CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

I. Biology
BIOLOGY
- Cells (Animal and Plants)
- Domains of Life I. Cells
- Parts of the flowers
- Biodiversity and Ecosystem ● Cell - The basic unit of life
- Cell Cycle ● Matthias Schleiden - All plants
- Heredity and Genetics are made of cells
- Organism ● Theodor Schwann - All animals
are made of cells
II. Earth Science ● All cells come from pre-existing
cells
- Weathering ● All organisms are made up of
- Volcanoes and Eruption different cells
- Earthquakes ● Animal Cells and Plant Cells
- Geothermal Power ● Eukaryotic cells are cells with a
- Soil membrane bound nucleus
- Fossil Fuels ● Both animal and plant cells are
- Types of Hazards eukaryotic cells
● Organelles are the different parts
III. Chemistry of a cell

- States of Matter II. Animal Cells and Parts

- Gas Laws
- Chemical Balancing
- Stoichiometry
- Atoms and Atomic Model
- Periodic Table of Elements
- Electron Configuration
- Chemical formula

IV. Physics

- Motion
- Force Cell Membrane
- Power, Work, and Energy
A thin semipermeable membrane layer
- Physics Formulas
of lipids and proteins surrounding the
- Fundamental Quantities
cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell
- Momentum, Impulse, Collision
from its surroundings. Also, it controls the
- Mirrors ( Convex and Concave )
entry and exit of nutrients and other
microscopic entities into the cell. For this
—-----------------------------------------------------
reason, cell membranes are known as
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semi-permeable or selectively permeable
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membranes.
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They are spherical or rod-shaped

organelles with a double membrane. They
Nucleus are the powerhouse of a cell as they play
an important role in releasing energy.
It is an organelle that contains several
other sub-organelles such as nucleolus,
Ribosome
nucleosomes and chromatins. It also
contains DNA and other genetic They are small organelles made up of
materials. RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and
they are the sites of protein synthesis.
Nuclear Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
It is a double-membrane structure that
surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred This cellular organelle is composed of a
to as the nuclear envelope. thin, winding network of membranous sacs
originating from the nucleus. They form a
Centrosome cisterna.
It is a small organelle found near the
Vacuole
nucleus, which has a thick center with
radiating tubules. The centrosomes are A membrane-bound organelle present
where microtubules are produced. inside a cell involved in maintaining
shape and storing water, food, wastes,
Lysosome etc.
They are round organelles surrounded by
Nucleopore
a membrane and comprising digestive
enzymes which help in digestion, They are tiny holes present in the
excretion and in the cell renewal nuclear membrane which are involved in
process. the movement of nucleic acids and
proteins across the nuclear membrane.
Cytoplasm
III. Plant cells and its parts
A jelly-like material which contains all the
cell organelles, enclosed within the cell
membrane. The substance found within
the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear
membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Golgi Apparatus Cell Wall

A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle It is a rigid layer which is composed of
which is located near the nucleus and polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and
involved in manufacturing, storing, hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell
packing and transporting the particles membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins
throughout the cell. and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or
suberin.
Mitochondrion
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The primary function of the cell wall is to vital types of plastids and their functions
protect and provide structural support to the are stated below:
cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in
protecting the cell against mechanical stress Leucoplasts
and providing form and structure to the cell. They are found in the non-photosynthetic
It also filters the molecules passing in and tissue of plants. They are used for the
out of it. storage of protein, lipids and starch.
The formation of the cell wall is guided by Chloroplasts
microtubules. It consists of three layers,
namely, primary, secondary and the middle It is an elongated organelle enclosed by
lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is
cellulose laid down by enzymes. shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid
within the chloroplast that comprises a
Cell membrane circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a
green coloured pigment called chlorophyll
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is required for the process of photosynthesis.
present within the cell wall. It is composed of The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from
a thin layer of protein and fat. the sun and uses it to transform carbon
dioxide and water into glucose.
The cell membrane plays an important role
in regulating the entry and exit of specific Chromoplasts
substances within the cell.
They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid
For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins which is responsible for pigment synthesis
from entering inside, while nutrients and and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic
essential minerals are transported across. organisms. Chromoplasts have red, orange
and yellow coloured pigments which provide
Nucleus color to all ripe fruits and flowers.

The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure

that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The Central Vacuole
vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume
hereditary information required for cell in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a
division, metabolism and growth. membrane that surrounds the central
1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ vacuole. The vital function of the central
vacuole apart from storage is to sustain
protein-producing structures and
turgor pressure against the cell wall. The
ribosomes.
2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is
perforated with holes called
nucleopore that allow proteins and the central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is
nucleic acids to pass through. a mixture of salts, enzymes and other
substances.

Plastids
Golgi Apparatus
They are membrane-bound organelles that
have their own DNA. They are necessary to They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which
store starch and to carry out the process of are involved in distributing synthesized
photosynthesis. It is also used in the macromolecules to various parts of the cell.
synthesis of many molecules, which form
the building blocks of the cell. Some of the Ribosomes
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They are the smallest membrane-bound Sclerenchyma Cells

organelles which comprise RNA and protein.
They are the sites for protein synthesis, These cells are more rigid compared to
hence, also referred to as the protein collenchyma cells and this is because of the
factories of the cell. presence of a hardening agent. These cells
are usually found in all plant roots and
mainly involved in providing support to the
Mitochondria
plants.
They are the double-membraned organelles
found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic Parenchyma Cells
cells. They provide energy by breaking
down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, Parenchyma cells play a significant role in
hence they are also referred to as the all plants. They are the living cells of plants,
“Powerhouse of the cell.” which are involved in the production of
leaves. They are also involved in the
exchange of gasses, production of food,
Lysosome
storage of organic products and cell
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they metabolism. These cells are typically more
hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed flexible than others because they are
membrane. They perform the function of thinner.
cellular waste disposal by digesting
worn-out organelles, food particles and Xylem Cells
foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role
of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles. Xylem cells are the transport cells in
vascular plants. They help in the transport of
water and minerals from the roots to the
Plant Cell Types leaves and other parts of the plants.
Cells of a matured and higher plant become
specialized to perform certain vital functions Phloem Cells
that are essential for their survival. Few
plant cells are involved in the transportation Phloem cells are other transport cells in
of nutrients and water, while others for vascular plants. They transport food
storing food. prepared by the leaves to different parts of
the plants.
The specialized plant cells include
parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells,

collenchyma cells, xylem cells and phloem

cells.
Plant Cell Functions
Following are some of the different types of
plant cells: Plant cells are the building blocks of plants.
Photosynthesis is the major function
Collenchyma Cells performed by plant cells.

They are hard or rigid cells, which play a Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts
primary role in providing support to the of the plant cell. It is the process of
plants when there is restraining growth in a preparing food by the plants, by utilizing
plant due to lack of hardening agent in sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. Energy
primary walls. is produced in the form of ATP in the
process.
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A few plant cells help in the transport of What is Cell Cycle?

water and nutrients from the roots and
leaves to different parts of the plants. The cell cycle was discovered by Prevost
and Dumas (1824) while studying the
cleavage of zygote of Frog. It is a series of
IV. Cell Cycle stages a cell passes through, to divide
and produce new cells.

This entire process where with the help of

The cell is the basic structural and functional
one single parent cell a new cell
unit of any living being. It is the fundamental
population grows and develops is known
building block, which when combined with
similar cells forms a tissue and organs. A as the cell cycle.
cell comprises several organelles:

1. Cytoplasm
Phases of Cell Cycle
2. Cytoskeleton Cell cycle or cell division refers to the
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) series of events that take place in a cell
4. Golgi apparatus leading to its maturity and subsequent
5. Lysosomes and peroxisomes division. These events include duplication
6. Mitochondria
of its genome and synthesis of the cell
7. Nucleus
organelles followed by division of the
8. Plasma membrane
cytoplasm.
9. Ribosomes
Human cells exhibit a typical eukaryotic
The cell undergoes a series of events that
cell cycle and take around 24 hours to
result in the duplication of the cell along with
the DNA. This is known as the cell cycle. Let complete one cycle of growth and division.
us have a look at the events taking place in The duration of the cycle, however, varies
the division of cells during a cell cycle. from organism to organism and cell to cell.

