SHDS2291

Introduction to Psychology
Lecture 4
Memory

Lecturer: Jeffrey Chong

“We do not know the true value of our moments until they have
undergone the test of memory.” – Georges Duhamel, The Heart’s
Domain
 Lesson Plan
• (A) Introduction
• (B) Encoding
• (C) Storage
• (D) Retrieval
• (E) Forgetting
• (F) Conclusion
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 (A) What Is Memory ?
• Memory is the _______________ (保留) of
information over ___________.
– It is a system that
• receives (接收)information from the senses,
• organizes (組織) and stores (儲存) the
information, and then
• retrieves (提取) the information as needed.

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(A) Three key processes in memory

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(Weiten, Fig 7.2 p. 215)
 (A) Traditional: 3 Stages Model
Long-term Memory
(LTM)

Short-term Memory
Sensory Memory
(STM)

Unlimited
capacity
store

Fig 7.6 Atkinson and Schiffrin (1971) model of memory storage. Information enters through the
sensory system, briefly registering in sensory memory. Selective attention moves the information
into short-term memory, where it is held while attention (rehearsal) continues. If the information
receives enough rehearsal, it will enter and be stored in long-term memory (Weiten, p. 220).

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 (A) New: Working Memory Model
• Instead of serial processing suggested by the 3-
stage model, it proposes parallel processing.
– different aspects of
memory may be
activated at the same time
– Working memory: Includes
multiple components.
Serves as a workspace for
mental operations.
– STM & working memory are
both contained within LTM
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 Lesson Plan
• (A) Introduction
• (B) Encoding
• (C) Storage
• (D) Retrieval
• (E) Forgetting
• (F) Conclusion
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 (B) Encoding (輸入/編碼)
• 1) Role of Attention _____________ on certain
stimuli while screening others out

– Why? 0.08

Fraction of red lights missed

0.06

0.04

0.02
– Can we really multitask with
no deterioration in performance? 0
• e.g. driving and talking via No cell
phone
With cell
phone
hands-free phone
Divided Attention and Driving Performance

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 (B) Encoding
• 2) Levels of Processing
– Incoming information is processed at 3 different levels (Craik and
Lockhart,1972) :
• Structural (結構) = shallow
• Phonemic (語音) = intermediate
• Semantic (語義) = deep

• _______________ processing = more lasting memory codes

• More memory codes = better memory
The grandmaster (2013)

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(B) Levels-of-processing theory

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(Weiten, Fig, 7.3p. 217)
 Lesson Plan
• (A) Introduction
• (B) Encoding
• (C) Storage
• (D) Retrieval
• (E) Forgetting
• (F) Conclusion
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 (C) Storage
• 1) Sensory Memory (SM) (感能記憶)
– Brief preservation of information in its
original ___________ form

–Very limited duration (時期)

• Echoic / Auditory - Approx. 2 seconds
• Iconic / Visual - Approx. ¼ second

–Very limited capacity (容量)

• It disappears when no more attention is paid

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 (C) Storage
• 2) Short-term / Working Memory (STM) (短期 / 工作記憶)
– Serve as a workspace for mental operations
• i.e., a station in which information is transferred to long term memory
• Dual encoding system – either visual or auditory, but mostly phonemic
(in phonological code)
• Photographic memory is a myth. It does not exist. Memory is
reconstructive (i.e., reconstructions of phonological codes)

– Limited duration (時期)

• about ____________ seconds
without rehearsal
• Maintenance rehearsal (保持性複述)
vs.
• Elaborative rehearsal (精致性複述)

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 (C) Storage
• 2) Short-term /Working Memory (STM) (短期/工
作記憶)
• Limited capacity
• Memory span: 7 +/- 2 items (Miller, 1956)

• ________________(組塊法)
– Grouping similar stimuli
for storage as a single unit

The Seven dwarfs

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 (C) Storage
• 3) Long-term Memory (LTM) (長期記憶)
• Encoding (輸入) in LTM is mainly semantic
(i.e. meaning is encoded)
• Duration (時期) and Capacity (容量) → ___________(無限)

– Organization (組織) of information

• Form schemas (略圖) - a semantic network model (語義網
絡模型)
• Concepts that are related in meaning – stored physically
near each other in the brain

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 (C) Storing (儲存) & Organization (組織) of LTM
Fig 7.9 Semantic network model (語義網絡模型). Much of the organization of LTM
depends on networks of associations among concepts. (Weiten, 2011, p.234)

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 (C) Types of Long-term Memory
LTM

Procedural (運動認知) /
Declarative (陳述性) Nondeclarative
(Explicit 外顯記憶) (Implicit 內隱記憶)
factual information motor skills, habits,
classically conditioned reflexes

