proof is by induction on n. The statement is true when n = 1, for then
G0 = {1G } and G1 = G.
1
Now take n > 2, and assume that the statement is true for n − 1. The theorem says
that Z(G) 6= {1G }, so p divides |Z(G)|. By Cauchy’s Theorem, Z(G) has an element z
of order p. Put G1 = hzi. Then G1 E G, because G1 6 Z(G). Also, |G1 | = p.
Put H = G/G1 . Then |H| = pn /p = pn−1 , so by the inductive hypothesis H has
subgroups
{1H } = H0 < H1 < · · · < Hn−1 = H
with |Hi | = pi and Hi E H for i = 0, . . . , n − 1. By the Correspondence Theorem,
there is a subgroup Gi+1 of G containing G1 such that Gi+1 /G1 = Hi and Gi+1 E G for
i = 0, . . . , n − 1. Moreover, |Gi+1 | = |G1 | × |Hi | = pi+1 for i = 0, . . . , n − 1. Finally,
the Correspondence Theorem shows that Gi 6 Gi+1 for i = 0, . . . , n − 1.
G v - v H
.. ..
. .
Gi+1 v - v Hi
.. ..
. .
G2 v - v H1
G1 v - v H0 = {1H }
{1G } v
Theorem If G is Abelian then Z(G) = G; otherwise, G/Z(G) is not cyclic.
Proof Part of the coursework.
2
Small p-groups
Let p be a prime. If |G| = p then G is cyclic, because Lagrange’s Theorem shows that
every element of G other than the identity has order p.
If |G| = p2 then |Z(G)| is 1 or p or p2 . We have just proved that |Z(G)| 6= 1. If
|Z(G)| = p then |G/Z(G)| = p so G/Z(G) is cyclic, contradicting the above theorem:
hence |Z(G)| 6= p. Therefore Z(G) = G and so G is Abelian.
If G has an element of order p2 then it is cyclic. Otherwise, all non-identity el-
ements have order p. Let a be an element of order p, and put A = hai. Choose any
element b in G \ A. Then b also has order p. Put B = hbi. Now A ∩ B 6 B; and
A ∩ B cannot be B, because b ∈ / A, so A ∩ B = {1G }. Moreover, xy = yx for all x in A
and all y in B, because G is Abelian. Therefore G contains the internal direct product
hai × hbi. Because of the uniqueness of the expression of an element of an internal
direct product,
hai × hbi = {an bm : 0 6 n 6 p − 1, 0 6 m 6 p − 1} ,
and these p2 products are all distinct. Therefore G = hai × hbi.
Challenge!
Find all groups of order 8.
Infinite p-groups
What could an infinite p-group be? Here is an example of an infinite group in which
every element has order a power of the prime 2. We work inside the infinite Abelian
group (C \ {0} , ×). Put
n n
o
G = e2πim/2 : n ∈ Z, n > 0, m ∈ Z .
Then G contains elements of order 2n for alll non-negative integers n.