A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is divided

Cell Cycle into two main phases:-

“Cell cycle refers to the series of events

that take place in a cell, resulting in the
Interphase
duplication of DNA and division of Also known as the resting phase of the
cytoplasm and organelles to produce two cell cycle; interphase is the time during
daughter cells.” which the cell prepares for division by
undergoing both cell growth and DNA
replication. It occupies around 95% time of
the overall cycle. The interphase is divided
into three phases:-

● G1 phase (Gap 1) – G1 phase is

the phase of the cell between
mitosis and initiation of replication
of the genetic material of the cell.
During this phase, the cell is
metabolically active and continues
to grow without replicating its DNA.
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● S phase (Synthesis) – DNA 4. Telophase

replication takes place during this
phase. If the initial quantity of DNA Mitosis
in the cell is denoted as 2N, then
after replication it becomes 4N.
However the number of
chromosomes does not vary, viz., if
the number of chromosomes
during G1 phase was 2n, it will
remain 2n at the end of S phase.
The centriole also divides into two
centriole pairs in the cells which
contain centriole.
● G2­ phase (Gap 2) –During this
phase, the RNA, proteins, other The process by which a eukaryotic cell
macromolecules required for separates the nuclear DNA and
multiplication of cell organelles, chromosomes and divides into two
spindle formation, and cell growth different but similar sets of nuclei is
are produced as the cell prepares known as mitosis. The chromosomes are
to go into the mitotic phase. pulled apart by a mitotic spindle, which is
a specialized structure consisting of
Some cells like cardiac cells in the adult microtubules.
animals do not exhibit division and some
others only divide to replace those cells Cytokinesis
which have been either damaged or lost In this phase, the cytoplasm of the cell
due to cell death. Such cells which do not divides. It begins as soon as the mitosis
divide further attain an inactive G0 phase
ends. Plant cells are much tougher than
also known as quiescent phase after they
animal cells, as they have a rigid cell wall
exit the G1 phase. These cells remain
and high internal pressure. Thus,
metabolically active but do not divide
cytokinesis occurs in plant and animal
unless called upon to do so.
cells differently.

M phase
This is the mitotic phase or the phase of Source: Admin. (2021, April 15). Cell cycle
the equational division as the cell - definition and phases of cell cycle.
undergoes a complete reorganization to BYJUS. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from
give birth to a progeny that has the same [Link]
number of chromosomes as the parent ivision/
cell. The other organelles are also divided
equally by the process of cytokinesis
which is preceded by mitotic nuclear V. Diversity / Biodiversity
division. The mitotic phase is divided into
four overlapping stages:-

1. Prophase, ● Evolution makes logical sense of

2. Metaphase, everything we know about living
3. Anaphase, and organisms.
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● The scientific explanation for both (archaebacteria), and eukarya

the unity and diversity of (different organisms that are
organisms is the concept that living eukaryotic organisms).
organisms are modified
descendants of common ● Domain bacteria and domain
ancestors. archaea compose the
● Fossils and other evidence prokaryotes.
document the evolution of life on
Earth over billions of years. a. Domain Eukarya - includes all
eukaryotic organisms

b. Domain Eukarya - includes

Classifying the Diversity of Life three multicellular kingdoms:
● Approximately 1.8 million species a. Plants, which produce their
have been identified to date, and own food by photosynthesis
thousands more are identified each b. Fungi, which absorbs
year. nutrients
● Estimates of the total number of c. Animals, which ingest their
species that actually exist range food.
from 10 million to over 100 million.
● Taxonomy – a branch of biology c. Other eukaryotic organisms
that names and classifies species were formerly grouped into the
into groups of increasing breadth. Protist Kingdom
▪ Grouping organisms in
terms of their morphology Characteristics of Animals
or their characteristics. ● Heterotrophs – not able to
Another is by using produce food
molecular data or by using ● Require oxygen – to do certain
genes. processes in their body
● Produce sexually, sometimes
● The Kingdoms of Life asexually – exchange of male and
⇒ Kingdom Animalia female gametes. Asexual
⇒ Kingdom Plantae reproduction only needs one
⇒ Kingdom Fungi parent to produce another
⇒ Kingdom Protista organism.
⇒ Kingdom Bacteria ● Motile during some part of life
● The current scheme we have now ● Go through embryonic
uses the three domain of life development
wherein all of the domains are ● Zoology – study of animals
divided into three main domains ▪ Entomology – study of insects
that are higher than the kingdom ▪ Arachnology – study of spiders
level. ▪ Malacology – study of mollusks
▪ Ornithology – study of birds
▪ Herpetology – study of reptiles
● Organisms are divided into three and amphibians
domains named, bacteria ▪ Ichthyology – study of fish
(eubacteria), archaea ▪ Mammalogy – study of mammals
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

VI. Heredity and Genetics and tRNA molecules in just the

right position to make
polypeptides.
Genetics - Science that deals with
heredity.
● Transcription
⇒ The DNA sequence of a gene
● Gregor Johann Mendel
is copied to make an RNA
(1822-1884)
molecule.
▪ First person to formulate the
● Translation
principles of heredity.
⇒ The RNA sequence is
⇒ Austrian monk living in Brunn,
translated into a sequence of
Moravia
amino acids as the protein is
⇒ From a poor family, smart, know
formed.
many things about plants.
● Reverse Transcription
⇒ Went into teaching; had a
⇒ process by which genetic
problem taking a licensure exam.
information from RNA gets
⇒ Went to a monastery, and met
transcribed into a new DNA
Abbot Cyril Napp, botanist.
Helped Mendel to study at a
university in Vienna. Mendel Punnett Square: square diagram that is used
studied physics, chemistry, math, to predict the genotypes of a particular cross
& botany. or breeding experiment
⇒ Bred peas in monastery garden
from 1856 to 1864
⇒ Discoveries were published in
1866 but remained unappreciated
and forgotten until 1900.

⇒ DNA – Deoxyribose (one less

oxygen atom); RNA – Ribose
(one more oxygen atom)
⇒ DNA contains A, G, C, T; RNA
contains A, G, C, U
⇒ DNA – double helix; RNA – single
chain and does not entwine
⇒ 3 types of RNA VII. Parts of a flower
o Messenger RNA (mRNA)
-carries a copy of a message
transcribed on DNA out of the Flower
nucleus and into the
cytoplasm. The flower is the reproductive parts of a
o Transfer RNA (tRNA) – plant. The stamen (the male organ) and
transports individual amino carpel (the female organ) are the
acids to the sites of protein reproductive elements of the flower that
synthesis. are required for seed formation (the
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – female organ). Thus, a flower is termed a
along with proteins, makes up perfect flower if it possesses both of these
the ribosomes; holds mRNA features, even if it lacks some of the other
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

vital elements. An imperfect flower is one To entice pollinators to the flowers,

that has just one of the reproductive petals should be exist, as they are
frequently vividly colored, flamboyant, and
have fascinating patterns and sizes

Stamens
The stamen is a flower's male
reproductive organ. Each stamen is
made up of two major sections; filament
and anther.

● Filament - connects the anther to

the flower, and has a long and thin
appearance.
● Anthers - It serves as the stamen's
head and generates the pollen that
organs, either a stamen or a carpel. is delivered to the pistil or other
feminine components of the same
or different flowers to cause
(Source: [Link]) fertilization.
● Pistil - Also known as the female
parts of a flower.
Monoecious plant - On the same plant, it Four (4) parts of Pistil
produces imperfect flowers, both male and
female.
Dioecious plant - On the separate plant, it
produces imperfect flowers, both male and
female.