Episodic (情節) Semantic (語義)

events experienced facts,
by a person general knowledge

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(C) Types of Long-term Memory (LTM)
– Types of LTM
• Declarative memory (陳述性記憶)
– factual information: e.g. names, words, dates, faces, etc.
• conscious and effortful processes
Episodic memory (片段性記憶)
– e.g., “first kiss”; an exchange trip
– “I remember…”
Semantic memory (語義性記憶)
– e.g., “2 types of LTM”; “3 Learning Theories”
– “I know…”

• _______________ (Nondeclarative) memory (程序性

記憶)
• motor skills, habits, emotional associations, classically conditioned
reflexes
• e.g. swimming, typing, cycling, fear, etc.
• automatic or spontaneous in nature

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 (C) Types of Long-term Memory
LTM

Procedural (運動認知) /
Declarative (陳述性) Nondeclarative
(Explicit 外顯記憶) (Implicit 內隱記憶)
factual information motor skills, habits,
classically conditioned reflexes

Episodic (情節) Semantic (語義)

events experienced facts,
by a person general knowledge

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Your turn
Your memory for the fact that the “earth is
round” or “what happen on your 1st day of
school” is your ____________ memory

A. Procedural
B. Declarative
C. Sensory
D. Nondeclarative

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 Lesson Plan
• (A) Introduction
• (B) Encoding
• (C) Storage
• (D) Retrieval
• (E) Forgetting
• (F) Conclusion
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 (D) Retrieval
• 1) Retrieval cues (提取提示)
– a stimulus that help us to remember
• Recall (記起) vs. Recognition (認出)
• 2) Encoding ______________ (明確性) principle
– the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it
corresponds (符合 / 相應) to the memory code
• Context (背景) & Mood (情緒)
• may explain cue-dependent forgetting
• 3)Serial-position effect
• _____________ effect (初始效應)
• _____________ effect (新近效應)
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 (D) Retrieval
Serial Position Effect
In the serial position effect, information at
the beginning of a list will be recalled at a
higher rate than information in the middle of
the list (primacy effect), because the
beginning information receives more
rehearsal and may enter LTM. Information
at the end of a list is also retrieved at a
higher rate (recency effect), because the
end of the list is still in STM, with no
information coming after it to interfere with
retrieval.

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 Lesson Plan
• (A) Introduction
• (B) Encoding
• (C) Storage
• (D) Retrieval
• (E) Forgetting
• (F) Conclusion
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 (E) Forgetting
• 1) Why can’t we remember?

– Ineffective encoding (輸入失敗)

(pseudo-forgetting)
• due to lack of attention, rehearsal or overloading

– _____________ (衰退) theory

• memory traces fade with time

– ______________ (干擾) theory

• Retroactive (逆向) interference
• Proactive (順向) interference

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(E) Retroactive and proactive interference

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 (E) Forgetting
• 1) Why can’t we remember?
– Motivated forgetting
• ________________(潛抑)
painful memories are pushed into
the unconscious

– Biological Factor
• Alzheimer’s disease (認知障礙症)
• brain injury may cause severe
loss of memory
 Amnesia (失憶)

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 Lesson Plan
• (A) Introduction
• (B) Encoding
• (C) Storage
• (D) Retrieval
• (E) Forgetting
• (F) Conclusion
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 (F) Conclusion
1) How can we improve our memory?
– Adequate rehearsal
• ________________ / Spaced practice instead of
massed practice
– Minimizes interference
– __________ processing
• Organization
– facilitates “retrieval”
– e.g., flow-chart, mind-map
• Meaningfulness
– i.e., personally meaningful
– Elaborative rehearsal (Weiten, Fig. 7.17 p. 242)
– Semantic + Episodic memory
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- Sleep
Sleep Deprivation
impairs cognitive
abilities, such as
concentration and
memory!

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 (F) Conclusion
• 2) Memory: Processes, Types, & Strategies

• 3) Focus of the Next Topic

– Perception (Ch. 3)

• 4) References
Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2015). Psychology (Global edition, 4th ed). Pearson.

**Pastorino, E. E., & Doyle-Portillo, S. M. (2022). What is psychology?

Foundations, applications, and integration (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Weiten, W. (2017). Psychology: Themes and variations (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.

** Assigned Readings – Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo (Ch. 7 pp.281-323)

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 Supplementary Exercise
• Match the correct answer for the followings:
• A) Sensory memory B) Short-term memory
• C) Retroactive interference D) Proactive interference
• E) Semantic memory F) Procedural memory
• G) Episodic memory H) Declarative memory

– 1) Memory for events happened on one’s own wedding date. _____

– 2) Ray’s new assistant in the shipping department is named Evan

Chan. But Ray keeps calling him Eason, mixing him up with the
singer Eason Chan that he knows few years before. _______

– 3) Memories for actions, skills, operations, etc. _______

– 4) A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed

information for about 30 seconds. _______
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