The Four Key Components of a

Flower

Sepal Style
A typically green and leaf-like yet hue
The extended portion of a carpel that
varies according to the kinds of plants. connects the ovary to the stigma.
While the flower is developing, sepals, as
the outer components of a flower, protect
the internal flower. The sepal is the first Stigma
component of the flower to develop,
The stigma's function is to collect
appearing at the top of the stem.
pollen, and it is located at the top of the
Petals carpel.
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the food chain is a diagram of the series

Ovary of organisms that produces their own food
and eventually is consumed by another
Unfertilized seeds are produced and
organism for food.
stored in the ovary. The ovary is what
develops into the plant's fruit after
fertilization. Trophic level - a single step in a food
chain or food web
Ovules
The egg cells of a flower.

Other parts of a flower

Bract
On plants that lack sepals, a bract
functions similarly to a sepal.
Receptacle
Primary producers – plants and
Underneath the main section of the flower,
phytoplanktons; produces their own food
a receptacle rests at the top of a stalk.
When it grows, it is sometimes extended Primary consumers - herbivores and
to support the weight of the flower or fruit. zooplanktons; consumes the primary
Its primary role is to link the stalk to the consumer
flower as well as to sustain the flower. Secondary consumer - carnivores;
Peduncle consumes the primary consumer
Tertiary consumer - carnivores;
A flower stalk or the stem that supports a consumes the secondary consumer
flower cluster in bloom. Quarterly consumer - carnivore;
Pedicel consumes the tertiary consumer
Secondary stalk from which flowers
develop off the main stem. Pedicels are Herbivores – eats plants ONLY
only seen in plants with inflorescence in Carnivores - eats animals ONLY
the shape of clusters or something similar. Omnivores - eats both plants and animals
Decomposer - externally digest dead
Perianth
organic matter
The components of the flower are around
the reproductive organs. Detritivore - internally digest dead organic
matter
Calyx
Refers to a collection of sepals, which
resemble leaves and encircle and protect
the bud as it develops into a flower.

VIII. Organism

Foods Chain/ food web

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Competition increases as the population

size increases.

Predation
As the prey population increases, the
predator population increases and vice
versa.

Disease and parasites

Spread easier in large populations

Ecological Pyramids Density

Independent limiting factors limit all
population sizes (large or small)
Extreme weather - drought, flood,
freezing
Human activities - pollution, habitat
destruction

Population Growth Curve

Energy pyramid - shows the relative Exponential phase

amount of energy available at each trophic Population shows rapid increase in
level growth due to unlimited resources.

Biomass pyramid - represents the amount Plateau phase

of living organic matter at each trophic the population has reached its carrying
level capacity, that is to say, the population in a
habitat has reached its maximum
Pyramid of numbers - shows the relative population that it can support.
number of individual organisms at each
trophic level —-----------------------------------------------------
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Biomagnification – concentrations of a
harmful substance increase in organisms EARTH SCIENCE
at higher trophic levels in a food chain or
food web
I. Volcanoes
Organisms compete for limited
resources:

Density
Dependent limiting factors limit the
population size when the population is
large and dense.

Competition for resources

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Parts of a Volcano Types of Volcanoes

Type Definition
PARTS DEFINITION
Active Most likely to erupt
Magma Molten rock again
beneath the
surface of the Dormant Could erupt
earth anytime but is
currently at rest
Parasitic Cone cone-shaped
accumulation of Extinct Has not erupted in
volcanic material a long time and
not part of the probably won’t
central vent of a ever again
volcano
Principal Types of Volcanoes
Vent Opening in the
surface of the
earth Type Definition
Flank The side parts of Shield Volcanoes These are shaped
the volcano
like a bowl or
Lava Molten rock that shield in the
erupts from a middle with long
volcano gentle slopes
Conduit Underground made by the lava
passage of flows.
magma

Ash Cloud Cloud of ash Cinder cone A cinder cone

formed by an Volcanoes volcano is a
eruption steep-sided
conical volcano
Ash Fragments of lava characterized by
or rocks loose rock
fragments from
Throat Entrance of a eruptions.
volcano
Composite These are also
Crater Mouth of a Volcanoes called
volcano 'stratovolcanoes'
surrounded by a or simply
volcanic vent 'composite
volcanoes,' are
Sill Flat piece of rock cone-shaped
formed when volcanoes
magma hardens in composed of
a crack volcano layers of lava, ash
and rock debris.

Lava Domes A lava dome is a

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mound that will Factor Definition

form when lava
piles up over a Silica content The higher the
volcano’s vent silica content, the
instead of moving lower is the
away. melting point

Fissure Fissures are near Water content The higher the

volcanic vents water content, the
through which lava more explosion
erupts, usually
without any
Magma and Geothermal Products
explosive activity.

Types of Explosion Product Definition

Basaltic magma Is low in silica;

Type Definition higher melting
point and it flows
Quiet Explosion Release fluid lava easily. Common in
rich in basalt with spreading
only a small boundaries and
amount of silica hotspots.

Explosive Release in silica Granitic magma Is high in silica,

explosion and pyroclastic low in melting
point. Magma is
viscous and does
Magma and the Three Products of not flow easily.
Eruption Common in
converging
boundaries or
Product Definition colliding
boundaries.
Gasses and Poisonous gasses
Vapors such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur II. Earthquakes
gasses, and
hydrochloric acid. An earthquake is triggered by a sudden
Pyroclastic Fragments slide on a fault. The friction over the
materials materials on fire. It surface of the fault keeps the rocks
refers to solid rock together, preventing them from slipping
fragments ejected instantly when pushed sideways. When
high in the air enough tension builds up, the rocks
suddenly slide, releasing energy in waves
Volcanic ashes Fragments of
glass that formed that move through the rock and create the
when liquid shaking during an earthquake.
magma exploded
in the air Tectonic plate boundary - Where the
earthquake originates.
Factors that Affect the Characteristic of
Magma
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Hypocenter - the location within the earth

where the earthquake started Four (4) types of stresses

Epicenter - the area of the earth's

surface that is directly above the focus Confining stress - A stress caused by
the weight of all the surrounding rock. The
Two ways of measuring the rock is being driven in from all sides,
earthquake’s strength causing it to collapse.

Compression - A stress binds rocks

Magnitude
together. The most frequent stress close
Corresponding to the energy of an
to convergent plate borders is
earthquake.
compression, which causes rocks to fold
or fracture.
Seismograph - A recorder
instrument that is used to calculate
Tension - Rocks are separated by tension
the movements of an earthquake.
stress. Tension causes rocks to stretch or
fracture. The most common kind of stress
Intensity
seen at divergent plate borders is tension.
It refers to the strength of an earthquake
as per people’s experience. Shear - stress that occurs in the opposite
direction when forces move or slide past
Two (2) types of earthquake each other. Shear is the most typical
stress encountered at the boundary of
Tectonic earthquakes transform plates.
Along fault lines and plate boundaries, it is
caused by rapid movements.
Plate tectonic boundaries
Volcanic earthquake
Type of earthquake that involves rising Divergent boundary
lava or magma beneath active volcanoes.
● When two tectonic plates move
On Earth's surface, lithospheric plates apart from each other, they form a
move a lot. Lithosphere slabs collide with diverging border.
one another. They pass each other ● Earthquakes are prevalent at these
sideways along faults. Magma rises boundaries, and magma (molten
through solid rock when the conditions are rock) rises from the Earth's mantle
proper. to the surface, solidifying to form a
new oceanic crust.
Plates moving over a rounded surface
Convergent boundary.
incur stress. On a lesser scale, rocks
experience stress as well. Local motions ● Two tectonic plates collide, a
can produce stress in rocks. convergent boundary occurs.

Transform plate boundary.

● Transform is made of two plates

sliding past one another.
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Continental rifting. Hazards of earthquakes

● A process of rifting the continents Hazard and Risk

apart. A hazard is a potentially hazardous
natural event. The repercussions of such
Faults danger on humans are known as risks.

A fault is formed when the rocks on one or Aftershocks

both sides of a fracture shift. In the days following an earthquake
experienced, aftershocks can make it
Fault zone - a slew of faults. unsafe for rescuers to access damaged
structures.

Liquefaction
Quicksand may occur as most soils
contain water, and when the ground
shakes, this water can separate, resulting
in solid ground.

Tsunamis
Tsunamis occur when an earthquake
Three (3) types of faults
happens at sea and causes a big wave to
form.
Normal Faults
The hanging wall recedes in relation to the
footwall and can be encountered in normal
faults. Tension pulls the crust apart, III. Weathering
causing normal faults. Thus, the hanging
wall slides down. Normal faults can form Breakdown or dissolution of rocks and
massive mountain ranges in tense areas. minerals on the surface of the Earth is
known as weathering. While erosion is
Reverse faults the process that removes the fragments of
A type of fault that is frequently seen at rock and minerals after a rock that has
convergent boundaries. When the hanging been broken down. Weathering and
wall slides higher, reverse faults form. erosion are both caused by water, acids,
Compressional forces push the sides salt, plants, animals, and temperature
together, causing reversal faults. changes.

Strike-Slip Faults Sediments - are the rock that turns into

A strike-slip fault is a dip-slip fault with a pieces. Silt and clay are some examples
vertical dip in the fault plane. Shear forces of sediments.
cause strike-slip faults.

Two types of Weathering

Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is mostly caused
by water, ice, and wind. Mechanical
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weathering breaks down rock into small

particles. The rock shattered without Hydrolysis - refers to the chemical
causing structural damage. The smaller reaction that occurs when a
pieces contain the same minerals in the substance reacts with water.
same proportions.
Carbon Dioxide
Ice Wedging - Ice wedging is common As raindrops fall through the air, carbon
when water travels above and below its dioxide (CO2) interacts with water. This
freezing point. Rocks may be broken down produces carbonic acid, a weak acid.
into smaller components in a variety of Carbonic acid is a common, weak acid
ways. found in nature, as this occurs so
frequently. This acid is effective in
Plants and Animals in Mechanical dissolving rock. While this is natural,
Weathering - Mechanical weathering can adding contaminants to the air causes
be caused by plants or animals. This more acids to be produced.
might take time. The roots of a plant grow
into a gap in rock. The crack is widened as
the roots get larger. Weathering can also Oxygen
be caused by burrowing creatures. The
animal may break apart rock by digging for Oxidation - Oxygen interacts rapidly with
food or digging a burrow to dwell in. elements near the Earth's surface.
(eg; Iron is abundant in several minerals.
Chemical Weathering Iron oxides abound in red rocks. Because
Chemical weathering causes the minerals iron turns into iron oxide, iron oxides can
in the rock to change their chemical cause soils to become red.)
composition. They change into a new
mineral or perhaps a different sort of rock. Plants and Animals
Chemical weathering occurs as a result of Chemical weathering is also caused by
chemical processes that modify the rock. plants and animals. Plant roots absorb
components from minerals as they absorb
No Longer Stable nutrition. The rock undergoes a chemical
The majority of minerals develop deep alteration as a result of this.
within the Earth's crust. Temperatures and
pressures are substantially greater at Mechanical Weathering and
these depths than at the surface. Minerals Chemical Weathering
that were stable deeper in the crust are no
longer stable near the surface. Minerals Mechanical weathering enhances
generated at greater temperatures and chemical weathering. The surface area of
pressures transform into surface-stable the fragments rises when the rock
minerals.

Agents of Chemical Weathering

Water
Some rocks can even dissolve entirely in
water. When water is introduced into their fractures into smaller pieces. There are
structure, other minerals change.
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

more areas for chemical weathering to

occur as more surfaces are exposed. Soil is a relatively thin covering that covers
solid rock. Nonetheless, it is the site of
● Chemical weathering changes the interactions between solid rock, liquid
composition of a mineral to break it water, and air. Soil provided water and
down. nutrients to plant roots.
● Water chemically weathers rock in
hydrolysis. Characteristics of Soil
● Carbon dioxide chemically
weathers rock by creating acids. ● Soil is a complicated combination
● Oxygen chemically weathers rock of several components.
by combining with a metal. ● Soils are composed of half
inorganic components derived from
Rock and Mineral Type nonliving substance
● Organic compounds from plants
Igneous rocks - a solid and are more and animals are also found in soil.
weather resistant.
(Note: as water cannot penetrate intrusive
igneous rocks, the weather is slow.) Soil Texture

Sedimentary rocks - weather more ● Permeable, water draining when

easily. the soil has sandy texture or it is
silty soil.
Differential erosion can occur as a result ● Sandy or silty soils are permeable,
of the various ways in which different water-draining
sedimentary rock types weather. ● Water-holding soils have a number
of extremely tiny gaps. More water
Climate may be stored in clay-rich soil. it
Defined as an area’s temperature and holds together better, when clay is
precipitation over a long period of time. present in a soil

Climate influences chemical

weathering. Thus, Chemical Loam - a type of soil that comprises a
weathering occurs as follows: variety of grain sizes.

● Temperature increases. Higher Classification of Soil

temperatures increase chemical
reactions.
● Precipitation increases. When
there is more water, chemical
reactions speed up. More water
improves weathering as it
increases both mechanical and
chemical weathering.

IV. Soil
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

To define a soil, scientists measure the preserve the soil, new agricultural
amount of sand, silt, and clay. Clay would techniques were created.
be the soil at the top; sand at the left
corner; and silt at the right corner. Loams
are lower middle soils that include less Ways to Reduce Soil Erosion
than 50% clay.
● Avoid excessive grazing. Animals
Soil Formation are frequently moved from field to
Soil scientists believe that soil forms at a field. This allows the grass to have
rate of roughly 1 mm/year under the time to recover.
optimum soil-forming circumstances. ● Avoid cutting down steep hillsides.
Only a few trees should ever be
Types of Soils felled at a time. To replace the
trees that are taken down, plant
Pedalfer new ones.
Pedifer is an essential type of soil that ● Recover mined areas. Restore the
occurs in a deciduous forest. Every winter, topsoil that has been removed to
the trees in these woodlands lose their the land. Plant trees and other
leaves. plants to cover the bare earth once
Pedocal the dirt has been placed.
Pedocal soil originates in areas where ● At construction sites, use barriers
grasses and bushes are abundant. With to stop runoff and soil erosion. To
less than 65 cm of rain each year, the keep the dirt in place, plant grass.
climate is drier. ● Create pavement materials with
Laterite water-absorbing properties to
Laterite is a third important type of soil. lessen runoff.
Laterite develops in tropical environments. ● Limit the usage of off-road
vehicles, particularly in locations
Soil Erosion with hills.

● Although soil erosion is a natural

process, human activities can
exacerbate it. V. Astronomy
● Water and wind are the primary
causes of soil erosion. LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
● Where the ground has been (T-S-M-I-E)
disturbed, soil erosion is more
prone to occur. This is possible Troposphere - Densest layer, 90% of all
with farming, livestock grazing, the gasses in the atmosphere, weather
logging, mining, building, and
Stratosphere - Below freezing
leisure pursuits. temperatures.

Contains ozone - Layer which absorbs

Soil Loss and scatters UV rays.

The Dust Bowl in the 1930s taught ● Ozone depletion - Caused

people that soil loss through tillage and by ozone-depleting
substances such as CFCs.
crop production was possible. To
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Mesosphere -100oC, meteoroid, meteor, Orbit- path taken by an object revolving

meteorite, meteor shower) around another body of space

Ionosphere/Thermosphere - Hottest Aphelion and perihelion (farthest and

layer, aurora.
nearest)
Exosphere - Boundary between the
atmosphere and outer space. ● Around the sun

Apogee and perigee (farthest and

MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH AND THE nearest)
MOON
● Around the earth
Spherical earth model
Time Zones
Backed up by Ferdinand Magellan and
Sebastian Elcano ● Each 15o longitude has its
own hourly time zone
Ptolemy ● East of prime meridian (+ 1
hour for each time zone)
● Geocentric model ● West of prime meridian (- 1
● Sun, stars and the hour for each time zone)
planets circled the
Earth International Date Line

Copernicus ● Baseline set at 180o

● West of IDL (+ 1 day)
● Heliocentric theory ● East of IDL (-1 day)
● Earth and the other
planets revolve in Eclipses
circles around the
sun ● Astronomical object is
temporarily obscured by
Kepler another object
● Type of syzygy (straight line
● Laws of Planetary Motion of three celestial bodies)
● Orbit of every planet ● Solar Eclipse (moon blocks
is an ellipse with the the sun’s light)
sun at one of the ● Total, Annular,
two foci Partial
● Planet moves faster
when closer to the Tides
sun and slower
when farther from ● Constant rise and fall of
the sun surface waters due to the
● Square of the period interplay of gravitational
of revolution (P2) is forces of the earth
directly proportional ● Spring tides
to the cube of the ● Sun is in line with
distance from the the moon
sun (R3) ● High tides
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

● Neap tides - refers to a period of The inner planets (Closest to the

moderate tides when the sun and Sun)
moon are at right angles to each
other. ● Mercury, Venus, and Mars
● Right angles with each other ● They are made of rock and
● Little difference between high and metal, have shorter orbits,
low tides slower rotation, and no
rings.

THE UNIVERSE The outer planets

In comparison to other stars, the Sun is ● Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,

only ordinary. It is, nonetheless, the and Neptune
biggest object in the solar system. The ● Possess more moons,
Sun is more than 500 times the mass of rings, and planets with
longer orbits and spins that
are made of gasses and
liquids.

Dwarf Planet

● Does not clear the

neighborhood around its
orbit
● Eris, Pluto, Ceres
the rest of the solar system put together.
Asteroid Belt
Planets of the solar system
(MVEMJSUN) ● Found between Mars and
Jupiter
● Mercury: smallest, closest ● Includes the largest
to the sun, no atmosphere asteroid Ceres
● Venus: Earth’s twin planet,
hottest planet, brightest Kuiper Belt
from earth
● Earth: has a moon ● Found beyond Neptune
● Mars: red planet, 2 moons ● Includes the dwarf planet
● Jupiter: largest planet, has Pluto
a ring, 67 moons
● Saturn: most prominent Comet
ring, 62 moons
● Icy objects
● Uranus: ice giant, axis is
● Displays a coma when near
tilted sideways
the sun (fuzzy atmosphere)
● Neptune: densest gas
and a tail
planet, twin of Uranus
● Short period comets are
from the Kuiper belt
● Long period comets are
from the Oort cloud
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Star’s Life Cycle

primarily of
carbon, water,
● Protostar some hydrogen
● Nebula collapses and oxygen.
into a single mass
Fossil fuels Are created when
Main-sequence Stars organic matter
decays and
● Nuclear fission in the star’s becomes
core compressed
beneath layer
upon layer of
Post main-sequence
sand, earth, rock
and ocean.
● Hydrogen fuel - heavier
elements Natural gas Is the cleanest
● Sun-like stars (red giant, burning gas.
planetary nebula, white
dwarf , black dwarf) Coal and oil Are more
chemically
● Massive stars (red
complicated, and
supergiant, supernova, release a cocktail
neutron star, black hole) of potentially
harmful
Brightness and Luminosity of a substances into
star the atmosphere
when combusted.
● younger = hotter, older =
Geothermal Is the heat from
colder
energy the Earth. It
● Blue, bluish, white, yellow, requires heat,
orange, red water and
permeability.
Constellation
Permeability Is allowing liquids
● Internationally defined area and gasses to
of the celestial sphere pass through.
● Asterism
Porous rocks Are rocks with
● A pattern of stars small holes.
that may be part of
a constellation Geothermal Is a natural
VI. Fossil Fuels and Geothermal Reservoir collection of hot
Power water.

Key Terms Definition Hot spring/Geyser Is the geothermal

energy that
Hotspot Is a special region reached the
where the Earth’s surface.
temperature is
higher compared
to its adjacent
areas.

Coal Is composed
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

source of energy
Types of Geothermal Power Plant for heating,
Type Definition cooking and
electricity
Dry steam Is the oldest generation.
geothermal
technology. It uses
geothermal water
to run the turbine. VII. Hazards and Disaster

Flash plants Is placing hot Hazard is a situation where there is a

water into cooler threat to life, health, environment or
water producing property.
steam.
Disaster is an event of serious destruction
Binary plants Is placing hot that completely disrupts the normal ways
water to a of community. They bring on human,
secondary fluid economical and environmental losses to
with lower boiling the community.
point producing
vapor to run the
Risks and Hazards
turbine.

Fossil Fuels Risk and Hazard Definition

Areas around especially the

Fossil Fuel Definition volcanoes densely populated
ones increase
Coal the only fossil fuel disaster risk.
in the solid state;
used in electricity Downburst fast and vertically
generation, steel dropping blasts of
production, wind that can
cement occur during
manufacturing and thunderstorms.
as a liquid fuel.
Tornado a destructive
Oil or petroleum the type of vortex of violently
petroleum that rotating winds
occurs naturally; having the
used for appearance of a
transportation funnel-shaped
fuels, fuel oils for cloud.
heating and
electricity Hail pellets of frozen
generation, rain that fall in
asphalt and road showers from
oil. cumulonimbus
clouds.
Natural gas a hydrocarbon–
made up of Cyclone a system of winds
compounds of rotating inward to
hydrogen and an area of low
carbon; used as a atmospheric
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

pressure. Psychological are created during

hazards work-related stress
Hurricane a storm with a or in a stressful
violent wind in environment. They
particular a affect the mental
tropical cyclone in well-being or
the Caribbean. mental health of an
individual.
Thunderstorm a storm with
thunder and Radiation hazards can damage living
lightning. tissues in the
human body by
Monsoon the seasonal stripping away
changes in electrons from
weather patterns atoms and breaking
some chemical
due to reversing
bonds.
wind directions.

Storm Surge a rising of the sea Key Elements of Disaster Preparedness

as a result of
atmospheric
pressure changes Element Definition
and wind
associated with a Preparedness the preparation to
storm. protect oneself,
others and
important valuables
The National Disaster Risk Reduction & in the presence of a
Management Council (NDRRMC) is the disaster.
primary coordinating agency for national Response the administering of
disaster management to keep the country first aid or getting
safe from disasters and ensure quick medical attention
recovery afterwards. for victims.

Types of Hazards Recovery the cleaning up or

repair of the
damages dealt.
Type Definition
Mitigation is the effort to
Physical hazards are conditions or reduce loss of life
situations that can and property by
cause the body lessening the
physical harm or impact of disasters.
intense stress.

Chemical hazards are substances that

may be harmful VIII. General Earth Science
(additional information)
Biological hazards are biological ● Earth is composed of about
agents that can 70-71% water, 97%
cause harm to the
human body. They saltwater and 3%
may be in the form freshwater.
of viruses, bacteria
or fungi.
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

● The majority of Earth’s ● Fossils are formed in

freshwater is in the form of sedimentary rocks.
ice caps and glaciers. ● Climate is not an element
● The Earth is 23.5 degrees of weather.
tilted on its axis. ● Weather is the
● The Earth’s rotation takes atmosphere’s state daily.
23 hours, 56 minutes and ● Climate is the atmosphere’s
4.0916 seconds. state yearly.
● Rotation is the amount of
time the Earth takes to turn —-----------------------------------------------------
around once on its axis. --------------------------------------------------------
● Revolution is the path of -----------
the Earth through space
and the time it takes for it to —-----------------------------------------------------
turn around once on the --------------------------------------------------------
Sun. -----------
● It takes 365.25 days for the
Earth to revolve around the CHEMISTRY
sun.
● The 4 great oceans are
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and
Arctic. I. States of Matter
● The Atlantic Ocean is found
between South America Properties of Matter
and Africa.
● Inner core is the hottest Physical properties - The characteristics
part of the Earth. of stuff that can be viewed or measured
● Outer core is liquid iron and without causing it to change.
nickel in composition. Chemical properties - the constituents of
● Mantle is the widest section matter.
of the Earth.
● Crust is the outer layer of Classification of Matter
the Earth.
● Composition of the
atmosphere: 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, 0.9% argon,
0.1% mixture of carbon
dioxide, vapor and other
gasses
● Lithosphere is the solid
structure of earth which is
30%.
● Hydrosphere is the liquid
portion of earth which is
70%.
● Atmosphere is a “blanket of
air.”
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Matter - Anything that has mass. Boyle's law describes the connection
Mixtures - Substances made up of between a gas's pressure and volume at
several components. constant temperature. At constant
Homogeneous - A single distinguishing
temperature, the volume of a gas is
feature.
Heterogeneous - Numerous inversely proportional to its pressure.
distinguishing characteristics.
Pure substances - Constant chemical Formula :
components.
Elements - Periodic table that cannot be P1V1 = P2V2
subdivided.
Compounds - Made up of two or more
Charles Law
elements that have been linked together.
Freezing: the substance changes from a According to Charle's law, as the volume
liquid to a solid. increases, the pressure also increases
proportional to the temperature (in Kelvin).
Melting: the substance changes back
Charles law essentially outlines the
from the solid to the liquid.
connection between the temperature and
Condensation: the substance changes volume of a gas.
from a gas to a liquid.
Vaporization: the substance changes Formula:
from a liquid to a gas.
V1/t1 = V2/T2
Sublimation: the substance changes
directly from a solid to a gas without going
through the liquid phase.
Gay- Lussac’s law
Deposition: the substance changes
Gay-Lussac law equation describes the
directly from a gas to a solid without going
through the liquid phase. connection between temperature and
pressure at constant volume. The rule
asserts that for a particular gas, the
II. Gas law pressure is exactly proportional to the
temperature at a fixed volume.
To begin with, gas laws are the collection
of laws that regulates gas behavior by Formula:
connecting the following:
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
● The quantity of space that a gas
takes up.
Avogadro’s Law
● The force exerted by a gas on the
In avogadro’s law, when pressure and
walls of its container.
temperature are maintained constant, the
● The absolute temperature of the
connection between volume and quantity
gas.
of gas in moles is obtained. The
● The amount of a gaseous
avogadro’s law rule also indicates that
substance (or the number of moles
only if the volumes of two gasses are
of gas).
equal, the number of molecules in each
gas match the ideal gas.
Around the end of the 18th century,
numerous scientist created the gas laws;

Formula:
Boyle’s law
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Replacement CB
Displacement

Combustion Heat + carbon

III. Chemical Balancing and dioxide + water is
Reactions produce

1. Write the chemical equation.

2. Inspect if the equation is already IV. Stoichiometry
balanced or not.
3. Write down or identify the Stoichiometry is the process that uses
number of atoms on a table. balanced equation to calculate the amount
This is again indicated by the of components in a chemical reaction
subscript beside each element.
4. Select which element to balance Two factors that characterized the
first. You can start at any Stoichiometry problems;
element of your choice.
However, if all except one
● the information provided in the
element is already balanced,
start with the unbalanced problem
element. ● the information to be solved for, or
5. In balancing, write the also known as the unknown.
coefficient before each element
or compound. You are not The provided and the unknown might both
allowed to change the subscript. be reactants, products, or one could be a
6. Check if the equation is reactant and the other a product. The
balanced. quantities of the chemicals are
represented in moles.

Volume - a gaseous material can be used

Types of Chemical Reactions to represent its quantity.
Chemical equation - expressing the
reaction of the quantity of reactants and
Type Definition products.

Synthesis A + B = AB Collision theory

● Particle must collide
Decomposition AB = A + B
● Sufficient energy
Single A + BC = AC + B ● Correct orientation
Replacement
Concentration
Double AB + CD = AD = ● Low concentration (few collision)
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

● High concentration (high collision) table, the mass of the substance is

converted into moles. The moles of the
Temperature - The rate of chemical supplied substance are then converted
reaction increases as temperature rises. into moles of the unknown using the mole
Particle size - Influences the rate of ratio from the balanced chemical equation)
chemical reactions.
Catalyst - Enhances the rate of a chemical Mass to Volume and Volume to
reaction, however, is not modified or Mass Problems
consumed once the process is complete.
● In this problem, chemical reactions
Mole ratio frequently include both solids, the
mass of which may be calculated,
● a conversion factor that compares and gasses, the volume of which
the quantities of any two chemicals should be estimated.
in a chemical reaction in moles.
The coefficients of a balanced mass of given → moles of given → moles
chemical equation are used to of unknown → volume of unknown
calculate a conversion factor's volume of given → moles of given → moles
numbers. of unknown → mass of unknown

(Note: Given that the conditions for the

reaction are STP, the molar volume of
22.4 L/mol can be used since both kinds
of issues need conversions from either
moles of gas to volume or vice versa.)

Limiting Reactant

The specified substance, expressed in ● Limiting reactant, or also known as

moles, is written first in a mole ratio limiting reagent, is the reactant that
problem. To convert from moles of the regulates how much product a
given substance to moles of an unknown, chemical reaction may produce. As
the proper conversion factor must be long as the limiting reactant is
selected. present, the reaction will go on.
The excess reactant is the one that
Mass to Moles Problems is initially present in a greater
quantity than will finally be reacted.
● The calculation of the amount in
moles of a different substance that
will either interact with the supplied
substance or be created.

mass of given→moles of given→moles

of unknown

(Note: Using the molar mass of the

supplied compound from the periodic
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Ways of getting limiting reactant

1. Determine the moles of each

reactant present. V. Atoms and Atomic Model
2. In the balancing chemical
equation, divide the actual number Atom - the smallest particle of an element
of moles of each reactant by its that preserves its identity.
stoichiometric coefficient:
Subatomic particles - the smaller
components that make up atoms.
(Discovered from Dalton’s atomic theory)

Electron - small, negatively charged

subatomic particle. Indicating negative
charge with the right superscript, it is
frequently written as ‘e’.

Proton - The proton is a larger (but still

very small), positive-charged subatomic
particle, denoted by the symbol p+.
3. The least mole ratio is the limiting
reactant.
Neutron - is an uncharged subatomic
particle with roughly the same mass as a
Percent Yield
proton. Either n or n0 can be used to
represent it.
Percent yield is well-known for requiring a
metric that shows the success of a
reaction that chemists demand.

The computation for percent yield.

Determine the amount of product that

should be generated based on
stoichiometry.
Properties of the Three Subatomic
Theoretical yield - the maximum amount Particles
of product that might be created from the
provided reactant amounts.
Nucleus (Plural, nuclei) - composed of
Actual yield - When the reaction is both positively charged protons and
carried out in the laboratory, the amount of electrically neutral neutrons.
product produced.
Atomic number - the overall number of
Percent yield - the proportion comparing protons in an element’s nucleus.
the theoretical yield to the actual yield.
Isotopes - refers to the same number of
protons but differing numbers of neutrons.
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Hydrogen bonding - a type of chemical

Elements' Atomic Structures bond that attracts negative charges
towards other atoms.
Hydrogen - Protium is the most prevalent
hydrogen isotope on the earth. This
isotope has an atomic number of one and Atomic model
a mass number of one.
Structure - one (1) protons, one (1) Thomson Atomic Model
electron, no neutron.
● In the early 1900s, the English
Carbon - Two stable isotopes of carbon; scientist Sir Joseph John Thomson
12C and 13C. 12C has a 98.9 percent proposed his hypothesis of atomic
abundance among these isotopes. Six structure.
protons, six electrons, and six neutrons
make up carbon. Cathode ray experiment - an experiment
Structure - with the outermost shell that resulted in the discovery of the
containing four electrons (valence shell), electron.
the electrons are separated into two
shells. A variety of chemical interactions Dalton’s Atomic theory
with other elements, carbon's tetravalency The theory that atoms have a vital part in
enables it to engage in chemistry.

Oxygen - 180, 170, and 160 are the three John Dalton - an english scientist in 1808
stable isotopes of oxygen. The most who invented the first modern atomic
abundant isotope, however, is oxygen -16. theory.
Structure - This isotope has 8 protons
and 8 neutrons as its atomic number is 8 The three components of Atomic
and its mass number is 16. The valence Theory;
shell contains six of the eight electrons in
● Atoms make up every form of
an oxygen atom.
matter.
● Atoms from the same element are
the same, while atoms from other
Chemical bonding
elements are distinct.
Ionic bonding - a type of chemical ● Compounds are created when
bonding that transfers electron from one atoms join in whole-number ratios.
atom to another.

* Anion - negative charge (-) Rutherford Atomic Theory

* Cation - positive charge (+) Ernest Rutherford, is the one who
changed the atomic structure by
Covalent bonding - a type of chemical identifying another subatomic particle
bond that shares electrons between known as the "Nucleus," and the Alpha ray
atoms. scattering experiment served as the
foundation for his atomic model in the
1910s.
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Alkaline (Group 2 ) - By releasing two

Bohr’s Atomic Theory electrons and forming an ion with a +2
In 1915, Neils Bohr proposed his model of charge, two outer energy level electrons
the atom. This is the most generally used link with additional elements (ionic bond)
atomic model for describing an element's make solutions that have a pH greater
atomic structure, and it is based on than 7 (basic/alkaline).
Planck's theory of quantization.
Halogens (group 17) - The greatest
• Electrons circle the nucleus at specific energy level has seven electrons. Bond by
distances termed energy levels. either accepting one electron and
• In a non-energized atom, electrons producing a -1 ion (ionic bond) or sharing
inhabit the lowest energy orbit (closest to an electron with another atom (covalent
nucleus this is called ground state.) bond) (covalent bond). Thus, fluorine is
• In energized atoms, electrons absorb the nonmetal with the highest reactivity.
just enough energy to travel from a lower
energy orbital to a higher energy orbital. Noble Gases (Group 18) - In the outer
This is referred to as the excited state energy level, there are eight electrons. In
(further away from the nucleus). general, they do not establish bonds / they
• Electrons do not remain excited and are the least reactive (stable).
return to their ground state, releasing
energy that corresponds to all potential Transition Metals - Various oxidation
states. The energy differential between the numbers are available. Not very reactive
allowable orbits of the atom.

VII. Electron configuration

VI. Periodic table
An electron configuration specifies the
distribution of electrons in its atomic
orbitals. By using standard notation in
which all atomic subshells containing
electrons are sorted (with the number of
electrons they possess written in
superscript), atomic electron configuration
is presented.

5B- Families of elements with similar

reactions.

Alkali (group 1) - At the greatest energy

level, one electron relatively soft metals
link with other elements by losing one
electron and forming an ion with a +1
charge (ionic bond)
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Notation - Subshell labels are used to

write an atom's electron configuration.

Aufbau Principle
According to the Aufbau principle, in order
to transition to higher energy orbitals,
electrons first hold lower energy orbitals.

Note: ( Aufbau principle has a number of

The Octet Rule - elements are stable as exceptions. Thus, it is important to keep in
long as the eight valence electrons are mind that sometimes these variations can
complete. be explained by the stability provided by
partially or completely filled subshells.)
Subshells

The azimuthal quantum number (denoted Hund’s Rule

by 'l') determines the subshells into which This rule defines the sequence in which
electrons are dispersed. electrons occupy each orbital inside a
subshell.
The value of this quantum number is
determined by the value of the primary Electrons in orbitals with a single electron
quantum number, n. As a result, when n = should have the same spin to maximize
4, four alternative subshells are feasible. overall spin (or the same values of the
spin quantum number).
When n=4. The s, p, d, and f subshells
correspond to l=0, l=1, l=2, and l=3
values, respectively.

The formula 2*(2l + 1) gives the maximum

number of electrons that a subshell may
tolerate.

The s, p, d, and f subshells may each

hold a maximum of 2, 6, 10, and 14
electrons.

Written; VIII. Chemical formula

s=2 p=6 d = 10 f = 14 A substance's chemical composition is

symbolically represented by its chemical
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

formula. Chemical equations reveal the • Empirical: Get the empirical formula of
constituents of a chemical's molecules as the substance
well as the ratio in which the atoms of
these elements combine to create those •Total mass. Determine the total mass of
molecules. the material by adding the necessary
parts of the whole-number proportions to
Types of chemical formula; each element's atomic weight It yields one
empirical unit.
Empirical formula
The simplest compound formula. • Divide. Divide the empirical unit by the
This is related to the transformation of a specified molecular weight
fraction (lowest term)
• Multiply. Multiply the coefficients of
• Includes the lowest whole-number ratios each element by the supplied quotient in
of the number of elements in a compound. to get the molecular formula

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Ways of getting the empirical formula: --------------------------------------------------------
-----------
(Usually, percentage compositions and
atomic weights are already given.) —-----------------------------------------------------
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• 100g: Assume the material weighs 100g. -----------
• Mass: Determine the masses of each
given element the material weighs 100g. PHYSICS
• Moles: Divide each element's mass by
its molecular weight corresponding atomic I. Fundamental Quantities
weight This describes each the molecular
mass of an element.
• Smallest: Multiply each mole
QUANTITIES UNIT
measurement by the least amount of
acquired mole Length Meter ( m )
• Ratio: Calculate a ratio depending on
the values of each element resultant figure Time Second ( s )

Mass Kilogram ( kg )

Molecular Formula: Temperature Kelvin ( K )

- The molecular formula is an empirical or
multiple of it. Electric Current Ampera ( A )

Luminosity Candela ( cd )
● A compound's molecular formula
indicates how many components Substance Mole ( mol )
are present. Amount

Ways of getting the molecular formula:

 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

II. Motion Magnetic Force - force applied by a moving

charged object to another object.
Motion - the action or process of moving or
being moved. Centripetal Force - Inward force applied
Isaac Newton - Scientist who mentioned 3 Centrifugal Force - Outward force
different laws of motion. experienced
1st Law of Motion ( Inertia ) - “ An object at
rest will remain at rest, and an object in Equilibrium - State of which an object is
motion will remain in motion unless acted resting or moving in constant velocity.
upon an external force. “ Inertia - Tendency of an object to remain at
2nd Law of Motion ( Acceleration ) - “ rest when acted upon a force
Force is equal to mass times acceleration. “
3rd Law of Motion ( Interaction ) - “ In Free Body Diagram ( FBD ) - An illustration
every action, there is an equal and opposite that is used to visually represent the present
reaction. “ forces acting upon an object or body.
Free Fall - an occurrence or an object that
is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Friction - the force resisting the relative
motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
III. Force material elements sliding against each other.

Force - It is the result of a push or pull Kinetic Frictional Force - resulting

motion of two interacting bodies or objects. opposing when moving an object.
Static Frictional Force - opposing force to
Types of Forces: Contact and Non-contact void in order to start moving an object.
Forces

Contact Forces:

Applied Force - An object trying to exert

force to another object through push or pull.
Normal Force - Force applied by an object
when another object is at rest
Frictional Force - Force exerted in
opposition as the object moves across a
non-smooth plane or surface
Air Resistance - frictional force that affects
the object as it travels across the air
Spring Force - force that is compressing or
stretching of a string
Tensional Force - Force applied by a IV. Work / Power / Energy
rope/cable/string and has a pulling action
Work - Scalar quantity that is expressed in
Non-contact forces: Joules ( J ). a force causing the
movement—or displacement—of an object.
Electrical Force - Force exerted or applied
between two electrically charged objects. Energy - The ability to do work.
Gravitational Force - A force that all Kinetic Energy - Energy of motion
objects or bodies produce that attracts Potential Energy - Energy stored in an
nearby objects. object
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Types of Kinetic Energy - Sound, Radiant, A mirror is a reflective surface that does
Electrical, Thermal
not allow the passage of light and instead
Types of Potential Energy - Gravitational,
Elastic, Chemical, Nuclear bounces it off, thus producing an image.
The most common mirrors are flat and
V. Momentum, Impulse, Collision
called plane mirrors. These mirrors are
Momentum - product of the mass of a made by putting a thin layer of silver
particle and its velocity. nitrate or aluminum behind a flat piece of
Impulse - a certain amount of force you
glass.
apply for a certain amount of time to cause a
change in momentum.
Collision - occurs when two objects come in When you place an object in front of a
contact with each other mirror, you see an image of the same
object in the mirror. The object is the
VI. Physics Formulas
source of the incident rays, and the image
is formed by the reflected rays. An image
Name Formula formed by reflection may be real or virtual.

Average Speed Speed (s) = A “real” image occurs when light rays
Distance (d) x Time actually intersect at the image, and
(t)
become inverted, or turned upside down.
Acceleration A = v - (u)(t)
A “virtual” image occurs when light rays do
Density P=mxV not actually meet at the image. Instead,
Power P=Wxt you “see” the image because your eye
projects light rays backward. You are
Law of acceleration F=mxa
fooled into seeing an image! A virtual
Force F=mxa
image is right side up (upright).
Weight W=mxg
In flat, or plane mirrors, the image is a
Pressure P=FxA
virtual image, and is the same distance
Kinetic Energy E = 1/2mv^2 behind the mirror as the object is in front
Kinetic Friction Fk = Mk x Fn of the mirror. The image is also the same

Static Friction Fs(max) = Ms x Fn size as the object. These images are also
parity inverted, which means they have a
Acceleration due to G = G x M / R^2
gravity left-right inversion.

Ray Diagrams
V. Mirrors
The way that we can predict how a
Plane Mirrors and Reflection reflection will look is by drawing a ray
diagram. These diagrams can be used to
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

find the position and size of the image and parallel to the principal axis, it will hit the
whether that image is real or virtual. These mirror at a 0 degree angle, and be
are the steps you follow to draw a ray reflected back at 0 degrees. When this
diagram: happens, we say the ray hits the mirror
normally. If the light ray hits the object at a
1. Draw the plane mirror as a straight 30 degree angle, it will be reflected back
line on a principal axis. The at a 30 degree angle.
principal axis is an imaginary line
that is drawn perpendicular to the
Image Formation by Spherical
mirror.
Mirrors: Reflection and Sign
2. Draw the object as an arrow in Conventions
front of the mirror.
3. Draw the image of the object, by A mirror is a reflective surface that light

using the principle that the image does not pass through, made by a layer
is placed at the same distance of silver nitrate or aluminum behind a
behind the mirror that the object is piece of glass.
in front of the mirror. The image
When you place an object in front of a
size is also the same as the object
mirror, you see the same object in the
size. shows these first three steps.
4. Place a dot at the point the eye is mirror. This image that appears to be

located. behind the mirror is called the image. The

5. Pick one point on the image and object is the source of the incident rays,
draw the reflected ray that travels and the image is formed by the reflected
to the eye as it sees this point. rays. An image formed by reflection may
Remember to add an arrowhead. be real or virtual. A real image occurs
6. Draw the incident ray for light when light rays actually intersect at the
traveling from the corresponding image, and are inverted, or upside down.
point on the object to the mirror, A virtual image occurs when light rays do
such that the law of reflection is
not actually meet at the image. Instead,
obeyed.
you “see” the image because your eye
7. Continue for other extreme points
projects light rays backward. A virtual
on the object (i.e. the tip and base
image is right side up (upright).
of the arrow). A completed ray
diagram is shown in This section will cover spherical mirrors.
Spherical mirrors can be either concave or
The angle in which a light ray hits the
convex. The center of curvature is the
mirror is the same angle in which it will be
point at the center of the sphere and
reflected back. If, for example, a light ray
leaves the top of an object traveling
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

describes how big the sphere is. These

concepts are shown in.

Concave Ray Diagram: This is a ray

diagram of a concave mirror. The steps
taken to draw are the same as those in a
plane mirror.
Spherical Mirrors: This figure shows the
difference between a concave and convex A summary of the properties of concave
mirror. mirrors is shown below:

Concave Mirrors ● converging

In a concave mirror, the principal axis is ● real image
● inverted
a line that is perpendicular to the center of
● image in front of mirror
the mirror. The easiest way to visualize
what an image will look like in this type of
Convex Mirrors
mirror is a ray diagram. Before that can be
done, the focal point must first be defined. In convex mirrors, the principal axis is
This point is halfway between the mirror the same as in a plane or concave mirror,
and the center of curvature on the perpendicular to the center of the mirror. In
principal axis. The distance to the focal this case, the focal point is behind the
point from the mirror is called the focal mirror. A convex mirror has a negative
length. We can see from the figure that focal length because of this. The focal
this focal length is also equal to half of the point is the same distance from the mirror
radius of the curvature. shows the ray as in a concave mirror. This is shown in.
diagram of a concave mirror.
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

Convex Mirror Ray Diagram: A convex ● force.

● weight.
mirror with three rays drawn to locate the
● Momentum.
image. Each incident ray is reflected
according to the Law of Reflection. The Scalar Quantities:
reflected rays diverge. If the reflected rays ● temperature – eg 10 degrees
are extended behind the mirror, then their Celsius (°C)
● mass – eg 5 kilograms (kg)
intersection gives the location of the image
● energy – eg 2,000 joules (J)
behind the mirror. For a convex mirror, the ● distance – eg 19 meters (m)
image is virtual and upright. ● speed – eg 8 meters per second
(m/s)
A summary of the properties of convex ● density – eg 1,500 kilograms per
meter cubed (kg/m 3)
mirrors is shown below:

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation

● diverging
emitted by hot objects like lasers, bulbs, and
● virtual image the sun. Light is a kind of kinetic energy that
● upright enables the human eye to see or make
● image behind mirror things visible. Light energy is a form of
electromagnetic radiation that can be seen
by the human eye.
Additional Information:
Properties of light:

● Reflection of light: Every light

follows the law of reflection which
states that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection.
● Refraction of light: Refraction of
light takes place when the light ray
changes its velocity it passes from
one medium to another. Index of
refraction is used as a means to
Acceleration due to Gravity = 9.8 m/s^2 measure how much light refracts.
Wavelength - distance between points of ● Dispersion: Dispersion of light is
two consecutive waves defined as the process in which the
Amplitude - the maximum displacement or white light separates into different
distance moved by a point on a vibrating colors based on its wavelength
body or wave measured from its equilibrium when passed through a glass prism.
position. ● Diffraction: The effect of bending
light around small obstacle corners
There are only 6 vector quantities:
and hence its encroachment into the
geometric shadow region is called
● displacement.
diffraction.
● velocity.
● Polarization of light: Normal light
● acceleration.
vibrates in all directions
 CETS REVIEWER I (SCIENCE)

perpendicular to the propagation of

light. If the light is constrained to LINK:
vibrate in only one particular plane,
then the light is called polarized
light. PREPARED BY: James Behan, Krizia
● Interference of light: Interference is Menina, Cheenee Javelona, Mj Agustin
the phenomenon of modification in
the intensity of light due to the
redistribution of light energy in the
region of superposition of two or
more light waves.

Light travels faster than the speed

of sound

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SENIOR HIGHSCHOOL NOTES
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General Biology 1&2

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END
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